Name: Aden Chong Class: P5-Gentleness

Date: 1 September Date Due: 2 February 2019

Science Electricity ERM 1

What are semi-conductors and superconductors?

Semi-conductors:

Semiconductors have had a monumental impact on our society. You find semiconductors at the heart
of microprocessor chips as well as transistors. Anything that's computerized or uses radio waves depends
on semiconductors.

Today, most semiconductor chips and transistors are created with silicon. You may have heard expressions
like "Silicon Valley" and the "silicon economy," and that's why -- silicon is the heart of any electronic device.

A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device, and is therefore an excellent beginning point if you
want to understand how semiconductors work. In this, you'll learn what a semiconductor is, how doping
works and how a diode can be created using semiconductors. But first, let's take a close look at silicon.

Silicon is a very common element -- for example, it is the main element in sand and quartz. If you look
"silicon" up in the periodic table, you will find that it sits next to aluminium, below carbon and above
germanium.

Silicon sits next to aluminum and below carbon in the periodic table.
Carbon, silicon and germanium (germanium, like silicon, is also a semiconductor) have a unique property in
their electron structure -- each has four electrons in its outer orbital. This allows them to form nice
crystals. The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with four neighbouring atoms, creating a lattice.
In carbon, we know the crystalline form as diamond. In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery, metallic-
looking substance.

In a silicon lattice, all silicon atoms bond perfectly to four neighbours, leaving no free electrons to conduct electric current. This
makes a silicon crystal an insulator rather than a conductor.

Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity because they usually have "free electrons" that can move
easily between atoms, and electricity involves the flow of electrons. While silicon crystals look metallic,
they are not, in fact, metals. All of the outer electrons in a silicon crystal are involved in perfect covalent
bonds, so they can't move around. A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator -- very little electricity will
flow through it.

But you can change all this through a process called doping.

You can change the behaviour of silicon and turn it into a conductor by doping it. In doping, you mix a small
amount of an impurity into the silicon crystal.

There are two types of impurities:

• N-type - In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the silicon in small quantities.
Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so they're out of place when they get into
the silicon lattice. The fifth electron has nothing to bond to, so it's free to move around. It takes
only a very small quantity of the impurity to create enough free electrons to allow an electric
current to flow through the silicon. N-type silicon is a good conductor. Electrons have a negative
charge, hence the name N-type.

• P-type - In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant. Boron and gallium each have only three
outer electrons. When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the lattice where a
silicon electron has nothing to bond to. The absence of an electron creates the effect of a
positive charge, hence the name P-type. Holes can conduct current. A hole happily accepts an
electron from a neighbour, moving the hole over a space. P-type silicon is a good conductor.

A minute amount of either N-type or P-type doping turns a silicon crystal from a good insulator into a
viable (but not great) conductor -- hence the name "semiconductor."

N-type and P-type silicon are not that amazing by themselves; but when you put them together, you get
some very interesting behaviour at the junction. That's what happens in a diode.
A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device. A diode allows current to flow in one direction but
not the other. You may have seen turnstiles at a stadium or a subway station that let people go through in
only one direction. A diode is a one-way turnstile for electrons.

When you put N-type and P-type silicon together as shown in this diagram, you get a very interesting
phenomenon that gives a diode its unique properties.

Even though N-type silicon by itself is a conductor, and P-type silicon by itself is also a conductor, the
combination shown in the diagram does not conduct any electricity. The negative electrons in the N-type
silicon get attracted to the positive terminal of the battery. The positive holes in the P-type silicon get
attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. No current flows across the junction because the holes
and the electrons are each moving in the wrong direction.

If you flip the battery around, the diode conducts electricity just fine. The free electrons in the N-type
silicon are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery. The holes in the P-type silicon are repelled by
the positive terminal. At the junction between the N-type and P-type silicon, holes and free electrons meet.
The electrons fill the holes. Those holes and free electrons cease to exist, and new holes and electrons
spring up to take their place. The effect is that current flows through the junction.

So, it will be a conductor when doped.

Superconductors:

Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves through a material without resistance.

Why are superconducting materials important?

In an ideal world, we'd all have superconducting materials wired into our electronics and power grids, saving
huge amounts of energy and allowing us to cram circuits into confined spaces.

Unfortunately, there's a catch. Most superconducting materials only have this useful function at
temperatures of just above absolute zero, where atoms barely move.

How does superconductivity work?

These cold superconductors typically work by allowing electrons to overcome their usual repulsion to each
other and snuggle closer together to form what are known as Cooper pairs.

In this low energy state the identity of each individual electron becomes less certain. This allows them to
slip through the crowd of atoms with ease.

While most superconducting materials are metals, there are unusual exceptions. Some require extra
elements to be added to 'dope' the material, and work in subtly different ways that defy existing theories.

Room-temperature superconductors

In recent years, researchers have been pushing the temperature limits on how cold a superconducting
material needs to be to function.

The current record holder is a compound made of sulphur and hydrogen, which can conduct electricity
care-free at a relatively warm 203 Kelvin (-70 degrees Celsius or -94 Fahrenheit).

The only catch is it requires pressures of 1.5 million atmospheres to form.

As physicists learn more about superconducting materials, they will develop more accurate models on the
phenomenon, perhaps bringing us ever closer to superconductors that can operate comfortably in your
pocket.

1. Summary:
Semiconductors such as silicon, have 4 electrons in its outer orbital. Superconductors
work in very low temperatures.

2. Learning points:
1. Carbon, silicon and germanium (germanium, like silicon, is also a semiconductor) have a unique
property in their electron structure -- each has four electrons in its outer orbital. This allows
them to form nice crystals. The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with four
neighbouring atoms, creating a lattice.

2. Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity because they usually have "free electrons" that
can move easily between atoms, and electricity involves the flow of electrons.

3. You can change the behaviour of silicon and turn it into a conductor by doping it. In doping, you mix
a small amount of an impurity into the silicon crystal.

4. Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves through a material without resistance.

5. Superconducting materials wired into our electronics and power grids save huge amounts of energy
and allowing us to cram circuits into confined spaces.
6. These cold superconductors typically work by allowing electrons to overcome their usual repulsion
to each other and snuggle closer together to form what are known as Cooper pairs.

7. While most superconducting materials are metals, there are unusual exceptions. Some require
extra elements to be added to 'dope' the material, and work in subtly different ways that defy
existing theories.

3. Reflection:
I feel happy that I managed to research about semi-conductors and superconductors.
I learnt a lot of things.

4. Citations:
Semi-conductors:

“Semiconductors have had a monumental impact on our society. You find semiconductors at
the heart of microprocessor chips as well as transistors. Anything that's computerized or uses
radio waves depends on semiconductors.”

Superconductors:

“Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves through a material without

5. Actual article:

How Semiconductors Work

Clockwise from top: A chip, an LED and a transistor are all made from semiconductor material. See more electronics parts pictures.

Semiconductors have had a monumental impact on our society. You find semiconductors at the heart of microprocessor chips as well as

transistors. Anything that's computerized or uses radio waves depends on semiconductors.

Today, most semiconductor chips and transistors are created with silicon. You may have heard expressions like "Silicon Valley" and the

"silicon economy," and that's why -- silicon is the heart of any electronic device.

A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device, and is therefore an excellent beginning point if you want to understand how

semiconductors work. In this article, you'll learn what a semiconductor is, how doping works and how a diode can be created using

semiconductors. But first, let's take a close look at silicon.

you will find that it sits next to aluminum, below carbon and above germanium.

Silicon sits next to aluminum and below carbon in the periodic table.

Carbon, silicon and germanium (germanium, like silicon, is also a semiconductor) have a unique property in their electron structure -- each

has four electrons in its outer orbital. This allows them to form nice crystals. The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with four

neighboring atoms, creating a lattice. In carbon, we know the crystalline form as diamond. In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery,

metallic-looking substance.

In a silicon lattice, all silicon atoms bond perfectly to four neighbors, leaving no free electrons to conduct electric current. This makes a silicon crystal an insulator rather than a
conductor.

Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity because they usually have "free electrons" that can move easily between atoms, and

electricity involves the flow of electrons. While silicon crystals look metallic, they are not, in fact, metals. All of the outer electrons in a

silicon crystal are involved in perfect covalent bonds, so they can't move around. A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator -- very little

electricity will flow through it.

But you can change all this through a process called doping.
You can change the behavior of silicon and turn it into a conductor by doping it. In doping, you mix a small amount of

an impurity into the silicon crystal.

There are two types of impurities:

• N-type - In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the silicon in small quantities. Phosphorus and arsenic

each have five outer electrons, so they're out of place when they get into the silicon lattice. The fifth electron has

nothing to bond to, so it's free to move around. It takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create enough

free electrons to allow an electric current to flow through the silicon. N-type silicon is a good conductor. Electrons

have a negative charge, hence the name N-type.

• P-type - In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant. Boron and gallium each have only three outer electrons.

When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the lattice where a silicon electron has nothing to bond to.

The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge, hence the name P-type. Holes can conduct

current. A hole happily accepts an electron from a neighbor, moving the hole over a space. P-type silicon is a good

conductor.

A minute amount of either N-type or P-type doping turns a silicon crystal from a good insulator into a viable (but not great)

conductor -- hence the name "semiconductor."

N-type and P-type silicon are not that amazing by themselves; but when you put them together, you get some very interesting

behavior at the junction. That's what happens in a diode.

A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device. A diode allows current to flow in one direction but not the other. You

may have seen turnstiles at a stadium or a subway station that let people go through in only one direction. A diode is a one-way

turnstile for electrons.

When you put N-type and P-type silicon together as shown in this diagram, you get a very interesting phenomenon that gives a

diode its unique properties.

diagram does not conduct any electricity. The negative electrons in the N-type silicon get attracted to the positive terminal of

the battery. The positive holes in the P-type silicon get attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. No current flows across

the junction because the holes and the electrons are each moving in the wrong direction.

If you flip the battery around, the diode conducts electricity just fine. The free electrons in the N-type silicon are repelled by

the negative terminal of the battery. The holes in the P-type silicon are repelled by the positive terminal. At

the junction between the N-type and P-type silicon, holes and free electrons meet. The electrons fill the holes. Those holes

and free electrons cease to exist, and new holes and electrons spring up to take their place. The effect is that current

flows through the junction.

In the next section we'll look at the uses for diodes and transistors.

A device that blocks current in one direction while letting current flow in another direction is called a diode. Diodes can be used

in a number of ways. For example, a device that uses batteries often contains a diode that protects the device if you insert the

batteries backward. The diode simply blocks any current from leaving the battery if it is reversed -- this protects the sensitive

electronics in the device.

A semiconductor diode's behavior is not perfect, as shown in this graph:

When reverse-biased, an ideal diode would block all current. A real diode lets perhaps 10 microamps through -- not a lot, but

still not perfect. And if you apply enough reverse voltage (V), the junction breaks down and lets current through. Usually, the

breakdown voltage is a lot more voltage than the circuit will ever see, so it is irrelevant.
When forward-biased, there is a small amount of voltage necessary to get the diode going. In silicon, this voltage is about 0.7

volts. This voltage is needed to start the hole-electron combination process at the junction.

Another monumental technology that's related to the diode is the transistor. Transistors and diodes have a lot in common.

Transistors

A transistor is created by using three layers rather than the two layers used in a diode. You can create either an NPN or a

PNP sandwich. A transistor can act as a switch or an amplifier.

A transistor looks like two diodes back-to-back. You'd imagine that no current could flow through a transistor because back-to-

back diodes would block current both ways. And this is true. However, when you apply a small current to the center layer of

the sandwich, a much larger current can flow through the sandwich as a whole. This gives a transistor its switching behavior.

A small current can turn a larger current on and off.

A silicon chip is a piece of silicon that can hold thousands of transistors. With transistors acting as switches, you can

create Boolean gates, and with Boolean gates you can create microprocessor chips.

The natural progression from silicon to doped silicon to transistors to chips is what has made microprocessors and other

electronic devices so inexpensive and ubiquitous in today's society. The fundamental principles are surprisingly simple. The

miracle is the constant refinement of those principles to the point where, today, tens of millions of transistors can be

inexpensively formed onto a single chip.

(US Dept. of Energy/Flickr)

Topic
What Is Superconductivity?

Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves through a material without resistance.

In theory this allows electrical energy to be transferred between two points with perfect efficiency, losing nothing to heat.

Why are superconducting materials important?

In an ideal world, we'd all have superconducting materials wired into our electronics and power grids, saving huge amounts of energy and

allowing us to cram circuits into confined spaces.

Unfortunately, there's a catch. Most superconducting materials only have this useful function at temperatures of just above absolute zero,

where atoms barely move.

How does superconductivity work?

These cold superconductors typically work by allowing electrons to overcome their usual repulsion to each other and snuggle closer together

to form what are known as Cooper pairs.

In this low energy state the identity of each individual electron becomes less certain. This allows them to slip through the crowd of atoms

with ease.

While most superconducting materials are metals, there are unusual exceptions. Some require extra elements to be added to 'dope' the

material, and work in subtly different ways that defy existing theories.

Room-temperature superconductors

In recent years, researchers have been pushing the temperature limits on how cold a superconducting material needs to be to function.

The current record holder is a compound made of sulphur and hydrogen, which can conduct electricity care-free at a relatively warm 203

Kelvin (-70 degrees Celsius or -94 Fahrenheit).

The only catch is it requires pressures of 1.5 million atmospheres to form.

As physicists learn more about superconducting materials they will develop more accurate models on the phenomenon, perhaps bringing us

ever closer to superconductors that can operate comfortably in your pocket.

Sources:
https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/diode2.htm
https://www.sciencealert.com/superconductivity