POLITICAL SYSTEM OF INDIA

• Introduction
• The Executive Branch
• The Legislative Branch
• Elections
• Political Parties
• The Judicial Branch
• The States
• Conclusion

INTRODUCTION
India - with a population of 1.4 billion (2022) and an electorate of around 900 million (2019)
- is the world's largest democracy and, for all its faults and flaws, this democratic system
stands in marked contrast to the democratic failures of Pakistan and Bangladesh which were
part of India until 1947.
Unlike the American political system and the British political system which essentially have
existed in their current form for centuries, the Indian political system is a much more recent
construct dating from India's independence from Britain in 1947.
The current constitution came into force on 26 January 1950 and advocates the trinity of
justice, liberty and equality for all citizens. The Constitution of India is the longest written
constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules and
98 amendments, with some 146,000 words in its English language version.
In stark contrast with the current constitution of Japan which has remained unchanged, the
constitution of India has been one of the most amended national documents in the world
with 98 changes in just over 70 years. Many of these amendments have resulted from a long-
running dispute involving the Parliament and the Supreme Court over the rights of
parliamentary sovereignty as they clash with those of judicial review of laws and
constitutional amendments.
India's lower house, the Lok Sabha, is modelled on the British House of Commons, but its
federal system of government borrows from the experience of the United States, Canada and
Australia. While the framers of the Indian constitution certainly had in mind this Anglo-
Saxon idea of federalism, historically the central government has dominated over the
regional states. The Constitution actually refers to India as a "Union of states" and perhaps a
better term - which is also used in the mainstream media - is quasi-federal system.
THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH
The head of state in India is the President. This is normally a ceremonial role, originally
modelled on the British monarch to "advise, encourage and warn" the elected government
on constitutional matters. The President can return a Parliamentary Bill once for
reconsideration and, in times of crisis such as a hung Parliament, the role is pivotal. The
President can declare a state of emergency which enables the Lok Sabha to extend its life
beyond the normal five-year term.
As members of an electoral college, nearly 5,000 members of the national parliament and
state legislators are eligible to vote in the election of the President. The current President is
Ram Nath Kovind, a member of the Dalit (untouchable) caste.
There is also the post of Vice-President who is elected by the members of an electoral college
consisting of both houses of parliament. The Vice-President chairs the upper house called
the Rajya Sabha. The current Vice-President is Venkaiah Naidu.
The head of the government is the Prime Minister who is appointed by the President on the
nomination of the majority party in the lower house or Lok Sabha. In May 2014, Narendra
Modi, leader of the the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), became PM, having never previously
held office at national level. In May 2019, his party won the general election, giving him a
second five-year term as premier.
Ministers are then appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister
and these ministers collectively comprise the Council of Ministers.

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

The lower house in the Indian political system is the Lok Sabha or House of the People. As
set out in the Constitution, the maximum size of the Lok Sabha is 552 members, comprising
up to 530 members representing people from the states of India, up to 20 members
representing people from the Union Territories, and two members to represent the Anglo-
Indian community if it does not have adequate representation in the house according to the
President.
Currently the size of the house is 545 - made up of 530 elected from the states, 13 elected
from the territories, and two nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. By far the largest
state representation is that of Uttar Pradesh with 80 members. At the other end of the scale,
three states have only one representative each. There are certain constituencies where only
candidates from scheduled casts and scheduled tribes are allowed to stand.
Each member - except the two nominated ones - represents a geographical single-member
constituency as in the British model for the House of Commons. Each Lok Sabha is formed
for a five year term, after which it is automatically dissolved, unless extended by a
Proclamation of Emergency which may extend the term in one year increments. This has
happened on three occasions: 1962-1968, 1971 and 1975-1977.
The last election to the Lok Sabha was in April/May 2019 and the next election will
commence in April 2024.
The composition of the Lok Sabha is supposed to be based on the population of each state
and union territory with periodic revisions based on the latest census. However, the
allocation of seats has not changed since 1971. This is because states that have been most
successful in curbing population growth would be penalized by reductions in their
representation and therefore are resisting change.
The upper house in the Indian political system is the Rajya Sabha or Council of States. As set
out in the Constitution, the Rajya Sabhahas has up to 250 members. 12 of these members are
chosen by the President for their expertise in specific fields of art, literature, science, and
social services. These members are known as nominated members. The remainder of the
house – - currently comprising 238 members - is elected indirectly by the state and territorial
legislatures in proportion to the unit's population. Again, of course, the largest state
representation is that of Uttar Pradesh with 31 members. The method of election in the local
legislatures is the single transferable vote.
Terms of office are for six years, with one third of the members facing re-election every two
years. The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous session and, unlike the Lok Sabha, it is not
subject to dissolution.
The two houses share legislative powers, except in the cases of constitutional issues or
supply (money) where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting
legislation on issues other than the constitution or supply, if there is a conflict which cannot
be resolved even by the joint committee of the two houses, it is solved in the joint session of
the Parliament, where the will of the Lok Sabha almost always prevails, since the Lok Sabha
is more than twice as large as the Rajya Sabha.
The two houses are currently located in Parliament House, a building constructed towards
the end of the British occupation and opened in 1927. However, both houses are due to move
into a brand-new building sometime in 2022. Instead of its old home in the iconic circular
building, the parliament will sit in a modern triangular bloc. Parliament House itself will be
turned in to a Museum of Democracy.

ELECTIONS
Elections in a country of the size and complexity of India are huge and difficult affairs. The
Indian Constitution requires that voters do not have to travel more than 2 km (1.2 miles)
from their homes to vote. At the last election in May 2019, some 900 million citizens were
eligible to vote and almost 614 million did so.
There is no way that such a poll can be conducted on a single day and in fact the last election
to the Lok Sabha took place over a period of almost six weeks, starting on 11 April 2019 and
finishing on 19 May 2019 with all votes counted on a single day: 23 May 2019. The election
was conducted in seven separate phases and almost 4 million staff were deployed to run
them. Administrative and security considerations meant that electoral staff and soldiers
were moved around the country as the different voting phases took place.
All this activity is controlled by a National Election Commission which was formed early in
the life of the nation and has significant powers. This is a contrast with the American political
system where federal elections are organized by the states.
Historically only around 55% of those eligible to do so vote in Indian national elections.
However, turnout for the 2014 election broke records with 66.38% of those eligible casting
a vote and turnout in 2019 again broke the record at 67.11%.
There is growing concern in India about what has been called the "criminalization" of
politics. Many members of the Lok Sabha have been the subject of criminal charges. The
severity of these charges varies and some charges may be unfounded, as the judicial process
is often used to smear political opponents and police in many state are highly corrupt.
Nevertheless, there is little doubt that overall criminality and corruption are high in Indian
politics.

POLITICAL PARTIES
In India, political parties are either a National Party or a State Party. To be considered a
National Party, a political party has to be recognized in four or more states and to be either
the ruling party or the opposition in those states.
Following its formation in 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) - and its successor of
1978 - was the dominant political party in India. For its first six decades, its focus was on
campaigning for Indian independence from Britain. Since independence in 1947, it has
sought to be the governing party of the nation with repeated success. Indeed, so dominant
was Congress at both national and state levels that it created what was called "the Congress
system".
As a result, for most of its democratic history, the Lok Sabha has been dominated by the
Indian Congress Party which has been in power for a great deal of the time. However, unlike
Japan where the Liberal Democrat Party has been in power almost continuously, Congress
has had (usually short) periods out of power, between 1977-1980, 1989-1991 and 1996-
2004. Then, the 2014 election was a disaster for the Congress Party. It did not simply lose
power; it was shattered at the polls winning a mere 44 seats. In the 2019 election, it only
marginally improved its seat count to 52. Clearly the Congress Party's historic role as leader
of post-independence India is over.
The original Congress Party espoused moderate socialism and a planned, mixed economy.
However, its spin-off and successor, Congress (I) - 'I' in honor of Indira Gandhi - now
supports deregulation, privatization and foreign investment.
While the Congress Party has historically dominated Indian politics, the leadership of the
Congress Party in turn has been dominated by one family: Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first
Prime Minister, served for 17 years; his daughter Indira Gandhi later became Prime Minister;
his grandson Rajiv Gandhi was also Prime Minister; currently the widow of Rajiv Gandhi, the
Italian-born Sonia Gandhi holds the position as Congress President although she refused to
accept the post of Prime Minister in the last Congress government; and her son Rahul Gandhi
is a Member of Parliament, while her daughter Priyanka Gandhi is an active political
campaigner.
The Indian Congress Party is the leading party in the Centre-Left political coalition called the
United Progressive Alliance (UPA) which embraces a total of 36 parties. In the 2019 election,
the UPA had 91 seats.
The other major, but more recently-established, political party in India is the Bharatiya
Janata Party (BJP). Founded on the remnants of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) created in
1951 as the political wing of the the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the BJS was
formed in 1980. It represents itself as a champion of the socio-religious cultural values of the
country's Hindu majority and advocates conservative social policies and strong national
defense. The BJP, in alliance with several other parties, led the government between 1998-
2004. In the election of 2014, it stormed to victory, winning 282 seats, an overall majority in
parliament. In the election of 2019, it increasing this tally to 303 seats
The leader of the BJP is a controversial figure. Narendra Modi is a lifelong member of the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) or National Volunteer Movement, a vast and and
influential Hindu rivals conservative movement which has been banned three times in India.
In 2002, when he was chief minister in the state of Gujarat, more than 1,000 people died in
inter-communal riots and Modi was accused of complicity in the sectarian slaughter mostly
of Muslims.
The Bharatiya Janata Party is the leading party in the Right-wing political coalition called the
National Democratic Alliance (NDA). When it was originally founded in 1998, there were 13
parties in the coalition but currently there are 43. In the 2019 election, the NDA commanded
355 seats.
Two other - much smaller - national alliances are a grand alliance of regional parties and a
left-front of communist-leaning parties.
In a democracy where a significant proportion of the electorate is illiterate, the use of
recognisable symbols for political parties is important. The Indian Congress Party is
represented by a hand, while the Bharatiya Janata Party is represented by a lotus.

THE JUDICIAL BRANCH

The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in civil, criminal and constitutional cases.
Since 2008, the size of the court has been 31.
A judge is appointed to the Supreme Court by the President of India on the recommendation
of the collegium — a closed group of the Chief Justice of India, the four most senior judges of
the court, and the senior-most judge hailing from the high court of a prospective appointee.
However, a Bill is currently being considered which would provide that Supreme Court
judges are appointed by the legislative branch with the collegium functioning as an advisory
body.

THE STATES
India is a huge country both demographically and geographically and consequently it
operates a federal system of government. Below the national level, there are 28 States and
nine Union Territories for a total of 37 entities. All states and most union territories have
their own legislature. Then the states and union territories are further subdivided into
districts and smaller administrative divisions.
Many of India's states are very large entities. The largest state is Uttar Pradesh (UP) in the
north of the country. With 207 million inhabitants, UP is the most populous state in India
and is also the most populous country subdivision in the world. On its own, if it was an
independent nation, this state would be the world's fifth biggest country. Only China, India
itself, the United States, and Indonesia have a higher population. In Indian general elections,
it fills more than one-seventh of the seats in India's Parliament and such is the state's caste-
based and sometimes violent politics that many elected politicians face criminal charges.
In a move that was widely supported domestically but criticized internationally, the state of
Jammu & Kashmir was divided into two union territories – Ladakh and J&K - in August 2019.
Jammu & Kashmir was denoted as a union territory with a legislature of its own similar to
Delhi and Puducherry. The territories are governed by a lieutenant governor appointed by
the central government of India. The President of India reserves the right to regulate the
affairs of all the union territories except the ones that have a legislature.
Over the years, India has evolved from a highly centralized state dominated by one political
party to an increasingly fragmented nation, more and more influenced by regional parties
and more and more governed locally by unstable multi-party alliances. In the General
Elections now, Congress and the BJP face each other in a few of the 28 States and nine Union
Territories; elsewhere, one of the two national parties faces a regional party. Whereas
regional parties used to secure a small proportion of the seats in the national legislature, they
now command something like a quarter (and over half in the south of the nation).

CONCLUSION
Politics in India is much rougher and much more corrupt that in the democracies of Europe
and North America. Assassination is not uncommon: the revered Mahatma Gandhi in 1948,
the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1984, and the Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991 were
all murdered, although it has to be noted that these were not really political assassinations
which happen more at local level. Communal, caste and regional tensions continue to haunt
Indian politics, sometimes threatening its long-standing democratic and secular ethos. The
language used by political candidates about each other is often vivid. Nevertheless, for
decades, India was a poster child for democratic development: a poor, sprawling, ethnically
diverse country that nevertheless had regular elections and peaceful transfers of power - the
hallmarks of a functioning democracy - albeit with the flaws inherent in such a system,
including a single dominant party.
The parliamentary scene has been transformed in the last eight years with the BJP winning
an overall majority in both the elections of 2014 and 2019. The leader of the BJP Narendra
Modi is a dominant figure who is both popular and populist. He is the first prime minister
since 1971 to win majorities in parliament in back-to-back elections and a survey by the
Centre for the Study of Developing Societies found that nearly one-third of people who voted
for the BJP last time did so in support of Modi, rather than the party or their local candidate.
But Modi is a divisive figure who has been accused of an increasing personality cult and a
serious undermining of democratic institutions and practices. Writing in "The World Ahead
2022" published by "The Economist", Ramachandra Guha - an historian and biographer - has
declared: "In the seven years that Narendra Modi has been prime minister of India, he has
not formally proclaimed a state of emergency - but then perhaps he has not needed to. For
he has ruthlessly used the instruments of state power to undermine the functioning of
democratic institutions. He has tamed the media (India is currently ranked 142nd on the
World Press Freedom Index), set the tax authorities on his political opponents, and jailed
dozens of human rights activists. He has also sought, with some success, to bring under his
control previously independent institutions such as the army, the central bank, the election
commission and the higher judiciary.")
In a March 2022 article in the "Observer" newspaper, Nick Cohen wrote: "Narendra Modi
and the Hindutva right are turning the world’s largest democracy into the world’s ugliest
democracy. Muslims are denied the security of full citizenship. The independence of the
Indian courts, the civil service, the electoral system and the media has been horribly
compromised as the Bharatiya Janata party creates, if not a one-party state, then at least a
state where only one party can win”.
 POLITICAL SYSTEM OF CHINA
• Introduction
• The Constitution
• The Politburo
• The Central Committee
• The National People's Congress
• The State Council
• The Military Affairs Commission
• The Discipline Inspection Commission
• The Courts
• The Provinces
• Conclusion

INTRODUCTION
China makes no pretense to be - or to want to be - a democracy in the Western style unlike
the other countries whose political systems are described on this web site. However, I
thought it appropriate to offer a guide to the Chinese political system because the country is
the largest in the world by population and it is a nation of growing economic and political
importance in global affairs, so we would all do well to have some appreciation of how the
country is run. However, it is a political system probably rivalled in its opacity only by the
government of North Korea.
Since the end of the civil war in 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has ruled the
country and operates a pyramid of power which reaches down to every village and every
workplace. The Party's 89-million membership makes it the biggest political party in the
world by a huge factor.
As with the former Communist-controlled USSR and its satellite states, China pretends to be
a multi-party state by technically permitting a limited number of other political parties. The
eight registered minor parties have existed since before 1950. These parties all formally
accept the leadership of the CPC and their activities are directed by the United Front Work
Department of the CPC.

THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China is a changing document. The first
Constitution was declared in 1954. After two intervening versions enacted in 1975 and 1978,
the current Constitution was declared in 1982. There were significant differences between
each of these versions, and the 1982 Constitution has subsequently been amended no less
than five times (1988, 1993, 1999, 2004 and 2018). In addition, changing Constitutional
conventions have led to significant changes in the structure of Chinese government in the
absence of changes in the actual text of the Constitution.
There is no special organization tasked with the enforcement of the Chinese Constitution.
Furthermore, under the legal system of the People's Republic of China, courts do not have
the general power of judicial review and cannot invalidate a statute on the grounds that it
violates the Constitution.
The constitutional changes of 2018 are of great importance since they represent a
consolidation of power of the current President Xi Jinping. First, Xi Jinping Thought has been
written into the Constitution, following its addition earlier to the Communist Party's Charter.
Second, the five-year term limit on the positions of President and Vice-President have been
abolished, allowing Xi to serve as long as he wishes.

THE POLITBURO
Every significant decision affecting China is first discussed and approved by a handful of men
who sit on the party's Political Bureau or Politburo which is the nexus of all power in this
nation of 1.4 billion. The 25-member Politburo is elected by the party's Central Committee.
New Politburo members are chosen only after rigorous discussion and investigation of their
backgrounds, experience and views. To reach the top, people need a strong record of
achievement working for the party, to have the right patrons, to have dodged controversy,
and to have avoided making powerful enemies.
The full politburo tends to include party secretaries from big municipalities like Beijing and
Shanghai and from important provinces like Guangdong. Recently, the wealth generated by
China's economic reforms has led some analysts to suggest the power of the centre is waning.
It is pointed out that party secretaries of large provinces like Sichuan and Guangdong are in
charge of populations bigger than most European countries and that their tax revenues are
vital to Beijing.
Formally, the power of Politburo members stems from their positions in the decision-making
body. But in China, personal relations count much more than job titles. A leader's influence
rests on the loyalties he or she builds with superiors and proteges, often over decades. That
was how Deng Xiaoping remained paramount leader long after resigning all official posts and
it explains why party elders sometimes play a key role in big decisions.
China's most senior decision-making body is the seven-member Standing Committee of the
Politburo which works as a kind of inner cabinet and groups together the country's most
influential leaders. The current members are Xi Jinping (the President), Han Zheng, Wang
Huning, Li Zhanshu, Li Keqiang (the Prime Minister), Wang Yang, and Zhao Liji. Members are
elected to serve for a term of five years.
How the Standing Committee operates is secret and unclear, but its meetings are thought to
be regular and frequent, often characterised by blunt speaking and disagreement. Although
policy disagreements and factional fighting are widely believed to take place in private, it is
extremely rare for these to break into the public domain.
Members of the Standing Committee also share out the posts of party General Secretary,
premier, chairman of the National People's Congress, and head of the Discipline Inspection
Commission.
The Politburo controls three other important bodies and ensures the party line is upheld
through these bodies. These are:

• the National People's Congress or parliament

• the State Council, the government's administrative arm
• the Military Affairs Commission which controls the armed forces

The President of China is the head of state. He is currently Xi Jinping who was appointed at
the end of 2012 in the expectation that he would serve for 10 years. He is widely regarded
as having acquired more power and as behaving in a more paranoid fashion than any other
leader since Mao Zedong. He has abandoned the Communist Party's once hallowed tradition
of 'collective leadership' in favour of strongman rule by himself. While he is genuinely
opposed to corruption among party officials, he has used his anti-corruption campaign to
remove rivals and consolidate power.
The Premier of China is the head of the government and leads the State Council. He is
currently Li Keqiang who was appointed at the end of 2012 and is expected to serve for 10
years.
Although a relatively recent innovation, introduced in 1997, enforcement of age and term
limits for top Party and State positions has brought a degree of predictability into otherwise
opaque Chinese elite politics. So, over many years, for all senior officials, there has been an
official retirement age of 65 and a limit of two five-year terms in the same post.
This meant that normally the President would serve for two five-year terms and his
successor would effectively be nominated five years in advance. However, the current
President Xi Jinping is doing things differently. First, at the 19th Party Congress held in
October 2017, he ensured that no member is young enough to take over from him in 2022.
Second, he abolished the term limit for the Presidency so that he can now serve as long as he
wants.
Finally, it should be noted that senior leaders sometimes retain great influence over
decisions and appointments long after they officially step down from power. Part of the
reason the elders wield such influence is because of the patron-protege nature of Chinese
politics.

THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE

The Central Committee is elected once every five years by the National Congress of the
Communist Party of China although in fact almost all of these people are approved in
advance. This Central Committee has 205 full members and 171 lower-ranking or "alternate"
members". It meets every couple of months.
The Central Committee is, formally, the "party's highest organ of authority" when the
National People's Congress is not in session. According to the Party Constitution, it is vested
with the power to elect the General Secretary and the members of the Politburo, its Standing
Committee, and the Military Affairs Commission, and to endorse the composition of the
Discipline Inspection Commission. It also oversees work of various powerful national organs
of the party.

THE NATIONAL PEOPLE'S CONGRESS

Under China's 1982 constitution, the most powerful organ of state is meant to be the National
People's Congress (NPC), China's unicameral legislature. However, the reality is that this is
little more than a rubber stamp for party decisions.
The Congress is made up of 2,270 delegates elected by China's provinces, autonomous
regions, municipalities and the armed forces. Delegates hold office for five years. The full
Congress is convened for one session in March of each year and lasts a mere two weeks. This
means that China has the largest legislature in the world which meets for the least time in
the world.
In theory, the Congress has the powers to change the constitution and make laws. But it is
not, and is not meant to be, an independent body in the Western sense of a parliament. For a
start, about 70% of its delegates - and almost all its senior figures - are also party members.
Their loyalty is to the party first, the NPC second.
What actually tends to happen, therefore, is that the party drafts most new legislation and
passes it to the NPC for "consideration", better described as speedy approval.
The NPC has shown some signs of growing independence over the past decade. For instance,
in a notable incident in 1999, it delayed passing a law bringing in an unpopular fuel tax. It
has also been given greater leeway drafting laws in areas like human rights.
The formal position is that Congress "elects" the country's highest leaders, including the
State President and Vice-President, the Chairman of the government's own Military Affairs
Commission, and the President of the Supreme People's Court.

THE STATE COUNCIL

The State Council is the cabinet which oversees China's vast government machine. It sits at
the top of a complex bureaucracy of commissions and ministries and is responsible for
making sure party policy is implemented from the national to the local level.
In theory, the State Council answers to the National People's Congress, but more often the
State Council submits legislation and measures which the NPC then approves.
The State Council's most important roles are to draft and manage the national economic plan
and the state budget, giving it decision-making powers over almost every aspect of people's
lives. It is also responsible for law and order.
The full council meets once a month, but the more influential Standing Committee comes
together more often, sometimes twice a week. This committee is made up of the country's
premier, four vice-premiers, state councillors and the secretary-general.

THE MILITARY AFFAIRS COMMISSION

China's People's Liberation Army (PLA) - currently 2.25 million strong - has always defended
the party as much as national borders. During the early years of communist rule, most of the
country's leaders owed their positions to their military success during the civil war, and links
between them and the PLA remained very close. However, as this generation has died off and
reforms have been introduced to make the armed forces more professional, the relationship
has shifted subtly.
Party leaders know they are lost without the army's support, as became clear during crises
like the 1989 Tiananmen protests. At the same time, senior military leaders realize they need
the leadership's backing if far-reaching plans to modernize the armed forces are to be paid
for.
The party's control over the armed forces and their nuclear arsenal is institutionalized
through the Central Military Affairs Commission. Currently the 11-member Commission has
a civilian chairman (the President Xi Jinping), two uniformed vice chairmen, and eight
uniformed regular members. The eight are the Minister of Defense, the directors of the PLA’s
four headquarters departments, and the commanders of the Navy, Air Force, and strategic
missile forces, known as the Second Artillery Corps.
This Commission has the final say on all decisions relating to the PLA, including senior
appointments, troop deployments and arms spending.
PLA officers are also party members and there is a separate party machine inside the military
to make sure rank and file stay in line with party thinking.
The Military Affairs Commission also controls the paramilitary People's Armed Police (1.5
million strong), which has the politically sensitive role of guarding key government
buildings, including the main leadership compound of Zhongnanhai in Beijing.

THE DISCIPLINE INSPECTION COMMISSION

Party members suspected of corruption, bad management or breaking with the party line
are liable to be brought before the Discipline Inspection Commission, set up to deal with
internal party discipline and to monitor abuses. Indeed, as economic reforms have gathered
pace, corruption has become probably the single most damaging issue for the party's
standing.
President has launched an assault on inefficiency and corruption. The targets of the anti-
corruption campaign have included the former head of security Zhou Yongkang, the
country's highest-ranking official to be prosecuted in more than three decades, and Ling
Jihua, a top aide to the former president Hu Jintao. Of course, such actions, as well as
combating corruption, serve to eliminate opponents and consolidate power.

THE COURTS
Unlike in democratic countries, the China's court system is in no sense independent. Both
main legal organs answer to the National People's Congress.
The Supreme People's Procuratorate is the highest legal supervisory body, charged with
safeguarding the constitution, laws and people's rights.
The Supreme People's Court sits at the top of a pyramid of people's courts going down to the
local level. Public security organs are in charge of the investigation, detention and
preparatory examination of criminal cases.

THE PROVINCES
China is governed as 22 provinces, five "autonomous" regions, four municipalities -
considered so important they are under central government control (Beijing, Shanghai,
Tianjin and Chongqing) - and two special administrative regions. The people in charge of
these bodies - a group of about 7,000 senior party and government leaders - are all appointed
by the party's organization department.
Although many are powerful individuals - the governor of Sichuan province rules over 80
million people - their ability to deviate from the party line is limited because they know their
next career move would be at stake. Nevertheless, most analysts agree the center has lost
some control to the regions in the past two decades, especially in the economic field.

CONCLUSION
The Chinese Communist Party is almost schizophrenic in its economic policies. On the one
hand, China is still a communist society but, on the other hand, its economy is more capitalist
than most European countries. This contradiction is blurred by language with the use of
vague phrases like "socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "the socialist market
economy". The word 'capitalist' is rarely used; instead policymakers talk of "economic
development" and "commercial business". Foreign observers have sometimes dubbed the
Chinese system as "Market-Leninism".
On one of my four trips to China, I was told by one person with an eye on the recent history
of Russia's economy: "Socialism has not saved China; China has saved socialism".
Meanwhile politics is almost invisible in China. Although the country is still controlled by the
Communist Party, there is none of the overt sloganizing that one sees in communist countries
like Vietnam or Cuba (both of which I have also visited). Real politics takes place opaquely
in the organs of the Communist Party, not publicly on the streets or in the media.
Most citizens - even educated ones - have no interest in politics generally or democracy in
particular. Instead there seems to be an unwritten and unannounced compact between the
Party and the people: 'You leave us to run the country and we'll leave you to make as much
money as you can'.
After the Roman Republic ceased to exist and the Roman Empire began, the Roman satirist
Juvenal wrote: "Two things only the people anxiously desire - bread and circuses." The
Chinese Communist Party leadership appears to be practicing a 21st century version of this
dictum: as far as 'bread' is concerned, food is plentiful, living standards are rising and
consumer goods flood the markets while, as far as 'circuses' is concerned, television and
cinema provide exuberant entertainment, theme parks and scenic areas proliferate, and
domestic tourism is booming. Meanwhile politics is for the few, behind closed doors, and
totally in the confines of the Communist Party.
It remains to be seen whether this massive disconnect between economics and politics - the
former liberal, the latter totalitarian - can survive and, if not, whether the changes are smooth
or disruptive. But fundamental change is unlikely under the current leadership. Early in
2014, President Xi Jinping said in a speech at the College of Europe in the Belgian city of
Bruges: "Constitutional monarchy, imperial restoration, parliamentarism, a multi-party
system and a presidential system, we considered them, tried them, but none worked."
Meanwhile Xi has consolidated his personal power to an extent unrivalled since Mao and
indeed, at the Party Congress in 2017, had written into the Party Charter "Xi's Thoughts on
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era". Since then, in 2018 his Thoughts have
actually been written into the nation's Constitution and the term limit of the Presidency has
been abolished.
So radical are Xi's changes that the American scholar Elizabeth Economy has argued that his
approach represents a "third revolution" in China, comparable to Mao Zedong's original
Communist revolution and Deng Xiaoping's market reforms.
 POLITICAL SYSTEM OF TURKIYE

The politics of Turkey take place in the framework of a constitutional republic and
presidential system, with various levels and branches of power.
Turkey's political system is based on a separation of powers. Executive power is exercised
by the Council of Ministers, which is appointed and headed by the President, who serves as
country's head of state and head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Grand
National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Its
current constitution was adopted on 7 November 1982 after a constitutional referendum.
Major constitutional revisions were passed by the National Assembly on 21 January 2017
and approved by referendum on 16 April 2017. The reforms, among other measures,
abolished the position of Prime Minister and designated the President as both head of state
and government, effectively transforming Turkey from a parliamentary regime into a
presidential one.

National Government:
Turkey is a presidential representative democracy and a constitutional republic within a
pluriform multi-party system, in which the president (the head of state and head of
government), parliament, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government.
The government is divided into three branches, as per the specific terms articulated in part
three of the Turkish Constitution:
• Legislative: The unicameral Parliament makes law, debates and adopts the budget
bills, declares war, approves treaties, proclaims amnesty and pardon, and has the
power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the
government.
• Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto
legislative bills before they become law (subject to parliamentary override), can
issue presidential decrees on matters regarding executive power with exception
of fundamental rights, individual rights and certain political rights (parliamentary
laws prevail presidential decrees), and appoints the members of the Cabinet and
other officers, who administer and enforce national laws and policies.
• Judicial: The Constitutional Court (for constitutional adjudication and review of
individual applications concerning human rights), the Court of Cassation (final
decision maker in ordinary judiciary), the Council of State (final decision maker
in administrative judiciary) and the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes (for resolving
the disputes between courts for constitutional jurisdiction) are the four
organizations that are described by the Constitution as supreme courts. The
 judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and the
parliament.
Legislative power is invested in the 600-seat Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye
Büyük Millet Meclisi), representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a five-year
term by mitigated proportional representation with an election threshold of 7%. To be
represented in Parliament, a party must win at least 7% of the national vote in a national
parliamentary election. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only
win enough to get one seat.
The freedom and independence of the judicial system is protected within the constitution.
There is no organization, person, or institution which can interfere in the running of the
courts, and the executive and legislative structures must obey the courts' decisions. The
courts, which are independent in discharging their duties, must explain each ruling on the
basis of the provisions of the Constitution, the laws, jurisprudence, and their personal
convictions.
The Judicial system is highly structured. Turkish courts have no jury system; judges render
decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers
and prosecutors. For minor civil complaints and offenses, justices of the peace take the case.
This court has a single judge. It has jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with
penalties ranging from small fines to brief prison sentences. Three-judge courts of first
instance have jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes.

Administrative Divisions:
The political system of Turkey is highly centralized. However, as a member state of the
Council of Europe, Turkey is under an obligation to implement the European Charter of Local
Self-Government. In its 2011 report, the Monitoring Committee of the Council of Europe
found fundamental deficits in implementation, in particular administrative tutelage and
prohibition of the use of languages other than Turkish in the provision of public services.

Political Principles of Importance in Turkiye:

The Turkish Constitution is cumulatively built on the following principles:
• Kemalism
• Secularism
• Modernization

Most mainstream political parties are alternatively built either on the following principles:
• Nationalism
• Conservatism
• Kemalism
• Decentralization

Other political ideas have also influenced Turkish politics and modern history. Of particular
importance are:
• Neoliberalism
• Pan-Turkism
• Socialism
• Communism
• Erdoğanism

These principles are the continuum around which various – and often rapidly changing –
political parties and groups have campaigned (and sometimes fought). On a superficial level,
the importance which state officials attach to these principles and their posts can be seen in
their response to breaches of protocol in official ceremonies.

Political parties and elections:

Political Parties:
After World War II, Turkey operated under a multi-party system. On the right side of the
Turkish political spectrum, parties like Democrat Party (DP), Justice Party (AP), Motherland
Party (ANAP) and Justice and Development Party (AKP) once became the largest political
party in Turkey. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace principles of political
ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.[8] On the left side of the spectrum,
parties like Republican People's Party (CHP), Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) and
Democratic Left Party (DSP) once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are
more likely to embrace principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.
Elections:
Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential elections
(national), parliamentary elections (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors
(local), provincial or municipal council members (local) and muhtars (local).
Apart from elections, referenda are also held occasionally. To put forward a referendum
regarding constitutional amendments, a supermajority (three fifths of the votes) in the
parliament is required first. These kinds of referendums are binding.

Sufferage:
Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at
elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.
According to the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire (1876), the age of candidacy was 30
and the voting age was 25. In the newly established Republic of Turkey, the voting age was
reduced to 18 due to the decreasing population, and the age of candidacy was still 30. The
voting age was increased to 22 in 1934, decreased to 21 in 1987, and 18 in 1995.
The age of candidacy dropped from 30 to 25 through a constitutional amendment in 2006.
Following the 2017 constitutional referendum, it was further lowered to 18.

Financing:
Political parties can use donations, dues, real estate income and income from party activities
to continue their activities. Since 1965, the Treasury also gives money to political parties.
According to the law, parties that participated in the last parliamentary elections and that
passed the general threshold are paid 0.04% of the general budget revenues each year. Apart
from this, the parties that received more than 3 percent of the votes despite being below the
threshold are also given public funding in proportion of support. This amount triples in
election years.
Political parties can't receive aid or donations in kind or in cash from foreign states,
international organizations and entities not of Turkish nationality. The same rule applies for
candidates in presidential elections. Anonymous donations to political parties are also not
allowed. It should be clearly stated in the receipt given by the party that the donation belongs
to the donor or the donor's authorized representative or attorney. Donations by political
parties cannot be accepted without relying on such a document. Donations from domestic
corporations with (partial) government ownership are also not allowed.
According to article 74 of the Political Parties Law, the financial control of political parties is
carried out by the Constitutional Court. The Constitutional Court supervises the compliance
of the property acquisitions, income and expenses of political parties with the Law.
Presidents of political parties are obliged to submit a certified copy of the final account and
the final accounts of the local organizations, including the party headquarters and its
affiliated districts, to the Constitutional Court and to the Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor
of the Supreme Court for information, until the end of June.
Military Involvement in Politics:
Since Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founded the modern secular Republic of Turkey in 1923, the
Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Atatürkçülük, the official state
ideology. The TAF still maintains an important degree of influence over Turkish politics and
the decision-making process regarding issues related to Turkish national security, albeit
decreased in the past decades, via the National Security Council.
The military has had a record of intervening in politics. Indeed, it assumed power for several
periods in the latter half of the 20th century. It executed coups d'état in 1960, in 1971, and
in 1980. Most recently, it maneuvered the removal of an Islamic-oriented prime minister,
Necmettin Erbakan, in 1997.
On 27 April 2007, in advance of 4 November 2007 presidential election, and in reaction to
the politics of Abdullah Gül, who has a past record of involvement in Islamist political
movements and banned Islamist parties such as the Welfare Party, the army issued a
statement of its interests. It said that the army is a party to "arguments" regarding
secularism; that Islamism ran counter to the secular nature of the Turkish Republic, and to
the legacy of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Army's statement ended with a clear warning that
the Turkish Armed Forces stood ready to intervene if the secular nature of the Turkish
Constitution is compromised, stating that "the Turkish Armed Forces maintain their sound
determination to carry out their duties stemming from laws to protect the unchangeable
characteristics of the Republic of Turkey. Their loyalty to this determination is absolute."
Contrary to outsider expectations, the Turkish populace is not uniformly averse to coups;
many welcome the ejection of governments they perceive as unconstitutional. Members of
the military must also comply with the traditions of secularism, according to the US
Commission on International Religious Freedom report in 2008, members who performed
prayers or had wives who wore the headscarf, have been charged with “lack of discipline”.
Paradoxically, the military has both been an important force in Turkey's continuous
Westernization but at the same time also represents an obstacle for Turkey's desire to join
the EU. At the same time, the military enjoys a high degree of popular legitimacy, with
continuous opinion polls suggesting that the military is the state institution that the Turkish
people trust the most.
Ombudsman:
In 2012 the position of ombudsman was created. The ombudsman is charged with solving,
without the need to a recourse before the courts, the disagreements between citizens and
the administrations and other entities charged with a mission of a public service proposing
reforms to the Government and the administrations to further these goals; and actively
participating in the international promotion of human rights. The institution is independent
of the government and answers to the Parliament alone. The ombudsman is elected for a
period of 4 years by the Parliament.

Foreign Relations:
Throughout the Cold War, Turkey's most important ally has been the United States, which
shared Turkey's interest in containing Soviet expansion.[22][23] In support of the United
States, Turkey contributed personnel to the UN forces in the Korean War (1950–1953),
joined NATO in 1952, recognized Israel in 1948 and has cooperated closely with it.
Turkey's alliance with Israel during the Arab–Israeli conflict strained its relations with the
Arab world and Iran, and subsequently led to overt Syrian support for Palestinian and
Armenian terrorist operations against Turkish diplomats abroad until 1990.
 Political System of Iran
Introduction:
The Islamic Republic of Iran is a constitutional, theocratic republic in which Shia Muslim
clergy and political leaders vetted by the clergy dominate the key power structures.
Government legitimacy is based on the twin pillars of popular sovereignty and the rule of the
supreme leader of the Islamic Revolution. The Iranian constitution outlines and defines the
political, economic, and social structure of the country. The supreme leader of the Islamic
Republic is the ruler and the Commander-in-Chief of the country. The current Iranian
constitution was adopted on December 3, 1979, and was ratified on July 28, 1982. Even
though the Iranian political system operates under the framework of a theocracy, there is a
relatively high level of political freedom and democracy in Iran.

THE SUPREME LEADER

In Iran’s complex and intertwined political system, the Supreme Leader has a very special
status and is the highest authority in the country. The Leader, however, is equal to the rest
of the people before the law. This is clearly stated in Article 107 of the Constitution.
Accordingly, all civil, criminal, economic, taxation, military and other laws are as applicable
to the Leader and the members of his family as they are for other people.

Qualifications
Article 109 of the Constitution provides that the Leader must have scholastic qualifications,
show justice and piety, proper social and political insight, resourcefulness, courage,
management ability and adequate capability to lead the nation.

Powers
According to Article 110 of the Constitution, the Leader has the responsibility and authority
to determine general policies of the country, supervise the good performance of those
policies, issue decrees for national referendums and pardon condemned persons or
commute their sentence.
The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controls Iran’s
intelligence and security operations, and has the authority to declare war. Moreover, he has
the power to appoint and dismiss the leaders of the judiciary, the state radio and television
networks, and the supreme commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. Besides,
he has the power to appoint six members of the Council of Guardians.
So far, Iran has had two Supreme Leaders: the Ayatollah Khomeini (1979-1989) and the
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (1989-present). The power of the Supreme Leader is not entirely
unchecked. While the constitution has mandated an 86-member elected Assembly of Experts
with the power to appoint and dismiss the Supreme Leader, Khamenei’s authority goes
almost unchallenged.

THE PRESIDENT
As per Article 113 of the Iranian constitution, the President is the second highest official in
the country, after the Supreme Leader. The President has the responsibility for
implementing the Constitution and acting as the head of the executive, except in matters
directly concerned with (the office of) the Leadership.
While the president has a high public profile, however, his power is in many ways trimmed
back by the constitution, which subordinates the entire executive branch to the Supreme
Leader. In fact, Iran is the only state in which the executive branch does not control the armed
forces.

Qualifications
Article 115 of the Constitution stipulates that the President shall be elected from among
distinguished religious and political personalities of Iranian origin and nationality, and he
shall be efficient and prudent with a good reputation and honesty. He should also be pious,
faithful to the foundations of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the official religion of the
country. To prevent misuse of public assets, Article 142 of the Constitution stipulates that
the assets of the President and his family shall be examined immediately before and after
their tenure to ensure that they have not increased unreasonably.

Term
The president is elected directly by the people of Iran for a four-year term. He can serve no
more than two consecutive terms but can be elected again after a break.

Powers
The president, as chief executive, is responsible for the day-to-day running of the country.
He does not, however, determine the general guidelines of Iranian domestic and foreign
policy, nor does he command the armed forces and security organs. He is responsible
primarily for setting the country’s economic and social policies and plays the role of
representing Iran internationally. His functions also include the signing of treaties with other
nations, budget, administering national planning, state employment affairs, and appointing
Cabinet Ministers with Parliament’s approval.
THE GUARDIAN COUNCIL
One of the most powerful forces in Iran’s government is the Guardian Council, which consists
of twelve theologians, six of them are appointed by the Supreme Leader while six jurists are
nominated by the judiciary and approved by parliament. Its members are elected for six
years on a phased basis, so that half the membership changes every three years.

Powers
The body oversees the activities of Parliament and determines which candidates are
qualified to run for public office. All legislation passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly
must be sent to the Guardian Council which has the power to overturn if it is considered in
violation of Iran’s constitution. This means that the council has effective veto power over
Parliament. If it deems that a law passed by Parliament is incompatible with the constitution
or sharia, it is referred back to Parliament for revision.

THE ASSEMBLY OF EXPERTS

Unlike the Supreme Leader and the Guardian Council, the Assembly of Experts is directly
elected by the people of Iran. The assembly has 86 members, all clerics, who are elected for
eight-year terms. Candidates for the assembly are vetted by the Guardian Council.
According to the Iranian constitution, the responsibilities of the Assembly of Experts are to
appoint the Supreme Leader, monitor his performance and remove him if he is deemed
incapable of fulfilling his duties or in case anything happens to him that prevents him from
leading the nation.

PARLIAMENT (Majles)
The Iranian Parliament, called the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles), is a unicameral
legislative body whose 290 members are publicly elected every four years. The Majles holds
substantially less authority compared to non-elected bodies such as the Guardian Council or
the Supreme Leader’s office. It has powers over the government budget, confirmation of
cabinet ministers, and questioning of government officials over their performance. It drafts
legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the country’s budget. The Parliament
is held in check by the Guardian Council, whose members examine all laws passed by
Parliament to determine their compatibility with Islamic law.
EXPEDIENCY COUNCIL
The Council is an advisory body for the Leader with an ultimate adjudicating power in
disputes over legislation between the parliament and the Guardian Council. The Supreme
Leader appoints its members, who are prominent religious, social and political figures.

SUPREME NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL

Article 176 of Iran’s Constitution sets up the Supreme National Security Council, and charges
it with “preserving the Islamic Revolution, territorial integrity, and national sovereignty.” Its
members include: the president; speaker of Parliament; the head of the judiciary; the chief
of the combined general staff of the armed forces; the ministers of foreign affairs, the interior,
and intelligence; and the commanders of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the
regular military, among others.
As head of the Supreme National Security Council, the president helps coordinate the
Supreme Leader’s foreign policy directives.

CONCLUSION
Due to its intricate set of checks and balances, the Iranian government can get bogged down
in times of crisis. It includes a volatile mix of elected and appointed career politicians and
Shia clerics, from ultra-conservative to reformist. Altogether, Iran’s leadership is a
fascinating case study in hybrid government — and the only functioning theocratic
government on Earth today.