MILITARY RADAR

G. RAHUL
16311A0422
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Abstract: - Radar is an object,-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,
angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of
a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a
transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting and
receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object(s). Radio waves
(pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving
information about the object's location and speed.Radar was developed secretly for military use by
several nations in the period before and during World War II. A key development was the cavity
magnetron in the UK, which allowed the creation of relatively small systems with sub-meter
resolution. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as
an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging
. April 1904 and later a patent[9] for a related
amendment for estimating the distance to the
ship. He also got a British patent on
September 23, 1904[10] for a full radar system,
First experiments that he called a telemobiloscope. It operated
As early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich on a 50 cm wavelength and the pulsed radar
Hertz showed that radio waves could be signal was created via a spark-gap. His
reflected from solid objects. In system already used the classic antenna
1895, Alexander Popov, a physics instructor setup of horn antenna with parabolic reflector
at the Imperial Russian Navy school and was presented to German military officials
in Kronstadt, developed an apparatus using in practical tests
a coherer tube for detecting distant lightning in Cologne and Rotterdam harbour but was
strikes. The next year, he added a spark-gap rejected.[11]
transmitter. In 1897, while testing this In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio
equipment for communicating between two technology to provide advance warning to
ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of airmen[12] and during the 1920s went on to lead
an interference beat caused by the passage of the U.K. research establishment to make
a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that many advances using radio techniques,
this phenomenon might be used for detecting including the probing of the ionosphere and
objects, but he did nothing more with this the detection of lightning at long distances.
observation.[6] Through his lightning experiments, Watson-
The German inventor Christian Watt became an expert on the use of radio
Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to direction finding before turning his inquiry
detect "the presence of distant metallic to shortwave transmission. Requiring a
objects". In 1904, he demonstrated the suitable receiver for such studies, he told the
feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog, but "new boy" Arnold Frederic Wilkins to conduct
not its distance from the transmitter.[7] He an extensive review of available shortwave
obtained a patent[8] for his detection device in units. Wilkins would select a General Post
Office model after noting its manual's Before the Second World War, researchers in
description of a "fading" effect (the common the United
term for interference at the time) when aircraft Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
flew overhead. the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, and
the United States, independently and in great
Across the Atlantic in 1922, after placing a
secrecy, developed technologies that led to
transmitter and receiver on opposite sides of
the modern version of
the Potomac River, U.S. Navy researchers A.
radar. Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young discovered that
and South Africa followed prewar Great
ships passing through the beam path caused
Britain's radar development,
the received signal to fade in and out. Taylor
and Hungary generated its radar technology
submitted a report, suggesting that this
during the war.[15]
phenomenon might be used to detect the
presence of ships in low visibility, but the Navy In France in 1934, following systematic
did not immediately continue the work. Eight studies on the Split Anode Magnetron, the
years later, Lawrence A. Hyland at the Naval research branch of the Compagnie Générale
Research Laboratory (NRL) observed similar de Télégraphie Sans Fil (CSF) headed by
fading effects from passing aircraft; this Maurice Ponte with Henri Gutton, Sylvain
revelation led to a patent application[13] as well Berline and M. Hugon, began developing an
as a proposal for further intensive research on obstacle-locating radio apparatus, aspects of
radio-echo signals from moving targets to take which were installed on the ocean
place at NRL, where Taylor and Young were liner Normandie in 1935.[16][17]
based at the time.[14]
During the same period, Soviet military
Just before World War II engineer P. K. Oshchepkov, in collaboration
with Leningrad Electrophysical Institute,
produced an experimental apparatus, RAPID,
capable of detecting an aircraft within 3 km of
a receiver.[18] The Soviets produced their first
mass production radars RUS-1 and RUS-2
Redut in 1939 but further development was
slowed following the arrest of Oshchepkov
and his subsequent gulag sentence. In total,
only 607 Redut stations were produced during
the war. The first Russian airborne radar,
Gneiss-2, entered into service in June 1943
on Pe-2 fighters. More than 230 Gneiss-2
Experimental radar antenna, US Naval Research stations were produced by the end of 1944.
Laboratory, Anacostia, D. C., late 1930s
[19]
 The French and Soviet systems, however,
featured continuous-wave operation that did
not provide the full performance ultimately
synonymous with modern radar systems.
Full radar evolved as a pulsed system, and
the first such elementary apparatus was
demonstrated in December 1934 by the
American Robert M. Page, working at
the Naval Research Laboratory.[20] The
following year, the United States
Army successfully tested a primitive surface-
to-surface radar to aim coastal
batterysearchlights at night.[21] This design was
followed by a pulsed system demonstrated in Memorial plaque commemorating Robert Watson-
May 1935 by Rudolf Kühnhold and the
firm GEMA in Germany and then another in Watt and Arnold Wilkins
June 1935 by an Air Ministry team led
by Robert A. Watson-Watt in Great Britain. In 1935, Watson-Watt was asked to judge
recent reports of a German radio-based death
ray and turned the request over to Wilkins.
Wilkins returned a set of calculations
demonstrating the system was basically
impossible. When Watson-Watt then asked
what such a system might do, Wilkins recalled
the earlier report about aircraft causing radio
interference. This revelation led to
the Daventry Experiment of 26 February 1935,
using a powerful BBC shortwave transmitter
as the source and their GPO receiver setup in
a field while a bomber flew around the site.
The first workable unit built by Robert Watson-
When the plane was clearly detected, Hugh
Watt and his team Dowding, the Air Member for Supply and
Research was very impressed with their
system's potential and funds were
immediately provided for further operational
development.[22] Watson-Watt's team patented
the device in GB593017.[23][24][25]
Development of radar greatly expanded on 1
September 1936 when Watson-Watt became
Superintendent of a new establishment under
the British Air Ministry, Bawdsey Research
Station located in Bawdsey Manor, near
Felixstowe, Suffolk. Work there resulted in the
design and installation of aircraft detection
and tracking stations called "Chain Home"
along the East and South coasts of England in
time for the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
This system provided the vital advance
information that helped the Royal Air Force
A Chain Home tower in Great Baddow, Essex, win the Battle of Britain; without it, significant
United Kingdom numbers of fighter aircraft would always need
to be in the air to respond quickly enough if
enemy aircraft detection relied solely on the
observations of ground-based individuals.
Also vital was the "Dowding system" of
reporting and coordination to make best use
of the radar information during tests of
early deployment of radar in 1936 and 1937.
Given all required funding and development
support, the team produced working radar
systems in 1935 and began deployment. By
1936, the first five Chain Home (CH) systems
were operational and by 1940 stretched
across the entire UK including Northern
Ireland. Even by standards of the era, CH was
crude; instead of broadcasting and receiving
from an aimed antenna, CH broadcast a
signal floodlighting the entire area in front of it,
and then used one of Watson-Watt's own
radio direction finders to determine the
direction of the returned echoes. This fact
meant CH transmitters had to be much more Commercial marine radar antenna. The rotating
powerful and have better antennas than
antenna radiates a vertical fan-shaped beam.
competing systems but allowed its rapid
introduction using existing technologies. The information provided by radar includes
the bearing and range (and therefore position)
During World War II of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus
Main article: Radar in World War II used in many different fields where the need
A key development was the cavity for such positioning is crucial. The first use of
magnetron in the UK, which allowed the radar was for military purposes: to locate air,
creation of relatively small systems with sub- ground and sea targets. This evolved in the
meter resolution. Britain shared the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships,
technology with the U.S. during the and roads.
1940 Tizard Mission.[26][27] In aviation, aircraft can be equipped with radar
In April 1940, Popular Science showed an devices that warn of aircraft or other obstacles
example of a radar unit using the Watson- in or approaching their path, display weather
Watt patent in an article on air defence. information, and give accurate altitude
[28]
 Also, in late 1941 Popular Mechanics had readings. The first commercial device fitted to
an article in which a U.S. scientist speculated aircraft was a 1938 Bell Lab unit on
about the British early warning system on the some United Air Lines aircraft.[29] Aircraft can
English east coast and came close to what it land in fog at airports equipped with radar-
was and how it worked.[29] Watson-Watt was assisted ground-controlled approach systems
sent to the U.S. in 1941 to advise on air in which the plane's position is observed on
defense after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. radar screens by operators who radio landing
[30]
 Alfred Lee Loomis organized the Radiation instructions to the pilot, maintaining the
Laboratory at Cambridge, Massachusetts aircraft on a defined approach path to the
which developed the technology in the years runway. Military fighter aircraft are usually
1941–45. Later, in 1943, Page greatly fitted with air-to-air targeting radars, to detect
improved radar with the monopulse and target enemy aircraft. In addition, larger
technique that was used for many years in specialized military aircraft carry powerful
most radar applications.[31] airborne radars to observe air traffic over a
wide region and direct fighter aircraft towards
The war precipitated research to find better targets.
resolution, more portability, and more features
for radar, including complementary navigation Marine radars are used to measure the
systems like Oboe used by the RAF's bearing and distance of ships to prevent
Pathfinder. collision with other ships, to navigate, and to
fix their position at sea when within range of
shore or other fixed references such as
Applications islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in
harbour, vessel traffic service radar systems
are used to monitor and regulate ship
movements in busy waters.
Meteorologists use radar to Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in
monitor precipitation and wind. It has become the same location as the transmitter. Although
the primary tool for short-term weather the reflected radar signals captured by the
forecasting and watching for severe receiving antenna are usually very weak, they
weather such can be strengthened by electronic amplifiers.
as thunderstorms, tornadoes, winter storms, More sophisticated methods of signal
precipitation types, etc. Geologists use processing are also used in order to recover
specialized ground-penetrating radars to map useful radar signals.
the composition of Earth's crust. Police forces
The weak absorption of radio waves by the
use radar guns to monitor vehicle speeds on
medium through which it passes is what
the roads. Smaller radar systems are used
enables radar sets to detect objects at
to detect human movement. Examples are
relatively long ranges—ranges at which other
breathing pattern detection for sleep
electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible
monitoring[32] and hand and finger gesture
light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too
detection for computer interaction.
strongly attenuated. Such weather
[33]
 Automatic door opening, light activation and
phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow,
intruder sensing are also common.
and sleet that block visible light are usually
transparent to radio waves. Certain radio
Principles frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by
water vapour, raindrops, or atmospheric
Radar signal gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in
Further information: Radar signal designing radars, except when their detection
characteristics is intended.
A radar system has a transmitter that Illumination
emits radio waves called radar signals in
predetermined directions. When these come Radar relies on its own transmissions rather
into contact with an object they are than light from the Sun or the Moon, or
usually reflected or scattered in many from electromagnetic waves emitted by the
directions. But some of them absorb and objects themselves, such as infrared
penetrate into the target to some degree. wavelengths (heat). This process of directing
Radar signals are reflected especially well by artificial radio waves towards objects is
materials of considerable electrical called illumination, although radio waves are
conductivity—especially by most metals, invisible to the human eye or optical cameras.
by seawater and by wet ground. Some of
these make the use of radar Reflection
altimeters possible. The radar signals that are Main article: Reflection (physics)
reflected back towards the transmitter are the
desirable ones that make radar work. If the
object is moving either toward or away from
the transmitter, there is a slight equivalent
change in the frequency of the radio waves,
caused by the Doppler effect.
 wavelength is much shorter than the target's
size, the wave will bounce off in a way similar
to the way light is reflected by a mirror. If the
wavelength is much longer than the size of the
target, the target may not be visible because
of poor reflection. Low-frequency radar
technology is dependent on resonances for
detection, but not identification, of targets.
This is described by Rayleigh scattering, an
effect that creates Earth's blue sky and
red sunsets. When the two length scales are
comparable, there may be resonances. Early
radars used very long wavelengths that were
larger than the targets and thus received a
vague signal, whereas many modern systems
Brightness can indicate reflectivity as in this use shorter wavelengths (a few centimetres or
less) that can image objects as small as a loaf
1960 weather radar image (of Hurricane Abby).
of bread.
The radar's frequency, pulse form, polarization,
Short radio waves reflect from curves and
signal processing, and antenna determine what it corners in a way similar to glint from a
can observe. rounded piece of glass. The most reflective
targets for short wavelengths have 90° angles
If electromagnetic waves travelling through between the reflective surfaces. A corner
one material meet another material, having a reflector consists of three flat surfaces
different dielectric constant or diamagnetic meeting like the inside corner of a box. The
constant from the first, the waves will reflect or structure will reflect waves entering its
scatter from the boundary between the opening directly back to the source. They are
materials. This means that a solid object commonly used as radar reflectors to make
in air or in a vacuum, or a significant change otherwise difficult-to-detect objects easier to
in atomic density between the object and what detect. Corner reflectors on boats, for
is surrounding it, will usually scatter radar example, make them more detectable to avoid
(radio) waves from its surface. This is collision or during a rescue. For similar
particularly true for electrically reasons, objects intended to avoid detection
conductive materials such as metal and will not have inside corners or surfaces and
carbon fibre, making radar well-suited to the edges perpendicular to likely detection
detection of aircraft and ships. Radar directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth
absorbing material, containing resistive and aircraft. These precautions do not completely
sometimes magnetic substances, is used on eliminate reflection because of diffraction,
military vehicles to reduce radar reflection. especially at longer wavelengths. Half
This is the radio equivalent of painting wavelength long wires or strips of conducting
something a dark colour so that it cannot be material, such as chaff, are very reflective but
seen by the eye at night. do not direct the scattered energy back toward
the source. The extent to which an object
Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways
reflects or scatters radio waves is called
depending on the size (wavelength) of the
its radar cross section.
radio wave and the shape of the target. If the

Radar equation
The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the equation:
where

 Pt = transmitter power

 Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
 Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna; this can also be expressed as 

, where

  = transmitted wavelength
 Gr = gain of receiving antenna[34]

 σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target

 F = pattern propagation factor
 Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
 Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
In the common case where the term Rt² Rr² can be replaced by R4,
transmitter and the receiver are at the where R is the range. This yields:
same location, Rt = Rr and the

This shows that the received Doppler effect

power declines as the fourth Main articles: Doppler
power of the range, which means radar and Pulse-Doppler radar
that the received power from
distant targets is relatively very Frequency shift is caused by
small. motion that changes the number
of wavelengths between the
Additional filtering and pulse reflector and the radar. This can
integration modifies the radar degrade or enhance radar
equation slightly for pulse- performance depending upon
Doppler radar performance, how it affects the detection
which can be used to increase process. As an example, Moving
detection range and reduce Target Indication can interact with
transmit power. Doppler to produce signal
The equation above with F = 1 is cancellation at certain radial
a simplification for transmission in velocities, which degrades
a vacuum without interference. performance.
The propagation factor accounts Sea-based radar systems, semi-
for the effects of multipath and active radar homing, active radar
shadowing and depends on the homing, weather radar, military
details of the environment. In a aircraft, and radar astronomy rely
real-world on the Doppler effect to enhance
situation, pathloss effects should performance. This produces
also be considered. information about target velocity
during the detection process. This
 also allows small objects to be active or passive. Active radar
detected in an environment transmits a signal that is reflected
containing much larger nearby back to the receiver. Passive
slow moving objects. radar depends upon the object
sending a signal to the receiver.
Doppler shift depends upon
whether the radar configuration is
light:[35]
I.

Radar technology
looks to the future
June 1, 2008

It is almost impossible to understate the

value and importance of radar to the Allied
Modern radar systems are combining effort during World War II in terms of being
advanced materials, solid-state modules, a real game changer. Put simply, radar may
digital signal processors, and complex A-D have been the decisive factor in the British
converters to give a better look to military victory in the Battle of Britain in the spring
and civilian users who need the best possible of 1940.
capability in small, compact, and efficient Today’s radar technology is every bit as
packages. decisive as it was during the Battle of
Britain, yet it is worlds away from the large,
By John Keller tube-based, mechanically steered, relatively
Radar—short for radio direction and ranging low-frequency systems that once stood as
—has been with us for nearly seven decades, electronic sentinels along the English coast.
when British systems designers first Modern radar systems often have imaging
deployed this technology to give the Royal capability, can yield digitized signals
Air Force early warning of Nazi bombers quickly and easily for use with graphical
crossing the channel to attack cities and overlays, can be networked together so the
towns in England. In those days a radar total system is greater than the sum of its
contact was just a blip on the screen; it did parts, and can serve several different
not offer information on the size or type of functions—such as wide-area search, target
the contact, and provided only rudimentary tracking, fire control, and weather
information on the contact’s speed and monitoring—where previous generations of
direction. radar technology required separate systems
to do the same jobs.
 The Sea-Based X-Band (SBX) Radar system,
shown here, is built on a semi-submersible twin-
hulled oil-drilling platform. Raytheon builds the
SBX radar for Boeing, which is under contract to
deliver the system to the U.S. Missile Defense
Agency. SBX can patrol the world’s oceans
looking for ballistic missile launches.

Click here to enlarge image

Most important, however, is the relative ease signals. “Radar systems as early as World
and speed with which modern analog radar War II were simple, but were state-of-the-art
signals can be converted to digital for that time,” says Mark Russell, vice
information. Not only does this open a wide president of engineering for integrated
variety of signal processing options, but it defense systems at Raytheon Co. in
also enables radar information to be made Tewksbury, Mass. Those early radar systems
available in real time or near real time on were tube based and mechanically steered,
Internet-type networks for inclusion in the and involved RF transmitters, RF receivers,
digital battlefield and Global Information analog signal processing, and a video
Grid visions of the future. display.
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Later, radar systems improved in sensitivity

to where they could virtually detect and
monitor waves on the ocean and insects in
the air. Increasing sensitivity, however,
RF energy compounded one of the biggest challenges
that radar systems confront—so-called
clutter, or reflected signals from objects that
Radar works essentially by bouncing radio are not of interest. In World War II when
waves off a target and detecting the return radar technology was not nearly as sensitive
as it is today, this was not a big problem.
Large objects showed up as blips, while
relatively small things of no interest didn’t
show up at all.
Increasingly sensitive radar systems were
able to detect wave action on the ocean’s
surface, but they could have difficulty trying
to find an enemy periscope in a rough ocean.
Radar designers originally dealt with the
clutter problem by finely tuning transmitted
RF signals to match the return signals of
targets of interest as closely as possible.
Engineers tune transmit signals by altering
the size of transmit antenna modules. Finely
tuning transmit signals for targets of interest
has helped reject clutter, but can make radar
systems useful only for a narrow range of
applications. Hence, users needed a separate
radar system for wide-area surveillance,
target tracking, fire control, and weather
monitoring.