Baliwag Polytechnic College

Dalubhasaan Kong Mahal

First Semester
A.Y. 2022 – 2023

THE CHILD AND

ADOLESCENT
LEARNER
PRINCIPLES

Name:____________________________________
Course and Section:________________________
Name of Instructor: Marianne Giron Arias, Ph.D.
Contact Information: mdarias@btech.ph.education, 09688525224
PRELIMINARY TERM MODULE

The Child and the Adolescent Learners

Welcome to the course, The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. As a future
teacher, you need to understand how learners develop in order to provide them with the best learning
experience. As a teacher, you will be responsible for a new wave of students each year in your classroom.
The more you learn about children's development, the more you can prepare for the teaching strategies and
materials you will apply in your lessons.
Knowing what concepts to teach and how to teach it are the primary areas covered by the Philippine
Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST). The PPST enumerates the standards novice, proficient, highly
proficient and distinguished teachers. It is expected, t’herefore that teachers should' be competent when they
start and continue
Teaching. Two areas of the PPST are highlighted in this book, Domain 2: Learning Environment andDomain3:
Diversity of Learners.

Section Intended Learning Outcome

Distinguish significant constructs related to the child and adolescent development.

CHAPTER 1
Nature and Principles of Development

It is imperative that we understand our students' background (personal, social, and cultural) to ‘be
able to engineer our teaching strategies to maximize learning, By knowing their needs, we can address their
concerns and seek for appropriate support. In this chapter, you will learn the relevant concepts, issues and
concerns, theories and principles pertaining to Filipino learners.
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you have an understanding of the theoretical grounding
and context of development. Moreover, you will construct a definition of what development is based on the
concepts presented to you.

Section Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to construct a definition of human development and its
implications.

Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins
at conception and continues throughout the lifespan. Most development involves growth,
although it eventually involves decay (dying).

Important Terms in the Study of Development

There are important terms we need to recognize when we try to understand how children develop.
Growth refers to physical changes that occur from conception to maturity. Examples of growth include
measuring a newborn's head circumference when being brought to the doctor or the increase in height among
children when they reach middle childhood through adolescence. Related to growth is aging, in a biological
sense, is the deterioration of organisms (including human beings) that leads inevitably to death. Development
does involve growth in early life, stability in early adulthood, and the declines associated with aging in later
life. Our cells age as we grow old, despite that our bodies produce new cells, the difference lies in the rate of
growth.
Important development concepts include maturation which is the biological unfolding of an individual
according to a plan contained in the genes (the hereditary characteristics passed from parents to child at
conception). We inherit traits from our parents ranging from physical attributes such as the color of our eyes,
hair, to other covert qualities such as our talents, intelligence, and temperament. What we inherited from our
patents has its own time of manifestation. From maturation another important concept is learning, which is
the process through which experience brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or
behavior. Imagine the time you learned how to play your favorite musical instrument or rode a bike. The
experience you had proved to be learning experiences. Lastly, an integral concept to development is
environment, which refers to all the external physical and social conditions and events that can affect us, from
crowded living quarters to stimulating social interactions. Our students' environment affects the way they learn
and the environment in which we study and prepare for our lessons as teachers affect what we will actually
teach our students.

The Processes and Periods in Development

The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several processes: biological,
cognitive, and socioemotional. Development can also be described in terms of periods. Biological processes
involve changes in the child's body. Genetic inheritance plays a large part. Biological processes underlie the
development of the brain, gains in height, changes in motor skills, and puberty's hormonal changes. Cognitive
processes on the other hand, involve the child's thinking, intelligence, and language.
Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem, imagine how to solve
a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully connected sentences. Lastly,
socioemotional processes involve changes in the child's relationships with other people, changes in emotion,
and changes in personality. Parents' nurturance toward a child, a boy's aggressive attack on a peer, a
girl's development of assertiveness, and an adolescent's feelings of joy after getting good grades all reflect
socioemotional processes in development.
Development follows definite stages. Although in other books, the sequence of the ages differs, what is
relevant is the focus of development.

Stage Age Period Major Features

1. Prenatal Conception to birth Physical Development
2. Infancy Birth at full term to Locomotion established; rudimentary
about 18 months Language; social attachment
3. Early Childhood About 18 months to Language well-established, sex typing;
about 6 years group play;
ends with readiness for schooling
4. Late Childhood About 6 to about Many cognitive processes bečome adult
13 years except in speed of operation; and team play.
5. Adolescence About 13 to about Begins with puberty, ends at maturity,
20 years attainment of
highest level of cognition; independence
from parents.
sexual relationships
6.Young Adulthood About 20 to about Career and family development
45 years
7. Midlife About 45 to about Career reaches highest level: self-
65 years assessment.
"empty nest" crisis; retirement
8. Late life About 65 to death Enjoys family achievements;
dependency.widowhood; poor health

The Lifespan Perspectives

There are number of perspectives surrounding the understanding of development, what you will see below
are seven assumptions of the breadth and depth of development as discussed by Paul Baltes (Baltes,
Lindenburger, & Staudinger, 2006).

1. Development is a lifelong process. We do not stop growing once we reach adulthood, we continue
developing new understandings of our environment and the world around us. Our relationships may
flourish, while maintaining few friends.
2. Development is multidirectional. Development in one area is simultaneous with other areas. While
children are learning to walk, their socialization skills is also enhanced.
3. Development always involves both gain and loss. Development at every age involves both growth
and decline. For example, gaining a capacity for logical thought as a school-age child may mean
losing some capacity for fanciful and imaginative thinking of a preschooler.
 4. Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity. Plasticity refers to the capacity to change in
response to positive or negative experiences.
5. Development is shaped by its historical/cultural context. A person's development is affected by
the culture and the history of the society he or she grew up in. An example of this is observed in the
types of careers students in a particular community pursue.
6. Development is multiply influenced. Human development is the. product of ongoing interactions
between a changing person and his or her changing world.
7. Understanding development requires multiple disciplines. Human development is best
understood by having knowledge of the psychological perspectives, biological underpinning and
sociological context. Being able to merge what you have learned in all your pedagogy courses will
help you in formulating better instructional materials and design lesson plans that will address the
holistic development of your learners.

Basic Issues in Human Development

There are basic issues in understanding development.
1. Assumptions About Human Nature
a. Original Sin: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) portrayed children as inherently selfish and bad,
believing that it was society's task to control their selfish and aggressive impulses and to teach
them to behave in positive ways.
b. Inherently Good: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that children were innately good,
that they were born with an intuitive understanding of right and wrong, and that they would develop
in positive directions as long as society did not interfere with their natural tendencies.
c. Tabula Rasa: John Locke (1632-1704) maintained that an infant is a tabula rasa, or a blank slate
waiting to be written on by his or her own experiences. Locke believed that children were neither
innately good nor bad; they could develop in any number of directions depending on their own
experiences.

2. Nature and Nurture

Nature refers to the behavior and characteristics manifested because of the influence of
biological forces (heredity and biologically based dispositions).
Nurture refers to the influences brought about by the exposure to the environment (includes
learning experiences, child-rearing methods, societal changes, and culture).

3. Activity and Passivity

Some theorists believe that children are curious, active creatures who in a very real sense orchestrate
their own development by exploring the world around them or by shaping their own environment.
Other theorists view humans as passive beings who are largely products of forces beyond their
control-usually environmental influences (but possibly strong biological forces).

4. Continuity and Discontinuity

Continuity theorists view human development as a process that occurs in small steps, without sudden
changes.
Discontinuity theorists picture the course of development as more like a series of stair steps, each of
which elevates the individual to a new (and presumably more advance) level of functioning,
Quantitative changes are changes in degree and indicate continuity (a person becomes taller, knows
more vocabulary words, or interacts with friends more or less frequently):
Qualitative changes are changes in kind and suggest discontinuity-changes that make the individual
fundamentally different in some way than he or she was before (a nonverbal infant into a speaking
toddler, or a prepubertal child into a sexually mature adolescent).

5. Universality and Context-Specificity The extent to which developmental changes are common to
everyone (universal) or different from person to person (context specific).

Research Integration
 An interesting article to discuss in addressing these issues is Darviri's (Darviri et al 2009)
paper on the psychosocial dimension of exceptional longevity entitled PSYCHOSOCIAL
DIMENSIONS OF EXCEPTIONAL LONGEVITY: A QUALITATIVE EXPLORATION OF
CENTENARIANS EXPERIENCES, PERSONALITY, AND LIFE STRATEGIES. To better
understand how development is seen through the lens of Darvii's study, it is best to look for the article and
read it.
To summarize, the article speaks. of a comprehensive account of the social and life experiences and
strategies and personality attributes that characterize exceptional longevity (living to 100 or over). It is based
on nine semi-structured interviews of relatively healthy and functional Greek centenarians of both sexes. The
analytic approach was thematic and based on grounded theory. The study found that the participants were
characterized by selectiveness in their socializing with other people and tendency to avoid conflicts. Also,
they found that they predominantly used the "flight" response whenever confronted with stressors. Further,
they appeared to be much adaptive as they had managed to overcome adversity and adapt successfully to
major life changes. These findings provide insights into three possible pathways (social selectivity, conflict
avoidance, and adaptiveness). through which psychosocial factors might be associated with aging and
exceptional longevity.

Guide Questions:
1. Do you think elder Filipinos are like the elders in Darviri's study?
2. How would the Philippines' culture and history influence how our elders socialize, address conflict and
adapt?

Accomplish the following activities with your classmates and discuss among yourselves the
implications of these activities in real-life teaching situations.

Activity 1: Designing my Life Map

A teacher's life is influenced by his or her background,
this is specific to significant life experiences; values
formed; and support groups. Design your own life map
by specifying ten significant life events that lead to
choosing teaching as a profession. Make yours
interesting and creative.

Activity 2: Our Walking Gallery

Gather all the life maps you made and create an exhibit
in your classroom. All students will present their own life
map.

My Definition of Development
In this activity, you will construct your own
definition of development based on life
maps presented by your classmates; and
the perceptions of the people around you.
Fill out the boxes below and consolidate what is common across the definitions.
Definitions of Development
Lesson Life Maps Guardian’s Professor’s Guidance What is What is
Definition Perception Perception Counselor’s common? different?
(not the Perspective
course
professor)
 ASSESS
A. Based on the culled information, human development for me is:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________
B. Complete the list below of what you will be doing as a teacher of students from different backgrounds.
Based on my definition of human development, as a teacher, I should consider the development of
my students. Below is a list of how I will be able to do that:
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CHAPTER 2
The Filipino Child and the Adolescents
The Filipino child is the center of the educational system. The curriculum reforms, educational policies
and government programs are concerned on ensuring the holistic of
children. This chapter provides you with information you need when it comes to understanding Filipino
children by giving you information on (1) developmental milestones; (2) the rights of children: and (3) studies
conducted on Filipino children.
As a future teacher, these concepts are imperative in planning learning goals for your students within
the academic year and to monitor their quarterly progress. The learning goals are translated into learning
activities that will maximize their experience in understanding the topic you wish to teach. Lastly, an
understanding of their characteristics will help you select or develop appropriate assessment tools to evaluate
their learning.
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to distinguish critical development milestones in the local
context.
 The child is defined differently based on context and the legal implications it entails. The World
Health Organization (\WHO) defines the child as a person 19 years or younger unless national
law defines a person to be an adult at an earlier age (WHO, 2013). However, in these
guidelines when a person falls into the 10 to 19 age categories, he or she is referred to as an adolescent.
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) resonates with the WHO by defining a child as a person below
the age of 18, unless the laws of a particular country set the legal age for adulthood younger. The Committee
on the Rights of the Child, the monitoring body for the Convention, has encouraged States to review the age
of majority if it is set below 18 and to increase the level of protection for all children under 18. The Philippines
follows WHO and UNICEFS definition of the child who is a person below 18 years of age, or over 18 years of
age but is unable to fully take care of herself/ himself from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or
discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition (PSA, 2018; RA 7610; RA 8972).
Generally, children go through developmental milestones, which refer to abilities’ children achieve by
a certain age. The developmental milestone can involve physical, social, emotional, cognitive and
communication skills. Imagine children learning their first words by the time they celebrate their second
birthday or being able to recognize and express emotions at around nine months old. These developmental
milestones are indicators that the child is ready for the next phase of his or her development stage. The table
on the next page shows various developmental milestones among children up to the time they reach
adolescence.
Developmental Milestones of Children from Infancy to Adolescence
Physical Fine Motor Language Cognitive Social
Development Development Development Development Development
-Average weekly -Briefly - Cries when -is egocentric -makes eye
Briefly regards regards object Uncomfortable contact when
weight gain is -can alert
5 to 6 ounces -Hands form a -Makes low distinguish
until 6 Months fist/are tightly throaty noises taste -quiets when
closed. picked up
-Head sags -express
when not -Occasionally -Respond to voice feedings at -Regards faces
supported brings hands certain and reacts to
to mouth -Listen voices intervals stimulation
-Raised head
slightly when -Wraps fingers -briefly -begins to
lying stomach around object -cries less watches understand that
when placed in objects hands and feet
-Switches from palm of hand -makes cooing are extension of
reflex to sound -repeats self
voluntary body -Visually actions for their
control follows moving own sake -stops crying
objects. when parents
-recognizes approach
-Hands open bottle or breast
most of the
time
-Average weekly - Plays with -Vowels begin to -Picks up -Shows fear of
weight gain is 3 hands at be interspersed blocks strangers and
to 5 ounces next center for of with more briefly and excitement to
6 Months their vision or consonants directly familiar people
in front of their
One to six -Chews and face - Babbles and -inspects -laughs when
months bites becomes more objects at head covered
-holds on active during length with towel
object for up to exciting sounds
30 seconds -laughs out loud
 -reaches for -vocalizes -senses the
objects and -both hands on pleasures and relationships -holds out arms
picks up bottles or displeasures between hands when wants to
breast and objects be picked up
-rolls from they
stomach to back manipulate.
Six to -Crawls with one -Grasps small -Uses words -Fears heights, -Recognizes
twelve hand full objects using Meaningfully aware of mother and
months thumb against vertical space self in mirror
- Crawls up side of index - Responds to one
stairs finger or two words - Beginning of - Perceives
other than intelligence, mother/father
- Builds a tower - Plays pat-a- name assigns as a separate
of two blocks cake symbols to person
-Imitates coughs, events
-Claps hands tongue clicking,
and hissing - Begins to
show
a quality of
persistence
- Birth weight is -Places cube -Says two to eight - Searches for - --Distinguishes
Tripled on cube, tries words a from self and
to hidden object others
- Drinks from a stack objects -Imitates sounds
cup and eats of animals - Understands -Fears strange
from spoon - Uses finger no and bye- people and
with help and thumb to - Controls bye places
pick up objects intonations,
-Walks help that are small patterns of
those similar
- Sits without to parents
support
13 to 18 - Soft spot on top - Turns more - Says four to six Understands - Feeds self with
months of head closes than one page words at 15 relationship Hands
at a time months, 10 or between object
- Abdomen more at 18 and use -Enjoys being
Protrudes - Removes lid months the center of
from shoe box - Beginning attention
- Imitates to retrieve toy - Points to desired concept of "up"
Housework Objects and "down" -Prefers certain
- Scribbles on people to
-Walks without paper - Vocalizes voice - Recognizes others
help up and down familiar
pictures
19 to 24 Average yearly Strings three Forms short Refers to self Dawdles
months weight gain is 4 beads sentences with by name
to 6 pounds vocabulary of - Is negative
- Snips paper about 300 - Invents new
- Gait is steadier in one place words ways to play - Wants to make
and more like an with with a toy friends, but
adult Scissors -Uses pronouns unsure how
- Begins
- Draws in a - Verbalizes need mental - Likes to imitate
straight line for food, drink, and problem- parents
toilet solving
 - Separates and play
pop beads in
one place - Has insight
and
-Turns page forethought
one at a time
-Builds tower
-Places three of 4-8 blocks
shapes in a
puzzle
Average yearly Draw circles Vocabulary about Repeats three Less negative
weight gain is 4 end point 900 words numbers
to 6 pounds within one-half -more friendly
inch of -talks in sentence -still engages
-begins to use beginning about 9 words in fantasy play -begins to
scissors understand
-imitates -ask many -build towers of taking turns
-runs easily making a questions 9 to 10 cubes
bridge with -begins to learn
-uses a toilet cubes -repeats common meaning of
-demonstrates rhymes simple rules
hand washing
Balances on one -Cuts entire -ask questions -Dresses and -show many
foot for 4-8 length of “What, Where and undresses with emotions
seconds traced line Who” little help
within one half -parallel play
-jumps from step inch of the line -gives reasonable -Gives first and with other
answers to basic last name children
-cut straight with -begins to questions
scissors show a hand -Counts one to -plays with boys
preference -Speaks clearly in 5 and girls
3 to 6 -copies a circle sentence up to 5-6
years -draws a words -Build a tower -likes playing
-bathes self person with of 10 blocks with adults or
atleast 8 body older children
parts -Dresses alone

-Copies
familiar shapes
(square, circle,
triangle)
Climbs, skips Colors within -uses all types of Describes -likes to have a
hops and lines without sentence structure objects seen in best friend
gallops crossing lines pictures
-imitates building -developing a
-learning to ride -copies a steps with blocks -recognizes sense of right
bikes diamond shapes and wrong
numbers with
blocks -use small group
play
-makes
decision easily -Know right from
left
 7 to 12 Dexterity Increasingly Thinks in concrete
Curious about -privacy is
years olds increases skillful with terms the function important
hands and use of
-skates, ride -able to read and
objects -hero worship
bikes -fond of write begins
puzzles -concrete and
-agility and operational -wants to be
coordination -is learning to stage 9age of involved in
improves write in cursive relational cludbs
thinking and
-motor skills concrete
improves concepts)
13 to 16 Body changes -learning to Able to -concerned -concerns for
years associated type understand about body privacy
advanced levels of image and
-able to write communication function -tends to be self-
stories conscious
-high level of -begins to
-able vocabulary develop -beginning
abstract interest in
thinking and opposite sex
logic
-peer groups
-enjoys more important
intellectual than family
powers

The developmental milestones show that as children become more awareof their surroundings they
are able to better explore and manipulate the things around them. It could also be noted how the child’s circle
expand from the moment the child realizes that his or her parents are not an extension of his or her body up
to the time that friendships and interpersonal attraction occurs.

The Current State of the Filipino Children

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), as of 2018, there are 32,155,793 Filipinos
among the 0-14 age group. Based on the statistics released by the PSA in July 2018, it showed that Filipino
children make up 31.8% of the total population of the Philippines. In terms of education, the PSA identified a
rating of 96.5% for the simple literacy rate, or people who can read and write, in the Philippines; while 90.3%
are functionally literate, or those who acquired the appropriate verbal, cognitive, and computational skills to
accomplish practical ends in culturally specific settings. In 2018, the Department of Education identified
1,737,3 1 3 enrollees for kindergarten; 11,151,040 enrollees for public elementary schools; and 6,010,937
enrollees for public secondary schools.
The number emphasizes the need for more teachers in the Philippines to address the growing needs
of the Filipino children. As a future teacher, you hold the key to ensure that most children will be functionally
literate. Each developmental period is coupled with special interests related to the child's advancing cognition,
physical agility and social circles. Learning opportunities can be centered on what we can expect the child
can do given his or her age. As a teacher, you can experiment on exploring activities that children from various
ages (multi-age activities) can participate in. This will pave the way for younger children to see what older
children can do.

Research Integration
To fully understand the context of the Filipino child's development, search the internet for the journal article
of Rungduin and Reyes (2016). The Filipino learner: A socioemotional perspective. The study
explored attributes of Filipino learners from the lens of social and emotional development to
provide up-to-date data on developmental tasks of Filipino children from Kinder to Grade 10.
The learners' attributes and developmental characteristics are important data in drawing program standards
and learning area competencies in educational practice. Using the case study method with research
techniques such as interview of students, teachers and parents’ observation and survey of teachers, results
reveal that Filipino learners can be at par with the characteristics and developmental tasks presented by
educational theorists. However, there are distinct Filipino socio-emotional attributes which can become the
bases of learning standards
for Filipinos. Several tasks of Filipino learners are shown within the context of Filipino
culture and realities. Since this research is exploratory, new areas of study have emerged.
Social and emotional components may be studied through language, stories, and everyday life situations of
children. Studies comparing the developmental characteristics of children and the competencies of various
learning areas in the K-12 curriculum may also be investigated.
Guide Questions:
1. What factors should you consider in developing activities to promote socio-emotional learning?
2. How do you plan to develop the activities?

At this point, we will measure the amount of information you were able to understand from the
lesson. Two activities are presented for you to accomplish and share with your classmates.

Activity 1: Who are my learners?

What grade level are you most interested to teach? Select a group of students to observe (Kinder to
Grade 12), after getting the appropriate students' consent and teachers' permission, observe the students
during their free time. List down their activities for one hour, the hour should be divided into four time periods,
comprising a 15-minute time per observation. Observe a 10-minute rest period before you proceed with your
next 15-minute interval. Note their activities. Follow the given table in providing your narrative observation.

Time Activities Frequency of Number of Learners

Activity Being Involved in Task/s
Repeated
10:00-10:15 1.
st
(1 15 min interval) * 2.
3.
10:15-10:25
Rest time **

10:25-10:40
(2nd 15 min interval)

10:40-10:50
Rest time

10:50-11:05
(3rd 15 min interval)

11:05-11:15
Rest time

11:15-11:30 (4th 15
min interval)

*The 15-minute time periods can be scattered throughout the day.

**The rest hime is to give you time to rest and check on the activities you wrote down.

Activity 2: How will I teach my learners?

 Imagine you are a teacher and will be teaching your favorite topic. Choose a subject area you are
most interested in and develop activities for the cognitive, social, and physical development of the learner
you chose to observe in Activity 1. The activities may be integrated or presented separately.

How the Curriculum Addresses the Developmental Milestones of Students

Form a group with three (3) members. Each of you will select a subject area you wish to analyze
in the current DepEd's curriculum guide (e.g., Araling Panlipunan, Science, or Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao). Read through the selected subjects curriculum guide and focus on the topics
presented for Kinder up to Grade 10. Answer the questions provided and discuss with your
group mates your observations and insights. From your consolidated answers, present your
answers to the class.

Individual Questions:
1. How are the topics presented and organized?
2. What skills are being developed per level? What inferences can you form based on the development
of skills targeted by each topic?
3. What learning competencies are enhanced per grade level? How are each quarter designed to attain
the learning competencies set for that level?

Group Questions:
1. What are the similarities of your observations? differences?
2. How are the learners presented and envisioned to be taught in the subjects you selected?

Assess
Create an infographics of the Filipino children's development and milestones Choose
a developmental stage from the table provided earlier. Be sure to include a slogan of how you
intend to make people understand the needs of Filipino children.
Your infographics will be scored based on the following rubrics:
Components Exceed Meets Needs
Expectations Expectations Improvement
(3) (2) (1)
Infographics Content All three were Only one to None was met
1. The contents are easily understood met two points understood.
2. The information provided reflect the were met
characteristics of children.
3. The main points are highlighted
Presentation
1. The information is clear.
2. Supporting details were presented.
3. The infographics is interesting to read.
Total

CHAPTER 3
Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development
In the study of human development and the complex changes that occur in each of the stages,
it is necessary to have set of explanations that will guide one's understanding and the interest to further study
a particular phenomenon. Theories about human development depending on its Intention can offer
description, prediction, rationalization, and justifications on those that are happening within the individual
brought about by factors that have identified. These are essentials in identifying appropriate actions most
especially in developing instructional materials and conducting learning assessment.
Although theories have different premises and assumptions, they are having similarities as well
allowing them to form a school of thought about the experience and process of development. For instance, a
set of theories explain how people develop cognitive abilities, the changes that happen in-between these
stages, and the elements found to contribute to this development. They are essentially helpful in identifying
expectations, for example when a particular
change is expected to occur and become basis for knowing the developmental norm.
It is important, however, to note that many of them provide only possible means to understand
a particular phenomenon. In some instances, they require critical and reflective actions with regard
to their suitability and applicability. While there are some empirical evidences on their applicability on wide
range of situations, like in classroom, others have still not been tested, hence should not be taken as they
are. In some extreme cases, it is necessary to be validated through cultural validation. Notwithstanding, these
are immediate handles in knowing the learners and changes one is experiencing.
In this chapter, we shall discuss these perspectives in the study of human development, particularly
in children and adolescents They will be distinguished with one another as well as identify
their implications in the learning process. These perspectives are behaviorism, socio-cultural, ethology.
contextual, and feminist.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Associate human development perspectives and approaches with specific learning principles.

The perspectives on the science of study of human development have largely evolve in the
past 50 years. Inclusion of other factors such as culture and human agency in the discussion
have been given much attention hence, shifted the direction of research activities in human development and
other phenomena that are associated in this process. The efforts to cross-culturally validate existing
knowledge and identify the context by which this knowledge can be appreciated have become essentially the
focus of human development scientist. Also, It Is becoming
prominent that interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach has been taking research. This is considered
a significant progress since human development may not only understanding of psychological aspects,
instead it is a product of simultaneous sequence or complement of other changes within the individual.
Significantly, there is the inclusion or perspectives such neuroscience, public health, microbiology,
biochemistry, nutrition and, dietetics, education, and other social sciences. It sets direction that collaborative
effort is needed in order to have the whole of an individual.

PERSPECTIVES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Learning Paradigm
Learning theories work on the assumption that people undergo the stages of development through
the process of interaction with one's environment via observation, conditioning, reward, and
punishment system. The extent by which stimuli are associated with one another leading to the
acquisition and modification of behaviors is the primary cause of development. This process may be
conceived in either intentional or unintentional experience. For instance, children eventually develop
high level of appreciation in reading books (early literacy) due to the deliberate reward system by
parents. The favorable consequence of such behavior lead to constantly engaging in such activity.
On the other hand, stimulus-response relationship may be established without conscious intention to
do so. Teachers, without noticing it, may frequently say how mathematics can be difficult.
Consequently, children develop negative perception and eventually attitude toward that subject.
The major premise of learning theories generally revolves around the understanding of the
relationship of stimulus and response. The relationship of the two, affecting the development of the
learner may be complicated rather than simple linear. There could be numerous stimuli present in
one's environment where one's change in behavior leading to development may be associated with.
Classroom, for instance, that has many cognitively stimulating decorations may facilitate learning
aside from the instructional strategies and effort of the teachers and one's interaction with classmates.
Hence, learned behavior (response) as a result a presentation of stimuli can be associated with those
that present in that specific environment. Using learning paradigm therefore requires a systematic
identification of a stimulus or stimuli that can influence, directly or indirectly, in the development of an
individual. In order for teachers to be effective in influencing the development of learners, whichever
domain, must take conscious actions in doing so.
a. Classical Conditioning explains human development based on the pairing of two stimuli which
lead to a learned behavior (response). With the association of classical conditioning with
 behavioral orientation, it largely denies the influence of cognitive and affective processes in
development of behavior. Observable responses are the ones given much attention.
Since children's initial responses are reflexive or automatic, they are considered as
Unconditioned response (UR). This response is expected to be aroused when a specific stimulus
is presented which Pavlov called the Unconditioned stimulus (US). It is called unconditioned
(stimulus and response) since it has not been paired with other stimuli or response. An example
of reflexive response is the sucking behavior of infants. This response is automatic in a sense that
when an infant's mouth or lips are touched (US), one's automatic response is to suck (UR). When
the US is paired repeatedly with another originally neutral stimulus, conditioning takes place. The
cyclical presentation of these stimuli creates an association between them which lead to the same
response. However, the response this time is no longer unconditioned, instead it is already a
product of conditioning, therefore conditioned response (CR). The neutral stimulus paired with the
US is no longer neutral but conditioned already (CS). If touching the mouth or lips is subsequently
followed by an act of feeding (nipple as the CS), a repetition of such sequence will condition the
infant that whenever the mouth is being touched, it is followed by another stimulus such as the
nipple. Eventually, this conditioning process can happen in other stimuli.

b. Operant Conditioning explains development based on the association of responses. The

response that follows another response is an important predictor of this association. Like the
classical conditioning, responses are conditioned when repeatedly followed one another. More
importantly, B.E. Skinner gave much attention on the functions of reinforcement in the process of
conditioning. Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that increases the probability of its
repetition. Therefore, the intention of giving reinforcement is for the person to repeat the behavior.
Reinforcement, however, should 'not necessarily be presented in a positive manner. Tantrums
among children are mostly reinforced in contrast to being punished. Since parents have the
tendency to give what children wants in return to behaving well. When there is a cycle of
experience between crying and getting what a child wants, it will establish and eventually
strengthen the connection between them.
Children's interest toward attending school depend on the quality of experience they have.
When attending school or learning becomes rewarding to students, they develop stronger despite
to learn further. Attendance in the school is child's response and the experience that followed it
determines whether one will have interest to continue. When school or learning experience has
become challenging or difficult to the learners, it becomes detrimental to further encourage them
to become engaged.

c. Social Cognitive Learning Theory assumes that development is centered with one's interaction
with other people. Imitation and modeling are central in the premise of Bandura as to learning new
behaviors. Equally important is the role of models who becomes the reference of children on what
behavior they will imitate. However, children interact with adults, not everyone is considered
models. These people typically have some degree of influence on an individual.
Social cognitive learning theory involves four processes: attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation. Attention pertains to the extent of one's exposure to others behavior
in order for one to notice it. Since people are exposed to many behaviors every day, it is not
possible that people pay attention to all of them. Instead, those behaviors that are of significance
have more impact to one's behavior. Retention is the process of storing to and recalling from
memory appropriate available circumstances This is crucial since memory can be prone to
forgetting as it can only keep it in the working memory for a specific period of time. It is possible
that stored behavior in the memory will be forgotten, and imitation become impossible already.
When it is still available in the working memory, reproduction may follow: This pertains to the
opportunity to exhibit the behavior. Aside from possible environmental limitations, physical and
personal capabilities of the person may intervene or contribute into actualizing the behavior.
Lastly, the consequence of the production behavior may determine whether such behavior will be
repeated. A favorable consequence will lead to a validation of repeated behavior while unfavorable
or undesirable consequence will lead to avoidance behavior.
 Parents, siblings, classmates, teachers, among others can serve as models of behavior.
Children's behaviors can reflect the kind of behaviors these people are showing. The judgment
children have about moral issues could be an extension of adults' modal judgment. Aggressive
behavior as well as pro-social behaviors can be strengthened by showing appropriate behaviors
that are consistent with the desired outcome. If the intention is to teach children to become socially
responsive by offering help to those who are in need, this can be encouraged by showing wide
range and kinds of helping behaviors. In doing so, children can have range of repertoire of
behavior that can catch one's attention and eventually become conditioned to do such constantly.

2. Socio Cultural Theories

This perspective highlights the influence of the collective experiences of people found in the
same cultural orientation. It assumes the centrality of culture, such as language and communication,
as well as social norms in the developmental process. They become the lenses that shadow the
affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences and changes within the individual. This is highly
evident in the type of values one learns through interacting with other culture bearers such as family
members most especially the elders, school personnel, community members, and even classmates.
The process of allowing children to internalize cultural beliefs and practices is through words, symbols,
and representations via social interaction. Developmentally, culture reflects the parental practices,
interpersonal relationship processes like friendship formation and expression of adhesion towards
others, political and social preferences and among others.
a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vgotsky is one of the
prominent developmental theories under this perspective.
He is known as the father of socio-cultural perspective. He
emphasized the important role of social interaction
particularly in facilitating cognitive development of children.
An iconic concept that he introduced was the zone of
proximal development (ZPD) which identifies the gap
between assisted and non-assisted development of
children's cognition. Specifically, the assistance provided
widens the potential to use cognitive functioning effectively
and efficiently such as the performance of executive
functions, cognitive processing, and acquisition of new
information. Actions consistent to this is referred to as
scaffoldings. Learning activities that hope to encourage
students to further learn a concept is an example of scaffoldings. Children's creativity become
more evident and further hone when children are given learning opportunities to utilize such
talent. The expansion of ZPD therefore, reflect the degree of one's environment to providing
quality opportunities for learning.

b. The Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget also provides a support in further
explaining the premise of this perspective. Piaget highlights the cognitive simulation that adults
provide in the movement through stage of cognitive development - sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal operational. In providing cognitive stimulation, content,
materials and activities reflect the culture and their corresponding artifacts. For instance,
language plays a significant role in achieving cognitive developmental milestones from
preoperational to concrete operational stage. Considering the spurt on the language
development on the parallel ages of these stages, it can accelerate the processing of information
as well as in making meaning with one's environment Language facilitates the manipulation of
ideas in the mind such as capability to create connections between and among them. More
importantly, it is through language that new information is acquired.

3. Ethology - Evolutionary and Socio-biological

This perspective accounts for two interacting factors that explains human development. These
are genetics and adaptation to one's changing environment. Due to the process of maturation,
inherited characteristics unfold according to one's readiness. It therefore emphasized the nature of an
 individual. Although there could be some observed exceptional developments, it explains the
normative development of people. Normative development pertains to the observance of
developmental behaviors according to a certain age. Whether these pertains to cognitive, social,
moral, motor, or physical changes. The other factor is adaptation. Changes brought about by
development is a result of one's need to adapt therefore they serve survival function. Consequently,
development becomes a pattern of behaviors that are responsive to better engage with the demands
of one's developmental stage. This is regardless of one's cultural preference and influence. In most
cases, children learn to walk at about 18 months and begin to talk at two years. Despite possible
variations, humans go through the same milestones all throughout life and most in the same phase.
This is because these behavioral changes is essential to better cope in the demands of that
developmental stage. This perspective has progressed to a field called evolutionary developmental
psychology that converges the views on human adaptation and survival (the Darwinian perspective)
with the changes that take place across the life span.
a. One of the most influential scientists who have initially advanced the ethological perspective was
Konrad Lorenz who is a Nobel Prize winner for Physiology. He was able to discover how animals
are able to develop behavioral patterns which have adaptive values for one's survival. He believes
that species are genetically constructed in order to specifically process certain information. This
gives the readiness of almost all species to respond to their needs, most especially those that are
physiological in nature. Animals develop reflexive reactions that are endogenous in their system.
He later extended his work in making inference about human behavioral pattern asserting
similarities with those that he found 'with other animal species. Like the animal behavior patterns
are the reflexive reactions of infants which is essential to communicate their needs. In doing so,
caregivers can, respond better in providing the needs of infants. He also observed great
similarities on the proportion of head with the body of animals and human infants together with
other features that makes them look cute. He called it babyishness. This explains the favorable
attention, if not affection, to newborn infants.

b. Attachment Theories such as of John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Melanie Klein were also
inspired by the ethology perspective. The basic tenet of attachment theory is that children develop
a sense of emotional bond with the immediate caregiver, most especially to mothers, which
becomes a prototype in developing social connection in the future. The ability to initiate, sustain,
and end social relationships are based on quality of initial relationship the mother has established.
This can be traced back in their relationship upon birth, particularly in the infant-nipple relationship.
Using the strange situation technique, Ainsworth observed three kinds of attachment styles,
namely secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure ambivalent. They generally describe the degree
of anxiety and stress an infant experience when separated and reunited with one's mother. Klein,
on the other hand, focused on the building of prototypical relationships through the nipple
experience. This is whether the nipple is generous or otherwise. Teachers in school may
understand that students may find it challenging to establish relationship with their classmates or
other school personnel due to the mental representation they have about social relationship. In
same manner, children may experience separation anxiety during the first few days of schooling
due to the stress and anxiety they have about new environment. Children may experience a
challenge in adapting to new environment while others may appear to easily adjust with this new
environment.

4. System Approach
This perspective aims to put an integrated view about human development. Integrated looks
at into all the possible factors, genes, culture, and learning as fused in explaining the changes across
life span. Hence, it takes the view that the human person is a product of an interaction of nature and
nurture. The person is not exclusively taken as a biological individual but also taken into consideration
the context by which the individual is situated. While certain developments may be normative to most
people, it is expected that changes may be influenced by, for instance, the nourishment one is
exposed to. Because of the context, it is supposed to provide a holistic view about the individual and
not having a limited view using a single perspective. The context of development may include, but not
limited to sociopolitical events, history, religion, educational system, parental involvement, and
 among others that may have direct or indirect impact on the individual. The different subsystems -
organismic, psychological, and environmental, provide the complexity of those changes can elucidate
about the individual rather than seeing them from a linear or simplistic view:
a. The Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner can be considered as one of the most
influential personalities, most especially during the establishment of this school of thought.
Lerner highlights the embeddedness of the organism (or the individual) within the context. For
him, it is not possible to understand the individual with having knowledge into the situations by
which the individual is in. Since the contexts may not necessarily to be the same from time to
time and person to person, it can be expected that development strongly have variations
among individuals. In fact, he believes that development has larger room of being malleable
that highly predeterministic pattern of changes. Adapting the principle of probabilistic
epigenesis, he strongly argued that the sequence and the outcome of development is rather
probable than certain. Putting this in the context of education, the theory provides implications
with regard to seeing learners as having unlimited possible capabilities when given the
opportunity to learn and acquire sufficient and appropriate knowledge. Because of the concept
of plasticity in development, it is possible that a specific talent can be further honed if some
degree of environmental support are actually felt.
b. The Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner, in the contemporary time, is one
of the most influential theories in this school of thought, if not in the field of human
developmental science. In his proposition, there are four systems that work in the development
of an individual. These are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
latest addition was the chronosystem. The microsystemn is composed of the changes that take
place within the individual; the mesosystem constitutes the immediate environment of a
developing child who has a direct influence to child such as the parents, neighbor, friends, and
school personnel; the exosystem is composed of social institutions that may have indirect
impact onto the child, like the school policies, employment set-up, mass media, and other
similar agencies; the macrosystem is sociological, political, cultural, and economic in nature
that when modified, may have impact on the development of the child. All these are
encompassing in the chronological system which pertains to the time component. For instance,
when a law (macrosystem) is passed modifying the number of working days of employees, it
will have impact in the policies of labor organization (exosystem) to which one's parents may
be employed. If this happens, parents (mesosystem) will be able to spend more or less time
with the child. Possibly, the child's basic needs (microsystem) will be attended appropriately.
This change is bound only in a given period of time (chronosystem). After some time, it is
possible that this kind of employment set up will change according to the need of time.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System Theory

The perspectives discussed are considerably improving and evolving throughout time. They are
continuously tested empirically to various kinds of situations and cultural orientation in order to propose for a
grand theory of human development. This is essential in order to have a consensus, if not universal,
understanding about the changes people go through in the life span. Further empirical testing is needed in
order to validate the extent by which these theories can provide explanations to wide range of situations.

Research Integration
In the 2014 editorial paper, Misra and Babu, they have provided an update of research
findings on the various human development perspectives in the past and recent years.
Consequently, they, made a quick assessment on the progress of these
perspectives, most especially in the area of conducting empirical investigations. Criticisms were
also made to perspectives that have been given less attention while featuring empirical findings
that promote cultural perspective and that is cross-disciplined.
Emerging Perspectives on Human Development Research, Garkar Misra Nandu Babu

Examine the research findings presented in their editorial in terms of how they reflect the education
practices in the country. Reflect on the current classroom problems our teachers are experiencing and the
ways those findings may fit to approach those problems.

Task 1. Matrix of Human Development Perspectives

Summarize the different perspectives presented earlier in terms of the following areas. Complete the table
and present as individual or group output.
Human Development Central Teacher's Role for Student's Role
Perspectives Assumption Learning to Learning

Learning Paradigm

Socio-Cultural Paradigm

Ethology-Evolutionary
and Sociobiological

System Approach

Task 2. My Teaching Philosophy

Write on the space below your pledge to the teaching profession. In writing your pledge, include your
personal belief about what teaching is to you, your perception of the learning process, and who is a learner
to you. As much as possible, it should reflect a perspective presented earlier and should focus on their
consistencies.
Teaching Perspectives My Personal Beliefs and Pledge

Definition of Teaching Profession

Perception of Learning Process

Characteristics of Learners
 Teachers being the frontliners in school and directly interacting with the leaners should
be guided with certain perspective about their students It is imperative that one is conscious on
it Interview at least one teacher for grade school, for junior high school, for senior high school,
and for college about their beliefs on their learners You may use the following questions as your
guide. You may need to translate them according to language communication in your
community.
1. What prominent behaviors have you observed among your students? (Ano ang mga katangi- tangi
mong makita sa iyong mga magaaral)

2. Where do you attribute these observations? (Ano ang mga dahilan ng mga katangian na ito?)

3. Why do you think your students behave in this way? (Bakit ganito ang ipinapakitang ugali ng mga
mgaaral?)

Assess
Based on the table you completed earlier, think of teaching approaches that are aligned with the
learning principles you were able to learn in this chapter. Present the strategies and learning principles to the
class and see whether you have similar answers with your classmates.
Human Development Learning Principles Teaching Strategies
Perspectives

Learning Paradigm

Socio-Cultural Paradigm

Ethology-Evolutionary
and Sociobiological

System Approach

Physical Development of Children and Adolescents

As understood in the earlier discussion, development in several areas are interconnected and
dependent with one another. Physical development, however, is crucial among other developments
in terms of the contributions of the biological processes that can permit other developments such as cognitive,
social, and moral domains. This section discusses three areas by which physical development can be
understood. Chapter 4 focuses on the influence of genetic outcomes in the prenatal development. Although
those changes that take place in the prenatal stages will be immediately seen upon birth, subsequent physical
development are determined by those changes. This is followed by the presentation of changes in the
physical characteristics of people from childhood until adolescent stage in Chapter 5. It highlighted
developmental milestones pertaining to physical changes such as muscular and biological processes Lastly,
Chapter 6 tackles the different factors that contribute to the physical development most especially those that
are accounted to environmental factors like parental attitude, knowledge and practices. Ultimately, these are
presented in line with the possible implication to better understand learners, find proper attributions in their
behaviors, and use possible course actions that can improve the learning and teaching of students and
teachers, respectively.
Section Intended Learning Outcome
Analyze the biological and environmental factors influencing physical development of child and
adolescent and their implications to teaching and learning.
CHAPTER 4
Prenatal Development
The beginning of development happens upon conception, that is the union of the egg and the
sperm cell. Subsequent changes brought about by the developmental changes can be traced in this crucial
period of life. As previously presented in the earlier chapter, the development covers cognitive, social, and
physical domains. The rate of progress depends highly on the configuration of
one's genetic make-up on these domains.
Central in the understanding of prenatal development are changes brought about by the biological
aspect. Genetic structures, hormonal activities, and physical readiness to pregnancy are directly affecting the
development of the child both in the period of pregnancy and after birth. These
are critical factors as they can result to physical deformities, developmental delays, severe medical illness or
condition, and even death when little attention is provided.
The prenatal stage is considered to be one of the shortest periods of development, beginning from
the conception until birth but can also be the most crucial of all the stages. Since the child's survival depends
highly on the mother's 'supportive behavior and attitude toward pregnancy, the child's stable development
depends on capacity of the external environment to provide one's needs.
This chapter highlights the discussion on the various physical changes that take place during the
prenatal stage, beginning from conception until birth. This will also present factors that directly and indirectly
affect the development as well as the consequences when those factors have not been sufficiently addressed.
Intended Learning Outcome (|LO)
Determine the influence of genetic processes in the
development of children.

The Beginning of Life

Depending on the menstrual cycle of a woman, a matured egg
cell is released once a month by one of the ovaries that
eventually enters in the fallopian tube. This process is
called ovulation. This is the signal of the readiness of a woman
of becoming pregnant when a sperm cell has penetrated the
ovulated egg cell. The union of egg and sperm cells is called
fertilization and the new cell becomes the zygote. One of the
major activities in this period, aside from travelling to the uterus
wall, the zygote form a blastocyst. Primarily, its purpose is to
become the protective membrane to the developing cell.
Development of the Embryo
The prenatal stage typically covers 40 weeks or 280
days including the additional two weeks to account for the last
menstrual period and ovulation. Hence, the average human gestation is from 37- 41 weeks. Infants that are
born earlier than 37 weeks are considered pre-term while those that are born 42 weeks, or more are called
post-term. Both cases are threats to child's survival, although recent developments in the use of technology
in medical science has drastically increase the rate of survival.
The zygote is a combination of the 23 chromosomes from each parent. These chromosomes contain
genes that specifically carry characteristics of an individual. The process of natural selection determines the
inherited characteristic of the child such as physical attributes (color of the hair, eyes height, complexion,
muscular build), cognitive functioning (intelligence), personality characteristics (Dispositional tendencies),
and health conditions (heritable illness and diseases). These characteristics are particularly carried by genes.
These set of genetic characteristics composing the zygote is called genotype. In the natural selection process,
not all genetic characteristics become observable. Instead, some of those characteristics may either come
out later in the adulthood development (called maturation) of are not meant to come out at all. Hence. those
characteristics that become observable are called phenotype. The phenotypic characteristics are a result of
an interaction of the individual’s genotype and one's environment. Those characteristics that are not
phenotypic remain dormant characteristics until such generation that it will come out.
 An example of these chromosomes is those
that determine the sex of the zygote. The egg
chromosomes always have an XX combination which
basically comes from the mother. The sperm,
however, can be either X or Y (XY
combination) that comes from the father. When the X
of the mother is combined with Y of the father, it is
expected that the sex of the child is male. Following
the same cycle, men do not lose the X chromosome
which makes him, later on, capable of having the
female child. This is same principle that happens in
the other heritable characteristics like diabetes. It is
possible that there could be generational gaps in the occurrence of diabetes as it may not become phenotypic
characteristic or that there is a weak push for the environment for it to become observed. If this is inherited
(genotype), it can still be passed on to other generations later on.

Stages of Prenatal Development

The development that occurs all throughout the prenatal are divided into three substages of
development. These are the germinal stage (fertilization to 2 weeks), embryonic stage (2 weeks -8 weeks),
and fetal stage (8 weeks birth). These stages have distinct activities most especially in the physical
development of the organism.
A. Germinal
In approximately 3 - 4 days, the zygote travels along the fallopian tube and eventually implant itself to the
uterus wall. The mitosis (cell division) permits the development of blastocyst. Aside from the protective
function it serves at this stage, it is also the source in the development of the amniotic sac, placenta, and
umbilical cord.
B. Embryonic
The significant development in this stage is the formation of major organs that form the biological systems,
such as respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems. Before the end of the 8 th week. limbs can be identified
already that would appear like an underdeveloped fetus. This rapid development. of organ is also
accompanied by more risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage),most specially during the first trimester (first
3 months). In the whole period of pregnancy, this is considered as the most crucial. It develops in an
intrauterine cavity through the amniotic sac composing of the amniotic fluid. This results to the development
of the umbilical cord and the placenta which supply the nutrients and other hormones that are necessary
during pregnancy.
C. Fetal
Considered the longest and final stage of pregnancy lasting until giving birth. Aside from having all organs
to be highly developing, senses are becoming more functional such as fetus being able to respond to the
heartbeat and voice of the mother while sense of olfaction develops at 14 th week. Locomotion can be felt also
by the mother most especially when the fetus is stimulated. Fetus also manifests certain degree of memories
especially on the voice of the mother.

Factors Affecting Prenatal Development

A. Threats to Prenatal
Considering the delicate condition during pregnancy, there could be some threats to a
successful pregnancy.
1. Miscarriage. This happens when the baby is lost before the 20 week of gestation. Beyond this, it is
already considered as stillbirth. There are several reasons why pregnant women will experience
miscarriage. But the most common reason for such is the chromosomal abnormalities. Aside from this
factor, the other factors are discussed in succeeding part of this chapter.
2. Ectopic Pregnancy. While it is expected that the zygote will implant itself in the uterus, there could
be instances where it is implanted along the fallopian tube or elsewhere outside the uterus. Since it is
not designed to grow a zygote, it is rather detrimental to have a successful pregnancy. The American
Pregnancy Association has identified four possible medical reasons for an ectopic pregnancy. These
 are infection or inflammation of the fallopian tube scar tissue from the previous infection or surgery,
previous surgery in the pelvic area, and abnormality in the tube's shape. Without prior medical
examination, this can happen without noticing it.
3. Complication Associated to Pregnancy. Upon gestation, hormonal and biological changes are
expected rapidly. This may cause medical-related complication that can cause loss of pregnancy.
Some of them are gestation diabetes (sudden imbalance of sugar level). preeclampsia (high blood
pressure), and intectons. When are not treated medically- these can cause fatality:
4. Bleeding or Spotting. This is a blood discharge while on gestation most especially during the first
trimester. The danger of bleeding depends on the frequency as well as the amount of bleeding. One
of the primary reasons on the occurrence of bleeding is the implantation process When the amount
of bleeding is extraordinarily plenty, this is something that should be reported immediately to the
medical doctor as it may signal irregularities to the development of the baby.

B. Factors Affecting Pregnancy

There are number of factors that affect comfortable or complicated pregnancy as well as on the
development of the baby. Below are the factors that can contribute to the easiness or difficulty of the
pregnancy and child's development
1. Maternal Context. The characteristics and the readiness of the mother's biological system can greatly
affect the quality of development that will take place. Since the zygote will collect nutrients from the
mother's body, it is important that the mother is ready to provide what the zygote needs to achieve
stable development. As such, underweight mothers usually have dangerously smaller babies
compared to those with average weight. It is important for the mother to make the necessary
adjustments in food intake in order to address the feeding demands of the baby. This adjustment
requires special attention since going overweight may result to other complications. Aside from
nutritional concern, it is necessary that the mother is able to provide the needed vitamins and nutrients,
such as folic acid, that will facilitate better development. In addition to this factor is the age of the
mother during pregnancy. Although full sexual maturity is achieved during adolescence, women's
body is still considered premature in terms of pregnancy. The number of physical activities the mother
may engage in can also affect the pregnancy. Many birth defects are associated to this maternal
context factor.
2. Medical-related Concern. The kinds of medication the mother has taken before and Medical-
related Concern. The kinds of medication the mother has taken before and during pregnancy can
possibly cause deformities, delayed development, and fatality. Among these medications are those
described to be antidepressants which may cause an interruption to the neurobiological activity and
respiratory failure. Possible miscarriage could be the effect when drugs that are primarily being used
to treat cancer and complication of leprosy are taken. Common among young parents are the
consumption of alcohol, which is a common cause of mental retardation, birth defects, disorders in
central nervous system, and. many learning disabilities. Equally accessible to many young adults is
cigarettes which contain nicotine. Like the effects of alcohol. Nicotine has many negative effects to
the child during pregnancy such as increased probability to miscarriage and stillbirth, mental
retardation, neurological and cognitive-related disorders, reproductive problems especially to boys,
and other school-related problems like hyperactivity, learning problems, short attention span, low 1IQ
score, and among others. Other drugs that may affect baby's development are caffeine, marijuana,
and cocaine. The current medical procedure and equipment are still not sufficient to truly account the
extent of their effects.
3. Environmental Factors The amount of social support provided by the immediate environment can
affect the quality of pregnancy experienced by the mother. This environmental support that strongly
stimulates the release of hormones responsible for positive emotion.
4. Other Factors. Equally important is the quality of sperm that comes from the father. The genetic
make-up that is shared by the father may result to deteriorated physical and cognitive functioning of
the child. Color blindness, for instance, is inherited exclusively from the genetic make-up of father and
is common among males. This condition is associated with the Y chromosome.
Research Integration
The study of the influence of genes on the behavior in general has been a consistent interest
to many behavioral scientists. While there is a logical connection between the genetic and
biological processes and behavior, the conclusion remained unclear. This is even confused
with the extent by which environmental factors are accounted in the process of development,
most especially they both have interacted already. In the earlier studies, many have attempted to shed light
on this issue.

Top 10 Replicated Findings From Behavioral Genetics

Plomin, DeFries, Knopik and Neiderhiser (2016) are offering a straightforward answer on the role of genes in
the behavior and how much can be accounted from such. Their listing of most replicated findings in behavioral
genetic studies clarify those that have been consistently articulated in the previous studies. They are able to
provide simple yet stable empirical explanations on how genes contribute the person's personality
characteristics, cognitive abilities, social behaviors, parent-child relationship, and psychopathological
behaviors.
The essence of this article 'is basically accounting the degree by which behaviors are explained by
our genetic make-up and its stability in the life span. It is interesting, however, to understand as well how
individual variations can be observed accounting from other sources of development, such as parenting
practices and beliefs, culture, and time. This is something that can be discussed in the class in the form of
debate.

Task 1. My Family Tree

Complete the table below by identifying the characteristics that may be accounted to one's genetic
characteristics. You are to come up with a family tree tracing not only the physical characteristics but also
those that are behavioral. For illustration purposes, you may use the example below as your guide. After
which, complete the table on the next page.
 Personal Father's Mother's Siblings'
Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

Guide Questions:
1. Which among the characteristics do you share with your parents?

2. Which among the characteristics do you share with your siblings?

3. Which among the characteristics do you, your siblings, and your parents share?

4. Why do you think you share these characteristics? Father's

The influence of genes can be determined based on the degree by which parents and
offspring’s share some amount of similarities in their interests. While this process requires
sophisticated research methodology and technology, this exercise should help you see how
one's capability can be rooted from the parents' interest and activities. You are to talk to parents
with children attending to school. Like in Task 1 in the Explore part, you are to identify the
characteristics of children based on the characteristics of parents. This time, you are to evaluate
how characteristics of both match on various areas.
Areas Child's Mother's Father's
Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics
Physical Features

Academic Inclination

Behavioral Patterns

Talents

General and Specific

Interests

ASSESS
Based on the activities you accomplished, write a reflection paper based on the following questions:
1. How important are parental traits in the development of children?
2. How do genetic processes influence the development of the following in a person?
A. Personality
B. Intelligence
C. Talents and Abilities?
3. Knowing what you have learned, how do you think would knowledge of hereditary influences affect
the teaching and learning process
 Midterm Module
CHAPTER 5
Physical Development Across Life Stages
One of the most evident changes that happen in an individual due to development is the physical
aspect. While environment plays a significant role in one's physical development, most of the observable
changes taking place can be sourced from the process of genetic unfolding. Since this area of development
covers both internal and external changes, it is expected that some of them can be noticeable while some
may unfold without noticing it. The physical changes in late adulthood are obvious since one of the central
developments in that stage is the change in the physical features of a person. Likewise, there could be
physical developments that, at a certain time, show rapid manifestation of changes. This happens most
especially during adolescent stage where internal and external changes happen within a short period of time.
In some instances, physical development serves as indicators for the readiness for social, moral, and
other developments, whether this is social norm or not, physical changes allow people to have transition from
one stage of development to another. Consequently, this also serves as the basis or source of expectations
from other people on how one should behave. When it comes to adolescent's full sexual development, expect
them to become more physically conscious, especially when it comes to clothing trends. In the same manner,
people may develop a negative attitude towards approaching late adulthood due to physical limitations one
may have when that stage has arrived.
This chapter will provide an overview of the developmental changes, tasks, and achievements of
people across the different stages of life in as far as the physical domain is concerned. This will highlight the
link between the internal (hormonal and neurological changes) and external (physical features) changes.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Infer learners' behavior from the biological processes.

THE BODY SYSTEMS

There are two main systems that directly affect the behavior of people. These are the
endocrine system that is in charge in the production of different hormones in the body and the
nervous system that controls the full functioning of the other body systems. In the case of endocrine system,
the under secretion or over secretion of certain hormone can have an immediate, long-term and short-term
effect on the person. The nervous system, on the other hand, affects a person's behavior depending on the
trajectory of brain development, the main organ in the said system.

A. Endocrine System
This system is composed of glands that are attached to the different parts of the body. These glands
secrete hormones directly to the bloodstream. Among these glands are the following:
1. Pituitary gland which is also called as the master gland since it coordinates the activities of the
other glands. This secretes growth hormones that stimulates the growth and development of body
cells. The effect of this is obviously seen in the height of a person.
2. Thyroid gland which secretes thyroxine that contributes to the growth and development of the
brain. Hence, deficiency on this hormone can result to mental retardation and other possible
learning problems.
3. Adrenal gland supports sexual motivation. Likewise, it aids in bone and muscular development.
4. Gonads are located in the sex organs, testes and ovaries, that are directly in charge in the
development of reproductive development. The testes are producing testosterone while ovaries
produce estrogen and progesterone. The production of these hormones become more prominent
during adolescent stage.
B. Nervous System
This system is a coordinating system of the body. Its function is necessary in synchronizing
the internal and external stimuli and response structure. The nervous system is composed of two
different major systems, the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS). The CNS, composing the brain and the spinal cord, controls major activities and makes the
necessary behavioral and non-behavioral responses. The PNS is composed of channels of
connections that receive and send signals from and to the CNS and different parts of the body. The
interconnection between them is crucial in terms of providing appropriate and immediate response to
 any stimulus. The brain being the main organ of this system functions according to its readiness and
development. After conception, it is still expected that further developments happen in different parts
of the brain such as in the cerebral cortex, the one that controls higher mental processes. Most of the
brain developments during this period is the increase in neural connections called synaptogenesis,
that will eventually facilitate sensory information.
At around five years old, the brain development is centered on lateralization, specialization of
the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. It assumes that left hemispheres become more prominent in
processing language information while the right hemisphere controls more the spatial and creative
aspect. Roughly about 90% of the brain at this is about an adult weight. These changes are expected
to continue and to reach the peak of its development during adolescents. Expectedly, it is at this stage
that pre-frontal lobe will finally achieve its full development. This is the reason why adolescents appear
to be impulsive with their actions.
The prefrontal lobe is the specific part of the brain that concerns critical and reflective mental
processing, The next stage that the brain is expected to undergo many changes is during the late
adulthood where significant decrease of brain cells takes place. Of course, this can affect not only the
mental processing of sensory information but as well as the motor coordination, recalling, organizing,
and maintaining memory information, and other physiological functioning resulting to illnesses.
Brain functioning primarily happens through the different neural connections. With the help of
neurotransmitters, neuron's activities can be inhibited or stimulated. The speed of firing responses
between neurons relies on the development of myelin sheath. Among newborn babies, the myelin
sheath is developing and due to its development, automatic responses are observed rather than
voluntary and controlled behaviors.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS STAGES

A. Infancy
A newborn typically communicates to the environment
through reflexes. These are unlearned and automatic
responses to a specific stimulus. Primarily, the function of
these reflexes is for survival given the limited capacity to do so.
An example of reflex that has great adaptive value is the
sucking reflex that sends much information about once’s
nutritional needs. The changes in the amount of sucking is
relative to the nutritional needs of the newborn. The other
reflexes are grasping, Babinski Moro, rooting, pupillary, and
among others. Despite of their importance, some of them
disappear due to the continuous development of the brain.
Some stay permanently, like eye-blinking, breathing, and pupillary reflex as they serve continuous
adaptive value.
In terms of motor development, it is expected that much of their locomotor activities are
associated with gross motor. These are movements that require the use of large muscles like walking
and running, Eventually, locomotor activities shift to fine motor. This requires the use of smaller
muscles, thus needing the capacity to control it. Writing and coloring need the use of smaller muscles
and they are challenging for early graders to do them with much
control needed to perform them.

B. Childhood
There are many observable physical changes among
children coming from infancy. Specifically, they begin gaining
control over many of their activities such as having a s table
capability to balance, hence, to walk and run. Their senses are
also functioning better than the previous stage and they begin
to realize and utilize their respective functions. The muscular
developments allow them to engage to more complex physical
activities and games. This can also be attributed to the
 increased proportionality of their head and body having more adult-like structure on the latter age of
childhood.

C. Adolescence
It is during this period that growth spurt is expected
to take place, most especially in the physical domain. They
undergo changes that are both physically obvious and
otherwise. Male and female, however, commence their
development not at the same time. Girls begin the growth
spurt at around 10 reaching the peak at 12 while boys at
around 13 and peaks at 14. For girls, it is also the age
where menarche is expected to take place, their first
menstrual period which further accelerates the sexual
development of girls. Due to sudden increase in the
production of testosterone for boys and estrogen and progesterone for girls, several physical changes
take place significantly. They both develop more mature sexual organs, gain muscle mass, and
increase in their height. More than physical, these changes place adolescents to more psychological
issues such as issues on self-esteem, body image in relation to self-express identity, and heightened
sexual interest. to self-expression.

D. Adulthood
Adult physical development can be both characterized as the peak of physical maturation and
physical deterioration. The early adulthood
stage primarily focused on strengthened
physical capabilities, most especially during
the early 20s while weight seemed to decline
during the early 60s. This is due to the
declining capacity of the various systems of
the body to sustain engagement to physical
activities. Unfortunately, they begin to
experience many illnesses related to
physical deterioration. Due to the sex-related
hormones secreted during adolescence,
early adulthood stage become more sexually
active than ever. The quality of sperm and egg cells are also produced in this period of adulthood.
Women, however, on the middle years of adulthood may experience menopause which ends the
menstrual period. This may have many implications to the hormonal balance that menstrual period
brings in the body of women, such as in controlling one's emotions. Although men do not experience
menopause, their ability to becoming a father may decrease due to the less active sperm cells.

Research Integration
It is during the adolescent's stage that people become extra conscious about their
physical look. In many literatures, it is consistently found to affect one's perception of worth
and value. Considering that adolescent's physical development is considered to be at its
peak, some take advantage in building more muscles to develop strength.
The “Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk
factors” of Cafri, et.al. (2005) contrast the use of unnatural approach in building muscles. Specifically, they
discussed not only the physical short-term and long-term effect, more so the psychological problem that
people may encounter.
Although what they presented was mostly emphasizing the boys' effort to engage in this activity, it
could also be interesting whether these effects are the same with the physiological structure of women. This
is an important discussion not only in the physical development of adolescent but also its long-term effect in
the area of reproduction and implications on health during the late adulthood.
 In order to further understand the physical development and its effects to human behavior,
perform the following tasks.

Task 1. Endocrine System Matrix

Complete the table below, that summarizes the endocrine system.
Glands Location Hormones Function to Result of Result of
Behavior Over secretion Under secretion

Task 2. Make Me a Picture

Collect at least one personal picture from childhood until present. Paste on the space provided below
those pictures and observe the changes that took place in you in as far as physical features is concerned.
You may interview your parents in case you have difficulty recalling them.
In case you cannot find your own pictures, you may opt to selecta person you know (outside the class)
and request for the above material. Paste in each box the picture.
Note: It is important that pictures presented below must come from the same individual.

Upon Birth (first two months) Infancy (first two years)

Early Childhood (2-7 years) Middle Childhood (8-11)

Adolescence (12-18) Early Adulthood (19 - 24)

List down the observable changes in the series of pictures. This can be presented in class either
individually or as a group.
Observable Changes:
1. 11.
2. 12
3. 13
4. 14
5. 15
6. 16
7. 17
8. 18
9. 19
10. 20
Activity: Dance Exercise Class
You are to conduct a dance exercise class to various groups of people. Primarily, the goal is for
them to learn the dance steps that engages their bodies to systematic movements.
1. Divide the class into different groups assigned to early childhood or preschoolers,
primary graders, intermediate graders, junior high school, and senior high school.
2. The class will choose one music for the dance exercise class as well as the steps that
will be taught to all the groups.
3. Each group will separately conduct the dance exercise class depending on the availability of the
students.
4. It is important that they coordinate with proper authorities in securing permission. At least three
members of the group shall separately complete the observation form and the corresponding ratings.
5. With proper consent, video tape the final round of the dance exercise class.
As a group, they are to present to the class their summary of observation sheet in teaching the learners
assigned to them according to the following area:
Areas Rating Observation
1 2 3 4 5
Low High
Accuracy of Movements
Congruency of movements
provided by the student-teacher
Speed of Movements
Phase or shift from one
movement to another
Creative Movements
Additional movements that put
elegance and artistry in the
whole movements
Physical Strength
Sustainability of the body to
finish all the movements

After presentation of each group, students are to provide, in written form, explanation on the observed
difference.

ASSESS
Answer the following questions for self-reflection.

1. How important is it to understand a student's biological processes to ensure better learning?

2. What types of support systems should be formulated to ensure that learning is supported by
addressing a student's biological needs?
3. Provide examples of how you as a future teacher can facilitate learning by understanding the

CHAPTER 6
Influences on Physical Development and Pedagogical Implications

The pace of physical development can be attributed to many factors. The genetic readiness and its
process of unfolding, referred to maturation, and provisions in the environment are essentially determinant of
physical development. Due to one's inherited characteristics, whether physical or not, are expected to
become evident at a specific period of time. Others may manifest these developments early on, while some
will have them later in the developmental stages. For example, some girls in the adolescence stage may
experience first menstrual period, the menarche, earlier while some will have menstruation later. This
experience is found to be positively correlated with one another. Opportunities in the environment are likewise
important source of physical development. Activities, interaction with people and objects, and learning
experiences can be sources those skills are acquired.
 In the previous chapter, the biological sources have been given attention in terms of them contribution
to physical development. This chapter will further present those that contribute to physical development, most
especially those that come from the environment and significantly interact to either the developing child or to
one's biological process. Ultimately, these pieces of information will be taken in the context of learning
process. Discussion will focus on how they are either seen inside the classroom or their implications to such
process.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Establish the consequences of parents' beliefs and practices on the physical development of children.

There are several external factors that may contribute to the physical development of a
person, regardless of his/her stage. It is important to note that these factors may have varying
degree of effect depending on the stage of development. For instance, parental impact is more
prominent during childhood stages compared during adulthood. In the same way, that cultural expectations
are more prominent during adolescents and adulthood compared to during the childhood period.
The external factors that contribute into the physical development can be classified in several aspects
such as parental contribution, Psychosocial opportunities, physical environment, and nutritional concern.
These factors are rather interconnected with one another and may have effect to each other. For instance,
nutritional concern can be traced from the beliefs and practices of parents on what food is healthy and those
that are not.

Parental Contribution
Since parents are the immediate environment of the developing child, their impact is Considered
unmeasurable, most especially during the early stage of life. The parenting beliefs are usually translated into
practice and may affect the range of opportunities provided to the child. In fact, the United Nation's
International Children's Fund (UNICEF) 2004 report on the importance of caregiver-child interaction, they
placed the caregiver, in most cases the parents, central component in the child's general survival. Despite of
the availability of resources provided by government and private agencies, they only become relevant upon
the initiative of the parents or the caregivers to subscribe to the program being implemented.
It is important to point out that parental attitude, knowledge, and appreciation play central role in
maximizing the physical development. Focusing on the caregiving behaviors, awareness, and familiarity-
about how they can engage on this behavior depend on the degree of their preparation to taking the role as
parents, most especially for first time parents. For instance, the practice of breastfeeding does not only pertain
to the commitment to do so but also to the depth of knowledge one has in order to continuously commit
oneself to such practice. Limited and/or selective knowledge about such can be detrimental not to
continuously practice breastfeeding, The short-term and long-term effects of these attitude, knowledge, and
practice may not necessarily to be known to everyone, hence positive and negative consequences may be
undermined.
The importance of having complete vaccination cannot be seen immediately since it serves as
protection against acquiring diseases only upon exposure. Rather than seeing it as health investment, it can
be perceived as financial burden most especially if medical services are not readily available or not directly
accessible.

The child rearing beliefs, knowledge. and practices. cannot only be attributed to the Parent themselves
but also as a product of one's cultural embeddedness. How children are approached reflects a collective
belief about people in general. The internal working model or the mental representation of self and others
are basis in terms of choosing certain behaviors towards children. The difference in the physical activities
that male and female may expose to is anchored to collective gender belief system of a specific culture. Boys,
for example, may be allowed to engage more in physical activities while young girls have limited to almost no
opportunities for such. Because of this, the physical progress become more prominent, aside from the basic
biological differences that exist between them already. In many instances, adolescent boys are given much
flexibility in their sexual attitude and behavior than girls.
The above premise is very much evident among Filipino parents. While some young parents practice
more liberated approach in child rearing, many are still conservative in terms of subscribing to the cultural
expectations and beliefs about physical development of children. The perception that children are weak and
incapable of handling their self often used as basis to restrict children from engaging to activities that may
promote physical development.

Psychosocial Opportunities
Although physical development is seen as significantly rooted from biological and genetic processes
and whatever changes appear are attributed as product of these processes. However, social interaction,
whether of the same age or not, can actually provide assistance in increasing opportunities for physical
development. Among these opportunities are the amount of play engagement children are provided. Aside
from the social benefits of play, itis also a venue that allows to exercise muscles and can have direct impact
in the weight of children. Plays that consistently involve the use of muscles like the gross and fine muscles.
Those that require running will make use of the gross muscles while those that require dealing with small toys
or activities can lead to developing the fine motors. During adolescents, social connections are venues of
learning how to deal with physical changes that are taking place. Parental efforts to teach their female
offspring deal with pregnancies that can lead an easier outcome. Among adults, most especially among older
people, group activities encourage not only keeping one's social life active but also keeping one's bones and
muscles active. In this way, it may delay the muscular weakening. Across all stages, the quality of social
interaction with other people can contribute to the degree of one's engagement, voluntary or not, in the
physically enhancing activities.

Physical Environment
Physical environment refers to the non-social aspects of the one's environment, such as but not limited
to, the place where one Iives and the accompanying materials within it. Space. For instance. is significantly
important for one to have more opportunities for movements, Children who lives with limited space may not
warrant acthvites that require gross motor. Considering that changes in the living spaces people (1.e.
condominium) where spaces both outside and inside the house is not very generous, physical activities
become optional than a constantly available opportunity. Another concern is the availability of digital gadgets
like tablets than lessens physical engagement. Long number of hours of engagement to such does not only
have impact to social connection but can also delay the physical development. Filipino local games have
been less played by the current generation due to the alternative digital activities. Across stages, lesser
physical activities can possibly lead to weight issues.
In addition to space available is the issue of air pollution and garbage which significantly contribute to
the health condition of people regardless of age. Children can easily acquire respiratory-related concerns due
to the early exposures to pollution, Deadly viruses have been evolving to becoming more deadly given these
atmospheric conditions. This is further reinforced by the challenges people encounter in waste management.
The vast amount of garbage people is producing and the mismanagement of waste disposal make children
more susceptible to acquire illness such as diarrhea and dengue especially those who have weaker immune
system. These illnesses can cause serious long-term health problem if not given proper immediate medical
attention.

Nutritional Knowledge and Practices

Knowledge and practices about the nutritional components of what one is eating can have short and
long-term effect. The degree by which health is given an attention should be the same as to the degree that
nutritional aspect should be given attention. Considering the era of commercialism, food has not only been
filled with preservatives as well as regarded as a lifestyle.
However, some may have a belief that this healthy kind of lifestyle is rather expensive. Parents of younger
children are easily swayed by the promotion of media advertisements with regard to their advantages than
pursuing natural-based diets. For example, instead of infants being fed by vegetables when introducing solid
foods, some may prefer commercial infant foods which, again, have preservatives. Interestingly, the quality
of food one eats is also relative to where people live. Those who resides in agricultural places or those who
have opportunities for planting have higher tendency to eat natural and healthy food compared to those who
have access to canned and instant food.
The susceptibility to acquire or unfold genetically inherited disease or illness also depend on the
quality of food being taken. The huge amount of available sugar-filled food, not necessarily desserts, in the
market has significantly increasing the number of diabetes cases. The issue on providing wide variety of food
in the market as well as scarcity of resources put many manufacturers on the use of unnatural materials and
ingredients in order to address these issues. This is not withstanding the market competitions in there.

Research Integration
Given that people have been engaged with so many stimuli around one's
environment, it is interesting how others are able to manage their impulses and stay focus
into what they are doing This is what Telles, et.al (2013) research entitled “Effects of yoga
or physical exercise on physical, cognitive and emotional measures in children: a
randomized controlled trial” tried to examine
in their article. Given the attention span of children, their group conducted an experiment using yoga as a tool
to help children to become more attuned with heir cognitive and affective functioning. Their results were
presented having implications not only to the individual development but also in the possible functions of yoga
in the classroom.
It is interesting to discuss in the class also how this result may have implications to adult learners, like
those who are in the senior high school level. What could be the chance that same results will be obtained if
it tested among learners whose cognitive and emotional disposition is more stable compared to children?

Task: News Reporting

Students are tasked to collect current local and international news that have something to do with
health concern. This news should be printed that can be presented in the class. Follow the directions below.
1. Cut and paste (or print) a news article covering a local/national and international health concern across
stages of development. This is regardless of the valence (positive or negative) of the news.
2. Fill out the table below and present in the class, if time permits.

Stages News Headline Summary Implication to Teaching and

 Learning
Pregnancy

Infancy

Childhood

Adolescents

As presented earlier, parental attitude, knowledge, and behaviors play significant role in
the child rearing particularly in the physical domain of development. It is important therefore, as
teachers, that one has knowledge on their beliefs and practices.
Directions. Interview parents with regard to their parental practices in providing their children
opportunities to engage in physical activities (i.e. play, tasks, or chores). Ask the following
questions as the baseline of the information you need to get. You may have additional questions
depending on the direction of the interview four parents, (1) father of a female child; (2) father of a male child;
(3) mother of a female child: (4) mother of a male child.

Guide Questions:
1. When you were pregnant with your children, what were the things you did to ensure
safe pregnancy? Noong pinagbubuntis mo ang iyong anak, ano-ano ang iyong mga ginawa upang
makasigurado na ligtas ang iyong pagbubuntis?

2. After birth, what were your rituals in taking care of the child? Pagkapanganak mo, ano ang iyong mga
ginagawa upang maalagan ng husto ang iyong anak?

3. What were your practices/beliefs in terms of the physical activities of your child? Ano-ano ang iyong
mga ginawa/ paniniwala tungkol sa gawaing pisikal ng iyong anak?

4. How do you select food for you child? Paano mo pinipili ang mga pinakakain mo sa iyong mga anak?

Individual output of this interview can be presented by group. Implications to teaching and learning should
then be highlighted during the presentation.

ASSESS
Write a reflection paper based on the following questions:
1. How would parents' belief affect their children's physical development? Give examples.

2. In what ways would the community's beliefs affect parental attitude towards child
rearing?
3. As a teacher, how would you address parental beliefs in physical development that may prove to be
unethical and unhealthy? Provide scenarios.

Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents

Cognitive development has about 50-year history, as a distinct field of developmental psychology. nor
to the 1950s, learning was conceptualized primarily in terms of behavioral principles and association
processes, whereas cognitive development emerged from the cognitive revolution, the revolution in
psycholinguistics, and especially Piaget’s work on children's reasoning about a myriad of subjects like space,
time, causality, morality, and necessity (Lerner, Easterbrooks, & Mistry, 2005).
Therefore, although superficially similar, research and theory on learning versus research and theory
on cognitive development represent very different histories and very different perspectives.

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Apply the principles of cognitive processing in developing learning activities intended for
young and adolescent learners.

CHAPTER 7
Theories of Cognitive Development

The present chapter deals mainly with broader theories that have been devised as an attempt to
explain how the mind grows and transforms. It also discusses the relevant theories of Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky and the points of view they present in understanding human cognition.

Until recently, little was known for certain about how the brain changes as children age
and grow. In classes, like ours, discussions about cognitive development will start with the
theories of cognitive development. However, since considerable progress is being made in
charting developmental changes in the brain, much is still unknown, and connections to children's education
are difficult to make.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Develop cognitively stimulating learning materials and activities.

THE BRAIN CELLS AND REGIONS

The number and size of the brain's nerve endings continue to grow until adolescence. Some
of the brain's increase in size is due to myelination, a process in which many cells of the brain and nervous
sys ten are covered with an insulating layer of fat cells. This increases the speed at which information travels
through the nervous system. Other important facts that we must know about this process include:
a. Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until about four
years of age.
b. Myelination in brain areas that are important in focusing attention is not complete until the end of the
elementary school years.

Another important aspect of the brain's development at the cellular level is the dramatic increase in
connection between neurons (nerve cells). Synapses are tiny gaps between neurons where connections
between neurons are made. The connections that are used will become strengthened
and will survive, while the unused ones will be replaced by other pathways or will disappear. These
areas are critical to determine whether synapses will be strengthened or will survive for higher-order cognitive
functioning such as learning, memory, and reasoning.
In a recent study that used sophisticated brain-scanning
techniques, children's brains were shown to undergo substantial
anatomical changes between the ages of three and fifteen
(Brown & Jernigan, 2012). The amount of brain material in some
areas can nearly double within a year, followed by à drastic loss
of tissue as unneeded cells are purged and the brain continues
to reorganize itself.
In the study, the overall size of the brain did not change
from three to fifteen years of age (Lerner et al., 2005). However,
rapid growth in the frontal lobes, especially areas related to
attention, occurred from three to six years of age. Rapid growth
in the temporal lobes (language processing, long term memory)
and parietal lobes (spatial location) occurred from age six through puberty.
One of the fascinating recent discoveries about the adolescents' brain focuses on developmental stages in
the areas of the brain that involve emotion and higher-level cognitive functioning. The amygdala is a region
of the brain that handles the processing of information about emotion; the prefrontal cortex is especially
important in higher level functioning, Researchers have discovered that the very last part of the brain to
mature is the prefrontal cortex, where planning, setting priorities, suppressing impulses, and weighing the
consequences of one's actions take place. This means that the brain region for putting brakes on risky,
impulsive behavior and thinking before acting is still under construction during adolescence.
Two theories in understanding cognition are presented in this chapter, Jean Piaget's cognitive
development theory and Lev Vygotsky's socio-historical theory of cognitive development.

PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist famous for his studies of the
intellectual growth of children and his influential theories of cognitive
development. Piaget's background was in biology, and as a teenager he gained
a measure of fame for his studies and publications on mollusks. He studied
natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel, and for most of his career held
positions there in sociology and psychology. He developed an interest in the
intellectual development of children while working with intelligence testing in a
French boys' school created by Alfred Binet. Over the years he published many
articles and books, including 1954's The Origin of Intelligence in Children, and
became known for his epistemological studies - how we know what we know.
Using the term "genetic epistemology" Piaget surmised from his studies of children that human knowledge is
"constructed" through interactions with reality. One of the most famous psychologists of his time, Piaget's
work on early cognition greatly influenced Western educational theories.

The Cognitive Processes

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves
processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

The Key Concepts

- Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing, Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In
Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such
as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs
are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog, the child
will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include this new
information.

- Assimilation – The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known
as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or
information somewhat, to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and
labelling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema. However, this
changes as the child grows older.

- Accommodation – Another aspect of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in
light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering
existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may
also be developed during this process

- Organization - Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order, more smoothly
functioning cognitive system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories. The use of
 organization improves long-term memory. Continual refinement of this organization is an inherent part
of development.

- Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation), Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought
into the next.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

1. The Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on
the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of
the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple
motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with,
such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are characterized by
the development of a new skill.\
o Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the environment purely
through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking,
o Primary Circular Reactions (14 months): This substage involves coordinating sensation and
new schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later
intentionally repeat the action. These actions are replicated because the infant finds them
pleasurable.
o Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): During this substage, the child becomes more
focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response
in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his
or her mouth.
o Coordination of Reactions (8-12 montbs): During this substage, the child starts to show clear
intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect.
Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed
behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children
begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might
realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
o Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Children begin a period of trial-and-error
experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds of
actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.
o Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Children begin 'to develop symbols to
represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time,
children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than
purely through actions.
Piaget believed that an important cognitive accomplishment in infancy is object permanence. This
involves understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard,
or touched. A second accomplishment is the gradual realization that there is a difference or boundary
between oneself and the surrounding environment. The young infant does not differentiate between self
and the world and has no sense of object permanence. By the end of the sensorimotor period, the child
can differentiate between self and the world and is aware that objects continue to exist over time.

2. The Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six. Language development is one of
the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete
 topic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.
During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols,
as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object
to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes
important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy" "daddy" "doctor"
and many others.

- Egocentrism - Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities
of children. One of the famous techniques is egocentrism which involved using a three-dimensional
display of a mountain scene. Children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had
observed. Most children are able to do this with little difficulty Next, children are asked to select a
picture showing what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a
different viewpoint. Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the
mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to
take on another person's perspective.

- Conservation – Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of

conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two identical
containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup, such as a tall and
thin cup, or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds the most liquid. Despite
seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller.

Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length, mass,

weight, volume, and quantity. Piaget found that few children showed any understanding of
conservation prior to the age of five. Many of these operational examples show a characteristic of
thought called centration, which involves focusing (or centering) attention on one characteristic to the
exclusion of others. Centration is most clearly present in preoperational children's lack of
conservation, the idea that some characteristics of an object stay the same even though the object
might change in appearance.

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately
age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin
thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.
Concrete operations allow the child to coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on
a single property of an object. At the concrete operational level, children can do mentally what they
previously could do only physically, and they can reverse concrete operations.
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good use of
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On
the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general
principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, of
awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of
relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or
her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
An important concrete operation is classifying or dividing things into different sets or subsets
and establishing their interrelationships. Reasoning about a family tree of four generations reveals a
child's concrete operational skills. Some Piagetian tasks require children to reason about relations
between classes. One such task is seriation, the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli
along some quantitative dimension (such as length). Another aspect of reasoning about relations
between classes is transitivity. This involves the ability to logically combine relations to understand
certain conclusions.
4. The Formal Operational Stage
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age 12 to adulthood. During this time,
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage.
Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome. This
type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and Mathematics.
While children tend to think concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about
abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous
experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type
of thinking is important in long-term planning.
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational
stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children
at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized
approach to solving a problem.
Hybotbetical-Deductive Reasoning is Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents
can develop hypotheses to solve problems and systematically reach a conclusion
Stages of the Formal Operations Stage
1. Early Formal Operations Stage (11 to about 14 years old) The first stage of formal
operations in which abstract thought, logic, metacognition, and hypothetical reasoning
occur.
a. Abstract thought: Thinking that allows reality to be represented by symbols that can be
manipulated mentally. Early adolescents begin to understand the complexities of
symbol systems such as music and math. They realize that words can have double
meanings.
b. Logic: Thinking that is more orderly and systematic.
c. Metacognition: Being able to analyze one's own thoughts. Early adolescents can
retrace the train of thought they took in trying to solve a problem. They can spot thinking
errors and restart the problem-solving process.
d. Hypothetical reasoning: Forming conclusions based on hypothetical possibilities. It
becomes possible to think about problems even in the absence of real data. While
children can sometimes get the right answer to a question by trial and error, early
adolescents realize that it is much more efficient to proceed according to a more careful
strategy devised beforehand.

2. Later Formal Operations Stage (15 to about 19 years old)" This includes the
development of propositional logic, individual thinking patterns, and scientific reasoning,
and the ability to comprehend systems of symbols. This second phase differs from the first
phase not only in quantity (problem solving is done more quickly and efficiently) but also
qualitatively (new skills are mastered).
a. Abstract thought: At this stage, many youths become capable of understanding
religious symbolisms and they gain the ability not only in problem solving but in problem
finding
b. Logic: In later adolescence, subtler forms and higher levels of logic may be mastered
such as propositional logic.
c. Metacognition: Adolescents get better at analyzing their thought processes as they
work through a problem. They begin to notice trends of patterns in their thinking and
learn to compensate for them.
d. Hypothetical reasoning Many adolescents are able to think like a scientist as they are
able to establish 9a plan for solving a problem.

They are likely to investigate more than one source of data, and think of multiple possible
causes, they are able to conduct a study with little or no prejudice toward the outcome. They are
able to apply the rules of logic. They are better at acting on solutions.
VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Born into a middle-class Jewish family in Orsha, a town in the northern
part of Byelorussia and moved south to Gomel. Little is known about
Vygotsky's youth except that in his early years he was educated by a private
tutor and that he later went to a combination of public and private schools for
his secondary education. As a young child he was interested in verbal arts
literature, poetry, theater and philosophy and would lead discussions on major
topics in these areas because of this he was often called the little professor.
He attended the University of Moscow out of chance and pursued degrees in
medicine and law.
He also taught at Gomel's Teachers College where he started a small
psychology laboratory. It was during this period, between 1917 and 1924, that
Vygotsky became more deeply committed to the fields of psychology and
education. He took charge of creating a Marxist theory of psychology and child
development, aiming to reconstruct the fields of psychology and education in
the Soviet Union in ways consistent with the social and cultural changes taking
place around him. He published a number of important articles in special
education (or what was then called defectology- the psychology of children with mental or physical
disabilities). He died of tuberculosis in June of 1934.

Vygotsky's Theory Assumptions

1. Learning precedes development.
2. Development involves the internalization 'of signs acquired by an individual from others so that he can
think and solve problems by himself or herself.
3. The zone of proximal development is the level of development immediately above a person's present
level. Learning takes place when a child is working within his or her zone of proximal development.
4. Scaffolding is the support for learning and problem solving which can be clues, reminders,
encouragement from other people (older or peer), breaking the problem down into stages, providing
an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.

The Key Influences

Three characteristics marked Vygotsky's work:
1. A sincere dedication to Marxist social philosophy and conviction that psychological development was
intimately linked to the tenets of that philosophy
2. A thorough acquaintance with the work of leading European and American psychologists of his day
and earlier decades
3. Great ingenuity in devising methods for studying children and for interpreting the data his methods
produced.

In coming up with his theory, Vygotsky's work has two major goals:
1. To create a Marxist psychology that would both solve problems in the field of psychology.
2. To guide people in a newly designed country.

Utopian Communism Three Core Assumptions (Marx and Engel) (Ratner, Nunes, & Silva, 2017)

These core assumptions were adapted by Vygotsky in the formulation of his theory.
a. Activity generates thinking. "Thinking does not initially create action, instead action creates thought.
Mental development is the process of children's internalizing the results of their transactions with their
environment.
b. Development advances by dialectical exchange. Vygotsky proposed that children go about the
activities of their lives, their established ways of doing things (thesis) do not always work because
these ways fail to accommodate to the conditions of the current situation (anti-thesis). Hence children
must devise new problem-solving methods that satisfy those conditions, (synthesis).
c. Development is a historical process within cultural contexts, Vygotsky adopted this model in
formulating the child development model. The model postulates that in understanding children, it is
 important that we become familiar with the nature of the culture's historical background because the
environments that children inhabit confront children with opportunities and demands unique to that
culture. Furthermore, the history of the child's ontogenetic development determines how the child is
prepared to resolve upcoming problem situations
3. Help children with various physical disabilities and psychological problems.

The Development of Thought and Language

a. The child's thought and speech begin as separate functions with
no necessary connection between them (like two separate
circles). As the child begins to grow up, the two meet and overlap,
the juncture of the two represents verbal thought.
b. The two (thought and language) never completely overlap; there
always remains some nonverbal thought (e.g., adults skillful use
of tools) and some non-conceptual speech (e.g., an adult singing
an old song).
c. While admitting the necessary role of internal maturation in development, Vygotsky believed that
children's informal and formal education through the medium of language strongly influences the level
of conceptual thinking they reach.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky developed a theory explaining how children develop their thought processes. He
proposed the following stages in conceptual development.

Stage 1: Thinking in Unorganized Congeries or Heaps

a. Beginning by the trial-and-error stage, the grouping of disparate objects together is the first step of
concept formation for the young child, it implies a diffuse extension of the meaning of the word or its
substitute sign; only the subjective bonds justify his or her choices. The word meaning is a syncretic
linking (or the attempted reconciliation or union of different or opposing principles, practices, or parties)
of objects in the child's representation and perception in a single image, it is by chance that the
meaning attributed to a word map in the child and the adult because it is linked with concrete objects
in the child's environment;
b. This step is determined by the spatial position of experimental objects (the "related impression" is a
subjective one linked to the child's immediate perception); and
c. Finally, the step ends with the unstable syncretic image (consciousness that each heap's element is
a token of a single meaning).

Stage 2: Thinking in Complexes

Individual objects are united in the child's mind not only by subjective impressions but also by bonds
that exist among the objects. This stage is comprised of five (5) sub-phases:
a. Associative complexes which are described to be an understanding of an object that is linked to the
nucleus of the group to be built if the child can make any concrete associative relationship (by similarity
or by contrast);
b. In collection complexes, there is no hierarchical bond between the various characteristics. Objects
are linked on the basis of some feature in which they differ and complement one another
(heterogeneous, complementarity). For example, a glass, spoon and plate.
c. Chain complexes focus on objects that have nothing in common with some of the other elements
either, and yet be parts of the same chain on the strength of sharing an attribute with still another of
its elements. For example, the sounds a child use in imitating animal sounds, i.e., dog (aw, woof) may
be the same sound he or she vocalizes when milk is accidentally spilt.
d. Diffuse complexes where the relationship between objects is marked by the fluidity of the attribute that
unites its single elements. For instance: yellow triangle > triangles > trapezoids> squares >hexagons
> circles
e. Pseudo-concept complexes refer to words that externally looks like a concept, but inside it is a
complex. For instance, if the child gathers all the triangles, it is because in fact they really
look like one another. S/He makes an associative complex which fits in with the adult's concept. The
pseudo-concept "is a bridge between concrete thought by intuitive images and abstract thought of a
 child" (Forest & Siksou, 1993). Word meanings as perceived by the child refer to the same objects
the adult has in mind. That ensures the understanding between a child's complex and an adult's
concept. For instance: the word dog" for the child fits in with the real concrete complex, for the adult
with the abstract one. This stage is still found in adult thinking.

Vygotsky made an important distinction between pseudo-concepts and true concepts: true conceptual
thinking requires that the child spontaneously groups objects on the basis of abstract characteristics that
he/she perceives and not simply applies ready-made labels that he/ she has been taught to use with other
common groupings.

Stage 3: Thinking in Concepts

Synthesizing of phenomena that share common aspects and analyzing phenomena by singling out or
abstracting elements from them. A single attribute is abstracted to form the basis of a collective, "the child
has begun to operate with concepts, to practice conceptual thinking, before being aware of the nature of
these operations. This peculiar genetic situation is not limited to the attainment of concepts; it is the rule rather
than an exception in the intellectual development of the child" (Ratner et al., 2017). "The concept is not limited
to generalization. To form a concept, it is necessary to abstract, to single out', "Synthesis must be combined
with analysis".

The Zone of Proximal Development

Most teachers would probably agree with Vygotsky's general viewpoint that it is their job to move
the child's mind forward. To do this, they must directly teach children new concepts, not wait for them to make
their own discoveries. At the same time, however, teachers know that they cannot teach any concept to any
child. They cannot, for example, effectively begin teaching algebra to most first graders. Teachers need ways
of determining the kinds of lessons that children are ready for.
Most schools have made such decisions with the help of standardized achievement and intelligence
tests. A school might give a third-grade child an achievement test, find that he or she is doing math at the
third-grade level, and assign the child to a middle level math group. Vygotsky argued however, that the
conventional tests are inadequate. They only measure the child's actual level of development, telling us how
far the child has developed. They do not tell us about the child's ability to learn new material beyond his or
her present level. The reason for this shortcoming according to Vygotsky, is that conventional tests only
evaluate what the child can accomplish when working independently. But before the children can perform
tasks alone, they can perform them in collaboration with others, when receiving some guidance or support.
To determine a child's potential for new learning, then, we need to see how well the child can do when offered
some assistance.
Vygotsky called the distance that children can perform beyond their current level the gone of proximal
development. More precisely, he defined the zone as the distance between the actual developmental level
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Forest & Siksou, 1993).
The zone of proximal development, Vygotsky hoped, would give educators a much better indication of each
child's true potential.
But how do we know that Vygotsky was correct, that the zone of proximal development does illuminate
the stirrings of inner development? When a sight amount of assistance quickly enables a child to succeed,
we can be fairly certain we are observing a spontaneously developing capacity. The rapid success suggests
that the adult aided a capacity that had already been emerging from within. But Vygotsky also suggested that
adults occasionally provide a great deal of assistance. Perhaps the way to know if the child's spontaneous
development is activated is to watch the child. Is the child enthusiastic, curious, and actively involved? Or
does the child look off into space? In fact, some research (e-g-, Harland, 2014) suggests that adults who
teach effectively within the zone of proximal development do continually look for signs of spontaneous interest
on the child's part.

Research Integration
Search the internet for the article titled, “Child development in developing countries 1”
“Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries" by
Grantham-Mcgregor et al., (2007). The study talks about how many children younger
than 5 years in developing countries are exposed to multiple risks, including poverty, malnutrition, poor health,
and unstimulating home environments, which detrimentally affect their cognitive, motor, and social-emotional
development. There are few national statistics on the development of young children in developing countries.
Two factors with available worldwide data were identified the prevalence of early childhood stunting and the
number of people living in absolute poverty to use as indicators of poor development. Read the article and
discuss what happens when children are affected by poverty.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the factors affecting a child's development potential? How can these factors be improved?

2. How can you help to address the problems raised in the article? What role do you, as a teacher, have
in helping young children?

Activity: Theory Comparison

Compare the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and analyze where the two theories converge and
where they are different.
Areas Piaget Vygotsky
View of the Child

Development of Cognition

The Role of the Child's

Significant Persons

Key Areas in the Theory

Questions:
1. What areas of Piaget and Vygotsky's theory are similar? different?

2. How would the areas you wrote affect the way you teach your students? Give examples.

How Cognitive Development Theories are Applied in Classrooms

Observe a class and take note of the strategies the teachers use in encouraging students to
learn. The class can be from kindergarten to Grade 12, and subject you prefer. Permission to
observe will be asked from the class. Based on the list you made, identify what Piagetian or
Vygostkian concepts the teacher used. Complete the worksheet below:

Name
Year and Section
Subject Observed
Time Observed
Grade Level of the students
Observed
 1.
2.
3.
Teacher’s Strategies in 4.
Encouraging students to learn 5.
6.
7.
8.

ASSESS
Based on what you learned, develop a digitized cognitively stimulating learning materials.
Consider the material's developmental appropriateness (grade level) and integration of the
relevant concepts discussed. Use this format.

Table 1: Topic Storyline

Topic Topic Preliminary How I will Activity that Cognitive
Objectives Activity Present the will Assess Development
Lesson the student’s Theory
Learning Concepts
Example: 1.Explain what List the Explain what Design your Development of
Kindness kindness instances kindness is, own kindness schema
means. when other what random project.
people had acts of
2.Discuss how been kind to kindness is
displaying you. Share and the
kindness may with your effects of
affect people. classmates kindness in
(Develop a people.
digital
storyline).

From the table, design a digital lesson using PowerPoint or other presentation software and
present to the class. You will be assessed based on the rubrics by your professor/facilitator and classmate
Category 20 15 10 5 Subtotal
Point of view- Establishes a Establishes a There are few It is difficult to
Purpose purpose early purpose early lapses in focus, figure out the
on and on and but is fairly clear purpose of the
maintain a maintains focus presentation
clear focus of for most of the
thoughts presentation
Pacing of The pace Occasionally Tries to use No attempt to
Materials (arrangement the material is pacing but it is match the pace
of topics and too fast or often noticeable of the topic
rhythm) fits the slowly that the pacing presentation to
topic and helps presented for does not fit the the actual topic
the audience the topic. The required areas to coverage or the
understand the pacing be discussed in audience
story. (arrangement the topic.
of topics and Audience is not
rhythm) is consistently
relatively engaged.
engaging for
the learners
 Images Images create Images create An attempt was Little or no
a atmosphere an atmosphere made to use attempt to use
or tone that or tone that images to create images to
matches the matches some an create an
different parts parts of the atmosphere/tone appropriate
of the topic. topic. The but it needed atmosphere or
The images images may more work. tone.
may communicate Image choice is
communicate abstract logical.
abstract concepts of the
concepts of the topic.
topic.
Economy The topic is toldThe topic The topic seem The topic
with exactly composition is needs more needs
right amount of typically good, editing. It is extensive
detail though it noticeably too editing. It is too
throughout. It seems to drag long or too short short or too
does not seem somewhat or in more than one long to be
to short nor need slightly section. interesting.
does it seem to more detail in
long. one or two
sections.
Grammar Grammar and Grammar and Grammar and Repeated
usage were usage were usage were errors in
correct (for the correct (for the typically correct grammar and
dialect chosen) dialect chosen) but errors usage
and contributed and errors did detracted from distracted
to clarity style not detract from topic. greatly from
and topic the topic. topic.
development.

CHAPTER 8
Theories of Intelligence
As a teacher, you will be faced with students with varied abilities. Some are able to process information
and score high on tests instantaneously while others may need more facilitation to be able to understand a
concept well. There is no clear consensus on the definition of intelligence. Piaget defined intelligence as
thinking or behavior that is adaptive (Sigelman, 2009). If you are to ask yourself, how do you define
intelligence? A number of traits to describe the term will surely emerge. This is true with the other experts
who offered different definitions, most of them centering on the ability to think abstractly or to solve problems
effectively (Sternberg, 1984). Early definitions of intelligence tended to reflect the assumption that intelligence
reflects innate ability; genetically determined and thus fixed at conception. But it has become clear that
intelligence is not fixed, that it is changeable and subject to environmental influence (Mangels, Butterfield,
Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006). As a result, an individual's intelligence test scores sometimes vary
considerably over a lifetime. Bear in mind that understanding of this complex human quality has changed
since the first intelligence tests were created at the turn of the last century-and that there is still no single,
universally accepted definition of intelligence.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze the functions of intelligence in enhancing learning experiences.

PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN DIVERSITY: UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is an "adaptive thinking or action." Piaget highlighted that it centers in some way
on the ability to think abstractly or to solve problems effectively (Lerner et al., 2005). The study
of intelligence (usually expressed in Intelligence Quotient (1Q or General Mental Ability (G) terms) dates from
at least the beginning of the twentieth century and has provided a foil against which other approaches to
cognitive development have railed. The effort to simulate cognitive processes using computer pro gramming
techniques has in turn provided a demanding criterion against which claims for the adequacy of accounts of
cognitive development have often been evaluated. The following approaches and theories offer integral
knowledge on how we understand intelligence.

The Psychometric Approach

According to psychometric theorists, intelligence is a trait or a set of traits that characterizes
some people to a greater extent than others. The goals, then, are to identify these traits
precisely and to measure them so that differences among individuals can be described.

The General Mental Ability

Early on, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence
consisting of a general mental ability (called g) that contributes to performance on many
different kinds of tasks. This g factor is what accounts for Spearman's observation that
people were often consistent across a range of tasks.
Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence has
two aspects: general ability or g, and special abilities or s
as each of which is specific to a particular kind of task.

Louis Thurstone later analyzed test scores obtained by eighth graders and
college students and identified seven fairly distinct factors that he called
primary mental abilities:
1. Spatial ability
2. Perceptual speed (the quick noting of visual detail)
3. Numerical reasoning (arithmetic skills)
4. Verbal meaning (defining words)
5. Word fluency (speed in recognizing words)
6. Memory
7. Inductive reasoning (formation of a rule to describe a set of observations)

The Fluid and Crystallized Abilities

Raymond Cattell and John Horn assumed that

intelligence is made up of fluid intelligence and
crystallized intelligence.
1. Fluid Intelligence is the ability to use one's mind
actively to solve novel problems for example, to solve
verbal analogies, remember unrelated pairs of words or
recognize relationships among geometric figures.
2. Crystallized Intelligence in contrast, is the use of
knowledge acquired through schooling and other life
experiences.

The two approaches in understanding abilities

provide essential information on how intelligence test scores are better understood. So how can we as
teachers make meaning of the test scores and apply them to our teaching? First, we must understand that
psychological tests are tools. Like tools, their effectiveness depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of
the user. So as teachers, we should be careful and address the following areas:
1. Avoid unwarranted stereotypes and negative expectations about students based on IQ scores.
2. Don't use the IQ scores as the main or sole characteristic of competence.
3. Especially be cautious in interpreting the meaningfulness of an overall IQ score.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

 Howard Gardner rejects the idea that a single IQ score is a meaningful
measure of human intelligence. Gardner argues that there are at least
eight distinct intellectual abilities. Gardner employed a set of indicators
before a certain ability be qualified as an "intelligence," which he called
the eight criteria for identifying an intelligence (Gardner & Moran, 2006).
1. Isolation as a Brain Function
Certain brain areas are identified in cases of brain injury and
degenerative disease, to identify actual physiological locations for
specific brain functions. A true intelligence will have its function identified
in a specific location in the human brain.

2. Prodigies, Savants and Exceptional Individuals

Human record of genius such as Mozart being able to perform on the
piano at the age of four and other people displaying unique abilities
whether it may be in music, mathematics or the languages, the evidence of specific human abilities which
can demonstrate themselves to high degrees in unique cases is a criterion for identification of an intelligence.
Highly developed examples of a true intelligence are recorded in rare occurrences.

3. Set of Core Operations

There is an identifiable set of procedures and practices which are unique to each true intelligence. For
example, in understanding language, there are letters and words; in music, there are musical notes; in logico-
mathematical, numbers.

4. Developmental History with an Expert End Performance

As experts continue to study the developmental stages of human growth and learning, a clear pattern
of developmental history is being documented of the human mind. It has an identifiable set of stages of growth
with a Mastery Level which exists as an end state in human development. We can see examples of people
who have reached the mastery level for each intelligence.

5. Evolutionary History
As cultural anthropologists continue to study the history of human evolution, there is adequate evidence
that our species has developed intelligence over time through human experience.

6. Supported Psychological Tasks

Clinical psychologists can identify sets of tasks for different domains of human behavior. A true
intelligence can be identified by specific tasks which can be carried out, observed, and measured.

7. Supported Psychometric Tasks

The use of psychometric instruments to measure intelligence (such as I.Q tests) have traditionally been
used to measure only specific types of ability. However, these tests can be designed and used to identify and
quantify true unique intelligences. The Multiple Intelligence theory does not reject psychometric testing for
specific scientific study.

8. Encoded Into a Symbol System

Humans have developed many kinds of symbol systems over time for varied disciplines. A true
intelligence has its own set of images it uses which are unique to itself and are important in completing its
identified set of tasks. From the eight criteria, the eight multiple intelligences were developed.
 1. Linguistic Intelligence (language skills,
as seen in the poet's facility with words)
2. Logical-mathematical Intelligence (the
abstract thinking and problem solving
shown by mathematicians and
scientists as emphasized by Piaget)
3. Musical Intelligence (based on acute
sensitivity to sound patterns)
4. Spatial Intelligence (most obvious in
great artists who can perceive things
accurately and transform what they
see)
5. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence (the
intelligent" movement shown by
dancers, athletes, and surgeons)
6. Interpersonal Intelligence (social intelligence, social skill, exceptional sensitivity to other people's
motivations and moods)
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (understanding of one's own feelings and inner life
8. Naturalistic Intelligence (the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural ar human-
made systems)

It is important to consider that when it comes to Gardner's theory, everyone has all the intelligences. The
intelligences are not mutually exclusive - they act in consort to complement one another. The theory was
designed not to exclude individuals, but to allow all people to contribute to society through their own strengths.

Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Another interesting theory of intelligence was proposed by Robert Sternberg,

the triarchic theory of intelligence that emphasizes three aspects of intelligent
behavior: components, context, and experience.
a. Componential Intelligence. Ability to think abstractly, process
information effectively.
b. Contextual Component. Intelligent people adapt to the environment they
are in (for example, a job setting), shape that environment to make it suit them
better, or find a better environment. Such people are "street smarts."
c. Experiential Component. What is intelligent when one first encounters
a new task is not the same as what is intelligent after extensive
experience with that task.

Research Integration
Look for the article written by by Mangels et al. 2006, titled, “Why do beliefs about
intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model."
Discuss with your classmates the areas that would have implications to teaching students.
The study talks about how students' beliefs and goals can powerfully influence their
learning success. Those who believe intelligence is a fixed entity (entity theorists) tend to
emphasize performance goals; leaving them vulnerable to negative feedback and likely to disengage from
challenging learning opportunities. In contrast, students who believe intelligence is malleable (incremental
theorists) tend to emphasize learning goals' and rebound better from occasional failures. Guided by cognitive
neuroscience models of top-down, goal-directed behavior, we use event-related potentials (ERPs) to
understand how these beliefs influence attention to information associated with successful error correction.
Guide Questions:
1. What does it mean to be entity theorist? incremental theorist?
2. Which among the two beliefs do you think would be helpful for students to adopt? Why?
3. When you become a teacher, how would you address the learning needs of entity theorists?
incremental theorists?

Activity: My Talents and Abilities

Based on the discussions regarding intelligence, create a concept map of how you understand and would
define intelligence. Use the diagram below. From the culled information, discuss similarities and the
differences when it comes to you and your classmates' perspectives.

Filipino Learners Definition of Intelligence

Form groups of three (3) and interview a number of students (10 per level) about their beliefs
on intelligence. Record their responses in the table below. After ensuring consent, gather and
cluster the responses under common characteristics (e.g, physical appearance, self-
presentation, etc.). Lastly, ask the students' teachers about the types of learning experiences
that would enhance the students' intelligence. Discuss your output in class.

Level Student View of Common Types of

Number Intelligence Characteristics Experiences that
of the Views would enhance the
view (to be
answered by the
students teachers)
Kinder to Grade 3 1
2
3
 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Student View of Common Types of
Number Intelligence Characteristics Experiences that
of the Views would enhance the
view (to be
answered by the
students teachers)
Grade 4 to 6 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Student View of Common Types of
Number Intelligence Characteristics Experiences that
of the Views would enhance the
view (to be
answered by the
students teachers)
Grade 7 to 10 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ASSESS
Based on the concepts presented to you and the activities you accomplished, write an
analysis of the functions of intelligence in enhancing learning experiences. Use the following
guide questions:
1. How do you think one's personal background affect one's view of intelligence?
2. Do you think Filipinos should have their own definition of intelligence? Why or why not?
3. How would the information presented above affect the way you view the educational system?
4. How do intelligence function in relation to understanding one's learning experiences?

Pre Final Module

CHAPTER 9
Cognitive Development and It's Pedagogical Implications

The previous chapters in this section started with discussions pertaining to the structure and function
of the brain to discussing various theories leading to the development of cognition. It proceeded to discussing
intelligence theories and you were asked to formulate your definition of intelligence and analyze how varied
definitions pertaining to intelligence are. In this chapter, we will review different teaching approaches and
various teaching implications when it comes to understanding cognitive development and intelligence. At the
end of the chapter, you will be asked to develop teaching strategies to promote cognitive functioning.

Intended Learning Outcome (|LO)

Develop teaching strategies that promote cognition.

How is knowing about brain functioning integral in developing teaching strategies for
children? Children will have more difficulty focusing their attention and maintaining it for very
long in early childhood, but their attention will improve as they move through the elementary
school years. This is due to the myelination process. Myelination happens fastest during infancy when
processing of external environment is important (the child realizes that the environment is not an extension
of himself/herself).
The following are teaching strategies to teach learners based on Piaget's cognitive development
theory:
Teaching Strategies for Working with Preoperational Thinkers
a. Have children manipulate groups of objects.
b. Involve children in social interactions to reduce egocentrism
c. Ask children to make comparisons. These might involve such concepts as bigger, taller, wider,
heavier, and longer.
d. Give children experience in ordering operations.
e. Have children draw scenes with perspective.
f. Construct an inclined plane or hill. Let children roll marbles of various sizes down the plane. Ask them
to compare how quickly the different-size marbles reach the bottom. This should help them understand
the concept of speed.
g. Ask children to justify their answers when they draw conclusions.

Teaching Strategies for Working with Concrete Operational Thinkers

a. Encourage students to discover concepts and principles.
b. Involve children in operational tasks. These include adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, ordering,
seriating, and reversing.
c. Plan activities in which students practice the concept of ascending and descending classification
hierarchies.
d. Include activities that require conservation of area, weight, and displaced volume.
e. Create activities in which children order and reverse order.
f. Continue to ask students to justify their answers when they solve problems
g. Encourage children to work in groups and exchange thoughts with each other.
h. Make sure that the materials in the classroom reach enough to stimulate students' question,
i. When trying to teach anything complex, create props and visual aids.
j. Encourage students to manipulate and experiment in science, use concrete materials in mathematics,
create and act out in language arts, and discuss their perspectives with each other and take field trips
in social studies.

Teaching Strategies for Working with Formal Operational Thinkers

a. Realize that many adolescents are not full-pledged formal operational thinkers.
b. Propose a problem and invite students to form hypotheses about how to solve it.
c. Present a problem and suggest several ways it might be approached.
d. Select a particular problem that is familiar to the class and ask questions related to it.
 e. Ask students to discuss their prior conclusions.
f. Develop projects and investigations for students to carry out.
g. Encourage students to create hierarchical outlines when you ask them to write papers.
h. Recognize that adolescents are more likely to use formal operational thinking in the areas in which
they have the most expertise and experience.

Teaching Strategies for Applying Piaget's Theory to Children's Education

To sum it up, when Piaget's theory is to be considered, one must remember the following:
1. Take a constructivist approach. Piaget emphasized that children learn best when they are active and
seek solutions for themselves.
2. Facilitate rather than direct learning.
3. Consider the child's knowledge and level of thinking,
4. Use ongoing assessment. Individually constructed meanings cannot be measured by standardized
tests. Math and language portfolios (which contain work in progress as well as finished products),
individual conferences in which students discuss their thinking strategies, and written and verbal
explanations by students of their reasoning can be used to evaluate progress.
5. Promote the students' intellectual health.
6. Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration and discovery.

Piaget's Impact on Education

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget did not
specifically apply his theory to education, many educational programs are built upon the belief that children
should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally prepared (Lerner et al., 2005).
In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work. These
strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and peer teaching, and
helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking.

Vygotsky's Impact on Education

On the other hand, Vygotsky's theory also provided practical applications to education. Vygotsky
wanted to help build new society, and he deliberately set out to construct a theory that addressed practical
matters. As we have just seen, he tried to show how school instruction can promote child development, and
he offered a new concept, the zone of proximal development, to assess each child's potential for new learning.
If we want to know when a child is ready to learn, Vygotsky said, we cannot look at what the child can do
when working alone; we must see how far
ahead he can go when offered some assistance.
The zone of proximal development has captured the interest of a growing number of researchers. The
concept also has stimulated new interest in the teaching process itself - how adults can help children solve
problems or use strategies that are initially beyond their individual abilities. In one approach, the teacher
shows children how to summarize and clarify reading passages and then through "reciprocal teaching," the
children take turns being the teacher" and leading small groups of classmates in the use of the strategies.
The teacher continues to guide the process but tries to shift much of the responsibility to the children
themselves. The method seems to improve reading.
When it comes to intelligence, during childhood, IQ scores become more stable so that scores at one
point in time are generally consistent with scores obtained at a second point. Teachers should focus on how
to provide an environment that would support learning. Despite group stability, the scores of individuals can
fluctuate over time. Greater changes are evident when children grow up in unstable environments. This entails
points of reflection for teachers: "Am I providing the best possible environment for my students? What is it
that I can do to improve their abilities to understand more?"
Overall, there is both continuity and change in IQ scores during childhood; IQ scores remain stable
for many children, and mental age rise (Mangels et. al., 2006). On the other hand, creativity increases
throughout early childhood and remains stable dips during elementary school, possibly in response to societal
expectations to conform (Hark, 2010). Creativity is associated with playfulness, openness to new
experiences, and originality, but is largely independent of intelligence.

Research Integration
 Based on the two journal articles you read, (1. Child Development in Developing countries
1- Developmental potential in the first 5 years in developing countries and 2. Why do
beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive
neuroscience model) design an educational activities for learners. Form a group of five (5)
to accomplish the educational activities. The activities can be for helping young children learn reading, math
or enhance their critical thinking, etc. The activity should include what areas they will be developing, how it
will be developed, the process of assessment and
the specific areas to which the two articles were integrated. Use the format below.

Format of the Educational Activities

Description of the activities
1. Need Statement: Include a well-documented, compelling description of the problem or need(s) that
the proposed activities to address.
2. Cognitive development theory and intelligence theory bases: Discuss what areas of the theories you
made use of and why is there a need to highlight that.
3. Activities Development: Develop activities for young learners focusing on the areas you learned.
Rubrics for Educational Activities
Components At Standard (10) Approaching Below standard (3)
standard (6)
Needs, Goals, and Outlines comprehensive Outlines minimally Documentation is
Objectives, Theory Use process for assuring adequate process for developed for some of
conformity with all assuring conformity the elements. No
elements of the selected with all elements of the theory mentioned.
components of the selected component.
project. The processes The processes are
are outlined in detail to outlined to include
include procedures to be procedures to be
implemented. Theories implemented. Theory
were explained in detail. was mentioned but
alignment is lacking
Project implementation A professional appearing A professional A plan for the provision
plan presentation is developed appearing of projects and
that outlines a presentation is services is develop.
comprehensive plan for developed that
the provision of project outlines a plan for the
offers opportunities for the provision of projects.
development of cognition. The project offers
Challenges to opportunities for
implementation are development.
outlined in the
presentation and
implications are
highlighted.
Evaluation, Potential Risk Identify a critical issue for Identifies an issue for Identifies a minor issue
and Sustainability learning process that the learning process for learning process
would clearly impact the that is not likely to that would not impact
delivery of the projects impact the delivery of the delivery of service,
and services, accurately the project and does not accurately
identifies the objectives services and identifies the goals and
and goals of the project. accurately identifies objectives of the
the goals and project.
objectives of the
project.
 The Educational Activities
Present your educational activities to the class, have your classmates comments on your work
and give suggestions on how to improve the activities your group developed. Use the table below in recording
their comments.
Name/s
Section and specialization
Area Comments/ suggestions How were comments and
suggestions addressed?

Present your revised activities to experts and have them comment on your work. Ask 3 parents
of your intended group to give their opinions too.

Expert’s Comment

Expert’s Comment

Expert’s Comment

ASSESS
Self-Reflection
The Strategies of the Activities
You did well in accomplishing a major feat in the study of the development of children and
adolescents. The developed activities may soon be reality, if you wish to pursue and make it
a reality. In this part answer the following questions:
1. What teaching strategies will you use in facilitating cognitive development among learners?
2. How would you assess the levels of development based on the strategies proposed?

Language and Literacy Development of Children and Adolescents

In the span of just a few years, newborn infants who neither speak nor understand any language
become young children who comment, question, and express their ideas in the language of their community.
The transition from the stage of the pre-linguistic infant to the linguistically competent four-year-old follows a
predictable developmental course. Language is a critical factor in children's adjustment. Deficits in language
development have been linked to social problems, conduct problems, and delinquency (Spilt, Koomen, &
Harrison, 2015). This section provides you with what you need to know when it comes to how language
develops and the way children eventually understands what is being said and what they just read.

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Develop pedagogical framework of language learning practices in the K-12.

CHAPTER 10
Principles of Language Development
This chapter gives you a background of how language is learned and the psychological theories
concerning language development.
Language is defined as a communication system in which a limited number of signals that can be
sounds or letters (or gestures, in the case of the sign language used by deaf people) – can be combined
according to agrecd-upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages (Sigelman & Rider, 2009).

Intended Learning Outcome (|LO)

Distinguish the functions between first and second language in the delivery of instruction.

To master a spoken language such as Filipino, a child must learn basic sounds, how sounds
are combined to form words, how words are combined to form meaningful statements, what
words and sentence mean and how to use language effectively in social interactions.
Language development of course, plays a crucial; role in education. It is the principal medium of instruction
both through the air and in written form as well as affecting social interaction and development in all areas.
How well children acquire language will have a marked effect on their academic performance and their social
adjustments.

Five Basic Components of Language

1. Phonemes are the basic units of sound in any given language. These are sounds we create with the
letters of the alphabet. Infants are sensitive to the rhythm and intonation of language-the vibration in
pitch, loudness and timing used when saying words or sentences and often considered the “melody”
of speech.
2. Morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit of speech; it may be a word, like “place” or “an<” or an
element of a word like re-and -ed as in “reappeared”
3. Syntax is the structure of language-the grammar. It is the rearrangement of words into a sentence
that make sense in a given language. Syntax also refers to the rules and principles that govern the
sentence structure in a given language, i.e., how words and phrases may be joined.
4. Semantics or Meaning of Language. Infants come to understand many words before they can
produce them. That is, comprehension (reception) is ahead of production (or expression) in language
development. Ten-month-old can comprehend, on average, about 50 words.
5. Pragmatics refers to the use of application of language. It is typically viewed as a social aspect of
language. Pragmatics is about applying language so that others will understand what are you trying
to convey. For example, someone who is good at pragmatics may be able to say one thing and convey
a completely different message, if needed someone who is good at pragmatics may be able to say
one thing and convey a completely different message.
The course that language development follows is the result of concurrent processes of development
in the several domains that together constitute knowledge of language.
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
The earliest theory about language development assumed that children acquire language through
imitation (Menyuk & Brisk, 2005). While research has shown that children who imitate the actions of those
around them during their first year of life are generally those who also learn to talk nor quickly. There is also
evidence that imitation alone cannot explain how children become talkers (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). The
following theories explain how children learn their language.

The Nativist Perspective: Noam Chomsky

What is the nature of the human capacity to acquire language? This question can be conceptualized
in the following manner: The human capacity for language is a device residing in the human brain that takes
as its input certain information from the environment and produces as its output the ability to speak and
understand a language. Everything that is part of adults' knowledge of language (.e, the output of the device)
must either be in the input, be in the internal device, or somehow result from the way the device operates on
the input it receives. Noam Chomsky. (1965) termed this capacity the Language Acquisition Device (LAD),
and this particular way of posing the question still tends to be made explicit only by those taking a generative
grammar approach to the study of language acquisition. However, this conceptualization makes clear two
criteria that must apply to all candidate explanations of how children learn to talk. To wit, any proposed
account of the language acquisition process must be consistent with two sets of facts: (a) the input that
children receive and (b) the competence that they acquire.
Noam Chomsky's theory on language development explain that the nativist perspective believes that
nature is most crucial in the process of language development. According to Chomsky, throughout the
universe, infants have an inborn mechanism for acquiring syntax knowledge in any culture and society, also
known as universal grammar. In addition, the language acquisition device is an inborn mechanism that allows
infants to learn and manipulate deep grammatical structures. Through hypothesis testing, children use natural
mechanisms to teach themselves various aspects of language use.
The Cognitive Development Theory Perspective: Jean Piaget
Like the nativist theory, in accordance with Jean Piaget's theory on cognitive development, the
cognitive developmental perspective believes that nature is most crucial in the
process of language development (Lerner, Easterbrooks, & Mistry, 2005). Though,
in contrast to the nativist theory, the cognitive developmental theory does not state
a specifc inborn mechanism as part of the developmental process. Rather,
language development occurs according to stages of cognitive development. For
example, object permanence is an important stage of cognitive development that
must occur before language appears. According to Piaget, language appears when
one has the ability to represent symbols in the mind. This leads to the creation of
words, which leads to language acquisition.
The Behaviorist Perspective: BF Skinner
In contrast to the nativist and cognitive developmental perspectives, the
behaviorist perspective believes that nurture is most crucial in the process of
language development. According to B. E. Skinner's behaviorist theory, language is taught through various
reinforcements in the environment (De Bot & Shrauf, 2009). Infants learn to associate certain stimuli with
certain behaviors and responses. With continued reinforcement, infants learn appropriate responses and
behaviors, which lead towards language development. For example, through operant conditioning, infants
learn what sounds elicit certain responses. Infants repeat sounds that elicit positive responses. Continued
positive responses from parents reinforce infants' behaviors to certain situations. Besides behaviors, operant
conditioning supports imitative speech in that young children imitate speech sounds they hear and continue
to do so with positive responses from adults. With continued positive reinforcement in the environment,
infants, toddlers, and young children have positive outcomes in their language development. As this
perspective relies heavily on reinforcement, this perspective cannot explain the reasoning behind children's
made-up words.
The Interactionist Perspective: Lev Vygotsky
Like the behaviorist theory, the interactionist theory believes that nurture is crucial in the process of
language development. Though, the interactionist perspective differs from the behaviorist perspective in that
this perspective believes that language is acquired through social interaction in the environment, not
reinforcement. With a focus on pragmatic knowledge, infants, toddlers, and children enhance their language
acquisition through communication in various social environments. In accordance with Vygotsky's theory,
social interaction is most important in acquiring skills. This is so because, as language acquisition is
influenced by one's surroundings, Vygotsky theorized that social interaction is important in helping children
acquire language according to societal and cultural norms of their community. The interactionist perspective
also focuses on the process of language development, which builds on the ideas of all theoretical
perspectives of language development (Burkholder, E. O. and Pelaez, 2000). Furthermore, in accordance
with the language acquisition support system, infants, toddlers, and children develop language knowledge
through environmental motivators and effort to understand and acquire all aspects of language, including
interaction patterns, the communication loop, and communication skills, such as listening and responding.

Stages in Speech Development

1. Primitive or Natural Stage (birth to about two years). This is characterized by three non-intellectual
speech functions:
a. Emotional release
b. Social reactions
c. Substitutes for objects and desires. These are words learned by conditioning, by parents and
siblings matching the words frequently to objects.
2. Naive Psychology. Children discover that words can have a symbolic function, and they display this
discovery by frequently asking what things are called.
3. Egocentric Speech. Takes the form of a running monologue that accompanies the child’s activities,
whether the child works alone or beside others. Vygotsky viewed as an important new tool of thought-
not only do children think to speak, but what they say to themselves influences what they then will
think, so the two interact to produce together conceptual or verbal thought. Vygotsky studied
egocentric speech in terms of task difficulty and age trends.
4. Ingrowth Stage. Children learn to manipulate language in their heads in the form of soundless
speech, thinking by means of logical memory that employs inner signs for solving problems.
Table 10.1
The Language Development Chart*
Age of Child Typical Language Development
6 Months -Vocalization with intonation
-Responds to his name
-Responds to human voices without visual cues by turning his head and eyes
-Responds appropriately to friendly and angry tones
12 Months -Uses one or more words with meaning (this may be a fragment of a word)
-Understands simple instructions, especially if vocal or physical cues are given
-Practices inflection
-Is aware of the social value of speech
18 Months -Has vocabulary of approximately 5-20 words
-Vocabulary made up chiefly of nouns
-Some echolalia (repeating a word or phrase over and over
-Much jargon with emotional content
-Is able to follow simple commands
24 Months -Can name a number of objects common to his surroundings
-Is able to use at least two prepositions, usually chosen from the following: in, on, under
-Combines words into a short sentence-largely noun-verb combinations (mean) -length
of sentences is given as 1.2 words
-Approximately 2/3 of what child says should be intelligible
-Vocabulary of approximately 150-300 words
-Rhythm and fluency often poor
-Volume and pitch of voice not yet well-controlled
-Can use two pronouns correctly: I, me, you, although me and I are often confused
-My and mine are beginning to emerge
-Responds to such commands as “show me your eyes (nose, mouth, hair)"
36 months -Use pronouns I, you, me correctly.
-Is using some plurals and past tenses
 -Knows at least three prepositions, usually in, on, under
-Knows chief parts of body and should be able to indicate these if not name
-Handles three-word sentences easily
-Has about 900-1000 words
-About 90% of what child says should be intelligible
-Verbs begin to predominate
-Understands most simple questions dealing with his environment and activities
-Relates his experiences so that they Can be followed with reason
-Able to reason out such questions as what must you do when you are sleepy,
hungry, cool, or thirsty?"
-Should be able to give his sex, name, age
-Should not be expected to answer all questions even though he understands
what is expected
48 months -Knows names of familiar animals
-Can use at least four prepositions or can demonstrate his understanding of
their meaning when given commands
-Names common objects in picture books or magazines
-Knows one or more colors
-Can repeat 4 digits when they are given slowly
-Can usually repeat words of four syllables
-Demonstrates understanding of over and under
-Has most vowels and diphthongs and the consonants p, b, m, w, n well
established
-Often indulges in make-believe
-Extensive verbalization as he carries out activities
-Understands such concepts as longer, larger, when a contrast is presented
-Readily follows simple commands even though the 'stimulus objects are not
insight
-Much repetition of words, phrases, syllables, and even sounds
60 months -Can use many descriptive words spontaneously-both adjectives and adverbs
-Knows common opposites: big-little, hard-soft, heavy-light, etc
-Has number concepts of 4 or more
-Can count to ten
-Speech should be completely intelligible, in spite of articulation problems
-Should have all vowels and the consonants, m,p,b,h,w,kgt,d,n,ng,y (yellow)
-Should be able to repeat sentences as long as nine words
-Should be able to define common objects in terms of use (hat, shoe, chair)
-Should be able to follow three commands given without interruptions
-Should know his age
-Should have simple time concepts: morning, afternoon, night, day, later, after,
while, tomorrow, yesterday, today
-Should be using long sentences and should use some compound and
some complex sentences
-Speech on the whole should be grammatically correct
6 years -In addition to the above consonants these should be mastered: f6 years, v, sh, zh, th, 1
-He should have concepts of 7
-Speech should be completely intelligible and socially useful
-Should be able to tell one a rather connected story about a picture, seeing
relationships between objects and happenings
7 years -Should have mastered the consonants s-z, r, voiceless th, ch, wh, and the soft
g as in George
-Should handle opposite analogies easily: girl-boy, man-woman, flies-swims,
blunt-sharp short-long, sweet-sour, etc
-Understands such terms as: alike, different, beginning, end, etc
-Should be able to tell time to quarter hour
 -Should be able to do simple reading and to write or print many words
8 years -Can relate rather involved accounts of events, many of which occurred at
sometime in the past
-Complex and compound sentences should be used easily
-Should be few lapses in grammatical constrictions-tense, pronouns, plurals
-All speech sounds, including consonant blends should be established
-Should be reading with considerable ease and now writing simple
compositions
-Social amenities should be present in his speech in appropriate situations
-Control of rate, pitch, and volume are generally well and appropriately
established
-Can carry on conversation at rather adult level
-Follows fairly complex directions with little repetition
-Has well-developed time and number concepts

Research Integration

The presented information provided you with a number of things to consider when it comes
to observing the development of children when it comes to language learning. For your
research integration, look forthe article authored by Spilt et al., (2015) titled, Language
Development in the Early School Years: The Importance of Close Relationships with Teachers. This
longitudinal study examined developmental links between closeness in teacher-child relationships and
children's receptive language ability from the end of the preschool years into the early elementary years, while
controlling for changes in peer interaction quality and child behavioral functioning

Guide Questions:
1. How important is peer interaction in language development? What results were presented with regard
to how teachers impact children's language development.

2. How would you apply the findings to your discipline?

3. If you are to consider how teachers teach in the Philippines, would the results be the same as the
study? Why? Why not?

EXPLORE
Activity: Parent-Child Interactions
Directions: In this activity, you will work with your classmates and observe a parent/ caregiver
and a child communicate. The goal of the activity is to identify the usual scripts the parent gives
to the child and the scripts the child uses to respond.
1. Form a group composed of three people (this includes you).
2. Choose a parent/caregiver-child team, where the child is between 1 to 5 years old (12 – 60 months).
3. Get the appropriate consent from the child's parent to record the everyday conversations between the
parent and/or caregiver with the child.
4. Explain the purpose of the observation and recording to the parent/caregiver. Provide information that
the dyad can use the language they use at home (e.g Kapampangan and English or Ilocano and
Filipino).
5. Observe and record the conversations between parent/caregiver and child for 15 minutes per day for
five days (a total of 75 minutes or 1 hour and 15 minutes).
6. Transcribe the recordings.
7. Analyze the recordings with regard to the scripts used, Answer the following questions:
a. What are the usual topics discussed by the parent/caregiver and the child?
b. What scripts does the caregiver/parent tell the child when it comes to teaching the child about the
environment/values/other people?
c. How does the child respond?
8. Create a table showing the scripts used by the parent/caregiver and child. Use the format below.
 Day Number Topic of the Parent/Caregiver's Child’s response Language
Conversation Child's Response Development
theory Related in
the Conversation
1
2
3
4
5

Use the following rubrics in grading your output.

Topic Mark
Summary of the Paper (5)
The paper demonstrates three (3) or more language development theories in the
observations conducted
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives are Applied (5)
The paper integrates concepts from previous lessons that aided the understanding of
the current theories being studied.
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice were Provided (10)
The paper provides additional knowledge in understanding how language develops
among Filipino children and whether these are aligned with the theories presented.
The Activity and Relation to Practice were Presented (10)
The paper suggests teaching strategies that are informed by the language theories
learned.
Value of Activities were Discussed (5)
The paper provides insights to studying the course and how to become teachers in the
future.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The paper reflects how personal and teaching beliefs are enhanced and changed by
the presented activities and information.
Total (40)

Activity: Analyzing Scripts of Parent-Child Conversations

Directions: In this activity you will be analyzing the scripts you gathered with regard to the first
and second language use of the parents/caregivers.

1. Examine the transcripts of the recordings you got.

2. Check the areas where the parent/talked to the child in two languages.
3. Identify the child's first and second language (e,g first language is Filipino, second language is
English).
4. Note how the parent/ caregiver addresses the child (i.e. topics, choice of words).
5. Determine the similarities in the scripts using the first and second language.
6. Identify differences between how the first and second language are used.
7. Create a table showing the processes the parent/caregiver-child dyad used the two languages. Use
the table below.

Topic of the Dyad's scripts in Dyad's scripts in the Insights about

conversation the first language second language the conversation
 8. Present the findings to the class
You will be rated based on the following rubrics:
Topic Mark
Summary of the Paper (5)
The script analysis demonstrates three (3) or more language development theories in
the observations conducted.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives are Applied (5)
The script analysis integrates concepts from previous lessons that aided the
understanding of the current theories being studied.
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice were Provided
(10)
The script analysis provides additional knowledge in understanding how language
develops among Filipino children and whether these are aligned with the theories
presented.
The Activity and Relation to Practice were Presented (10)
The script analysis suggests teaching strategies that are informed by the language
theories learned.
Value of Activities were Discussed (5)
The script analysis provides insights to studying the course and how to become
teachers in the future.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The script analysis reflects how personal and teaching beliefs are enhanced and
changed by the presented activities and information.
Total (40)

ASSESS

A. Write a position paper on how, children learn their language when it comes to their first
and second language.
B. Based on the activities conducted answer the following questions:
1. What significant learnings were you able to get from the topic discussion?
2. What is the importance of understanding how language is taught at home?
3. How would teaching be designed when it comes to addressing the first language and second language
of students?

CHAPTER 11
Emergent Literacy
It is recognized that before learning how to read and write, children already acquire knowledge and
skills that are somewhat related to their reading and writing development which serves as the basis for the
recent change in the perspective of the development of reading and writing in young children. There is now
a compilation of studies that indicate that literacy begins to emerge very early on (Menyuk & Brisk, 2005).
Educators have stressed the importance of book reading to infants. This reading can play an important role
in oral and signed language acquisition as well as in the development of literacy. Research suggests that the
selection of books for reading to infants should place an emphasis on the relation between spoken or signed
utterances and the visual content of text. These books emphasize the relation between this visual input and
sound and sign language, and the case with which these books can be used in many one-to-óne interactions.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Generate possible uses of local literature in providing quality learning experience.

Emergent literacy refers to the behaviors of very young children which reflected an
understanding of reading and writing when children were not yet reading and writing in a
conventional sense (Rhyner, Haebig, & West, 2009). Emergent literacy knowledge refers to what the children
learn about reading and writing before they are considered as readers and writers while emergent literacy
skills are the ways that children demonstrate knowledge.

EMERGENT LITERACY KNOWLEDGE AS A CONTINUUM OF DEVELOPMENT

Emergent literacy represents the beginning of a continuum of literacy development
in children.
1. Literacy development begins early in life and long before formal literacy
instruction in school.
2. There is an interrelationship between oral language skills and written skills
such that the skills develop concurrently and interrelatedly rather than in
some sequence. In addition, children's cognitive development during early
childhood is important to their literacy development.
3. The functions of literacy are as important as the forms of literacy to the
child's literacy development in early childhood.
4. Children's active exploration of print within their environment and their
social interactions with adults (especially with their parents) within reading
and writing contexts provide important opportunities for adults to model
literacy behaviors for children to learn.
5. There is variability for typically developing children in the age and sequence of acquisition of emergent
literacy knowledge and skills across the continuum of literacy development.

The continuum suggests that as teachers, there is a need for early exposure to printed materials and to
constantly communicate with children to advance their literacy development. When children are read to and
the materials are presented before them, they. begin to understand the process of reading, what letters look
like and when letter sounds are combined, they form words.

Timing of the Emergent Literacy Stage

Emergent literacy stage denotes the period of time during which children acquire a variety of emergent
literacy knowledge and skills (Rhyner et al., 2009). The approximate timing of the stage for typically
developing children, is based on the concept of reading readiness which suggest that during preschool years,
there is a period of time in which children develop skills necessary for reading and writing. The emergent
literacy stage begins at birth and for normal developing children, it is expected to last until the age 5 before
entering school. As children enter school, they are now subjected to the use of formal instruction in reading
and writing

Perspectives on the Emergent Literacy Stage

In categorizing frameworks for Emergent Literacy stage, there are three main perspectives: a
developmental perspective, a components perspective, and a child and environmental influences perspective
(Rhyner et al., 2009).
The earliest frameworks offered more of a developmental perspective wherein the description of
changes in children's conceptual understanding about the reading process and/or emergent literacy skills
were more general. With increasing knowledge comes a shift in the perspective wherein emphasis was on
perspectives identifying component knowledge and skills associated with emergent literacy. Recent
frameworks reflect the growing belief that growth results from a complex interaction of child and environmental
values that is evident on the acknowledgement of the influence of child and environmental factors on
development during the emergent literacy stage.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
These developmental frameworks provide a general approach to describing changes in children
conceptual knowledge about literacy and/or emergent literacy skills. A common assumption of these
frameworks is that the understanding of the relationship between print and meaning occurs first followed by
an understanding of print form.

The Goodman (1986) Framework

This framework describes five areas in which children's knowledge and skills progress in developing the roots
of literacy. These areas are:
a. Print Awareness in Situational Context Can be observed when the child begins to learn and
recognize his/her environment.
b. Print Awareness in Discourse Occurs when the child is beginning to be exposed to print in books,
magazines, tabloids, and in electronic sources in which the child learns that each symbol that he/she
sees in print serve a particular purpose. Child then learns to manipulate media that they are being
exposed to like turning the pages of a book from left to right.
c. Functions and Forms of Writing Begins when the child writes by scribbling or drawing lines that
represent letters.
d. Oral Language to Talk About Written Language This occurs when the child begins to understand
that print has functions and he/she may begin to talk about it. A child may say that books convey
stories through the use of word and pictures.
e. Metacognitive and Metalinguistic Awareness about Written Language This is when the child
understands literacy terms and uses words to describe what he/she is reading,

The McCormick and Mason (1986) Framework

The framework devised by McCormick and Mason suggests that there is a hierarchy of knowledge and
skills when learning to read that children progress through.
a. Functions of Print Children’s understanding of literacy starts as being context-dependent wherein
children may start to read environmental print but are not able to read same exact environmental print
in other situations.
b. Form of Print Since the child is now centered on the forms of print rather than the functions of print
which enable them to apply phonetic analysis in which they learn about the structures of print rather
than being context dependent. They now learn about grapheme-phoneme and experiment using their
increased reading exposure.
c. Coordination of the Form of Print and Function of Print. Since children in this stage have now
skills for both form and function, they can now use it simultaneously in order for them to read. They
now have clearer and more efficient ways to decode printed words and also give attention to word
meanings.

Strommen and Mates (2000) Framework

This framework originated from a longitudinal study which aims to determine whether children were
similar in their concepts about what readers do and demonstrated a similar sequence in their development of
these concepts. From this, emerged a set of six concepts about reading that are observed during the
emergent literacy stage. The six concepts are as follows:
1. Reading is one aspect of an interpersonal routine. Book reading is viewed as a social routine
2. Readers focus on the book. Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book is the focus
of the routine
3. Readers construct a sequenced account. They rely on the illustrations rather than the print to construct
a meaningful story.
4. Readers reconstruct a specific amount. They recognize that the content of a story is unique to each
book; in reconstructing a story, the words can change or stay the same.
5. Readers refer to print to reconstruct texts. Printed text is needed to reconstruct a story; however, the
relationship between decoding print and reading is not always understood.
6. Readers reconstruct texts by using multiple strategies to interpret the language decoded by print-
there is the understanding that they must accurately interpret written language using variety of
language and decoding strategies in addition to illustrations in order to be able to read which the book
itself has a minor role.
.
The Van Kleeck Framework
In this framework, van Kleeck identifies two stages of emergent literacy wherein children
acquire knowledge and skills.
a. First stage (infancy: 3 to 4 years): During the first stage, children get exposed to print and therefore
they discover that print is meaningful. During shared book readings, print-mean relationship can both
 be observed in the behavior of the adult and the child. Children also learn to rhyme and name letters
as well as retell stories upon looking at pictures in books.
b. Second stage: During the second stage, children learn print form and early form-meaning
correspondences while learning about print meaning They learn how to write letters and match these
according to their sounds, create detailed stories, and be able to predict events in stories even if it is
orally read to them.

COMPONENTS PERSPECTIVE
In contrast to developmental frameworks, the primary focus of the component’s perspective is on the
specific knowledge and skills that characterize the emergent literacy stage. In other words, the components
frameworks attempt to address the questions (1) What do children learn about reading and writing
(Knowledge) before they are readers and writers in the conventional sense? and (2) How do they demonstrate
that knowledge (skills)?
The Storch and Whitehurst (2002) Framework
This framework is based on the perspective that children gain literacy knowledge and skills throughout
the stage that influence literacy development later on. This framework categorizes children's emergent
literacy skill and knowledge into two:

1. Code-related Skills Components

a. Conventions of print (directionality of reading)
b. Beginning forms of writing (e.g., writing one's name)
c. Grapheme knowledge (e.g., identifying letters of the alphabet)
d. Grapheme-phoneme correspondence (e.g., knowledge that the letter m makes the /m/ sound)
e. Phonological awareness (e.g., knowledge that the word "book" begins with a /b/ sound)
2. Oral Language Skills
a. Semantic knowledge (work knowledge, expressive and receptive vocabulary
b. Syntactic knowledge (knowledge of word order and grammatical rules)
c. Narrative discourse (telling a story)
d. Conceptual knowledge (knowledge of the world)
According to this framework, these skills that the child acquires during emergent literacy would later
form the foundation of conventional literacy. During preschool and kindergarten, code-related skills and oral-
language skills have a strong reciprocal relationship which diminishes and becomes independent of each
other. For the first and second grade, code-related skills continue to affect a child's reading development
while oral language skills have little to no influence on the child% reading development. In the third and fourth
grades, oral language skills have an indirect effect on the child’s reading comprehension.

The Van Kleeck (1998, 2003)

This framework demonstrates the interrelationship among four components which are:
a. The context processor: Enables children to comprehend and interpret text that is being read to them
before they can read and that they will read themselves later on in their literacy development, Context
processor skills include world knowledge, syntactic knowledge, narrative development, book
conventions, abstract language, and functions of print.
b. The meaning processor: Important to children's ability to apply lexical knowledge to the meanings
of individual words. Meaning processor skills include word awareness and vocabulary development.
c. The orthographic processor: Involves the ability to recognize individual letter units that enable the
child to identify individual letters and consequences of letters, Orthographic skills include print
convention and letter knowledge.
d. The phonological processor: Enables the child to use phonological awareness skills to convert
meanings of individual words. printed letter into sounds and sound sequences. Phonological
processor skills include syllable segmentation, rhyming, and phoneme segmentation.

CHILD AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES PERSPECTIVE

The most recent frameworks for the emergent literacy stage reflect the growing acknowledgement of
child development studies across various disciplines that a child's progression
through different stages results from the influence of child and environmental factors either acting separately
or in some complex interaction.

The McNaughton (1955) Framework

Emerging from McNaughton's socialization model of child development, this framework suggests that
a child's emergent literacy development is structured within initial family experiences built from specific
activities, and formed into systems of expertise, which then are applicable in some way to all of child's primary
environments. There are four distinct and identifiable components of family literacy practices which results to
the child's learning and development. These are:
a. Family practices: Are how children are socialized, thus creating ways of thinking, acting, and using
language that are considered appropriate by various cultural and social communities with which the
family identifies. This results to children being exposed to written language within different contexts.
b. Activities: Literacy activities can also be observed in reading and writing activities done by the family.
Said activities can have rules and goals and can be accomplished alone, with members of the family
or the whole family.
c. Systems for learning and development: These occur within the family and interact with the activities
that provide learning contexts. "There are two systems of learning and development, the first is when
the family is involved in activities with the child and the second is when the child explores writing and
reading alone. Through these systems the child develops expertise.
d. Relationships between settings: These influences how child learns and develops different areas of
expertise when participating in similar activities within and across a variety of settings.

The Wasik and Hendrickson (2004) Framework

In this framework, there are four major variables that influence literacy development in young children.
a. Parental Characteristics
1. Culture and ethnicity: affect areas such as expectations for education, patterns for language,
preferences for types of literacy activities, and the structures. of tasks.
2. Parental beliefs: these include family’s beliefs about the role of the educational system in the
literacy development of their children.
3. Socioeconomic status of the family: can affect how much time spent in literacy development of
children, financial resources and underlying purpose of these activities.
b. Child Characteristics: This includes the child's level of engagement and interaction in literacy-
related activities, language proficiency, cognitive abilities, developmental achievements, motivation,
attention, and health conditions that can affect language and literacy development.
c. Home Literacy Environment: This includes book sharing between parents and children, parents
reading aloud with their children, print materials being available to the children, and positive attitudes
of parents toward literacy activities. This includes direct and indirect literacy-related events. Activities
where the child engages fall under direct literacy-related activities while child learning through
observation of others as they engage in activities fall under indirect literacy- related activities.
d. Parent-Child Relationships: The literacy-interaction between the child and his/her parent nurture
the child's emergent literacy skills and the absence of such is detrimental to the child's emergent
literacy development.

Research Integration

Look for the journal article authored by Foster, Lambert, Abbott-Shim, McCarty, & Franze's
(2005), “A model of home learning environment and social risk factors in relation to
children's emergent literacy and social outcomes”. You may use your web browser or
use your library's journal subscriptions in looking for the study. The article examined the relationships between
family variables (socioeconomic status (SES), social risk factors, and home learning variables) and children's
emergent literacy competence and children's social functioning. The sample for this study were 325 families
for which information about both child and primary caregiver was obtained from multiple sources (teacher,
outside assessor, and primary caregiver).
Guide Questions:
1. What insights did you get from the article when it comes to:
 a. parents' role in emergent literacy;
b. social risks and its effects to emergent literacy; and
c. implications to teaching children.
2. As a teacher, how would you encourage parent involvement in teaching literacy among your students?

Activity: Survey of Local Literature Promoting Emergent Literacy

This activity requires you to survey the available children literature in your province or
the place you are currently residing. The children’s books may be in English or in Filipino and
the goal of the activity s to localize (use materials available in the community) the books.
1. Form groups of three (3).
2. Look for at least five children's books that reflect the culture of the place you live in or the province
you are from.
3. Complete the table below:
Book Title Author Storyline (What is the Main Characters and
story about) their Characteristic

4. Answer the following questions:

a. What are the common themes across the books?
b. What are the salient characteristics of the main characters?
c. What values are being promoted by the book?
d. How do you think would the book contribute to emergent literacy?
Activity: Localized Children's Book
This activity will require you to work in groups and prepare a children's story book that
aims to promote literacy among your students. Consider the stories you were able to gather:
1. Begin your story and work on it until the end.
2. Select a local story you would want to work on.
3. Ask your other classmates to comment on your work.
4. Design the book pages when it comes to illustrations and color combination.
5. Consider the theories of emergent literacy development you read in the Engage part.
Your classmates will rate your story book based on this rubrics:
Topic Mark
Story Content (5)
The story is unique and is appropriate for the target age
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives Integrated in the Book (5)
Learning principles are evident in the presentation of the story
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
There is evidence of the theories in development in the stories created.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The stories present a concise representation of what the authors would want
to convey to the readers (e.g the morals of the story are presented explicitly).
Value of Activities (5)
The stories were formulated with quality and presentation is clear, coherent
and creative
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The story is inclined to the students' teaching and personal beliefs.
Total (40)
ASSESS

Activity: Exhibiting your Localized Children's Book

This activity will require you to present your stories to the experts and your target readers:
1. Show your story book to experts. The experts could be your teachers in other classes.
2. Read the book to a selected number of target readers, ask them if they are able to understand
it
You will be rated based on the following rubrics:
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The students were able to present the book contents properly and coherently.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The process of storytelling and providing processing questions demonstrate all
the learning principles learned so far
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The storytelling provided information for other to students to provide feedback
and constructively improve practice.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The stories present a concise representation of what the authors would want
to convey to the readers (e.g. the morals of the story are presented explicitly).
Value of Activities (5)
The stories were formulated with quality and presentation is clear, coherent and
creative.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The story is inclined to the students' teaching and personal beliefs.
Total (40)

CHAPTER 12
Language Development and It's Pedagogical Implications
It is important that educators are aware that there are children who acquire two or more languages
simultaneously or second language later in their education, and those with language learning problems.
Throughout this section, we have tried to indicate that there is a fair amount of variability in children's
knowledge and performance ability during different periods of development
and universals in what they know and what they can learn during these periods. Thus, the differences across
groups of children is one of degree rather than very sharp distinctions. Also, there is variation within groups
due to differences in the factors, cited above, that affect language development in all children. These
differences can speed up or slow down the development and affect the ways in which they learn language.
Students exposed to more than one language either from infancy or later are influenced in addition by a
number of personal and external factors.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze the importance of parental involvement in promoting emergent literacy among children.

Optimal language and literacy development in the language of instruction is a desirable

outcome. This development depends on internal characteristics of children as well as
instruction and family support. Children and families largely influence school success.
However, educators can have a significant impact. This impact depends on their expectations, instructional
and assessment practices, and willingness to help all children regardless of language and cultural background
or individual abilities to succeed. The following are suggestions for instruction to support such development.
Interventions for Developing Language and Facilitating Emerging Literacy Among Children
1. Use lots of vocalization interaction during the early months. This can lead to turn taking.
2. Use stressed, clearly intoned, and repeated utterances. This can lead to turn taking and active
participation.
3. Refer to objects, events, and qualities within sentences while showing and speaking to the child. This
leads to lexical development.
 4. Attend to and acknowledge the child's reference to objects, events, and qualities. This leads to further
lexical development and good affect.
5. Read to the child. This can help in emergent literacy.
6. Provide opportunities to scribble and draw. This can help in emergent literacy.
7. Additional suggestions for interventions with bilingual children.
When it comes to multilanguage learning, these suggestions were found effective in studies on emergent
literacy (Foster et al., 2005):
1. Reassure families that bilingualism is possible, desirable and supports language development
2. Speak to bilingual children in the same manner as to monolingual children. This will expose the child
to other languages in a natural way.
3. Address and include children who speak another language. This helps language development even
if they do not initially understand.
4. Use language consistently at the nursery and reassure parents that they should do so in the home.
This helps bilingual language development.
5. Suggest to parents that providing a good model of a language will assist children.
6. Help parents make the appropriate language choice for use with their child.
In addressing the needs of learners with disabilities, there are suggestions for interventions to effectively
facilitate their progress in language development:
1. Work cooperatively with the aid that accompanies the child.
2. Interact as normally as possible with these children.
3. Be aware of both the techniques that can be used to communicate with these children, and the
particular constraints that these children have in processing language information.
There seem to be certain pragmatic developments that are in the process of evolving during the high
school years. They are:
1. Having knowledge of the different registers that are required in certain situations.
2. Learning how to take the perspective of others in multiple ways such as listening to others, agreement
about turn taking, and sticking to the topic.
3. Varying the topics of conversation from personal to societal to world issues.
Below is a list of those pragmatic developments that occur during the high school years. These
developments may or may not be evident among students during these years.
In conversation
1. Increasing sensitivity to situational variables.
2. Use of variable registers
3. Better able to take perspective of other.

In connected discourse
1. Better organized narrative.
2. Clearer use of anaphora (use of a word referring to or replacing a word used earlier in a sentence).
3. Increasing distinctions in linguistic forms for different genres.

Implications of the Perspectives for Fostering Emergent Literacy Development

Developmental Perspective
This perspective aims to target knowledge and skills that are built upon one another in facilitating the
child towards conventional literacy. It is important to understand how children acquire emergent literacy
knowledge and skills. In order to determine child'% progress, McCormick and Mason (1980) stressed the
importance of giving evaluation to the child's emergent literacy development
For Strommen and Mates (2000), professionals must
1. Formulate a hypothesis regarding the child's idea of reading
2. Introduce new skills for and ideas about reading
3. Set goals for reading performance that consider the child's ideas about reading

Components Perspective
In developing a child's emergent literacy development, specific knowledge and skills must be identified
and targeted. Examples of these are print meaning and print form.
Print Meaning
 This centers on the idea that printed text contain meaning, Knowledge and skills related to print
meaning are important in the development of reading comprehension. In promoting print
meaning, activities such as dialogic and shared book reading are effective.
Print Form
Decoding abilities of children are dependent on the knowledge and skills of children in terms of print
form which can also aid in the skills and knowledge in phonological and orthographic processors as included
in the framework of Van Kleeck.

Child and Environmental Influences Perspective

The emphasis in this perspective falls on comprehensive family literacy practices that enable
children to achieve conventional literacy. The literacy environment of a child can also have positive
effects on the child's emergent literacy.
Combined Perspectives
Combining perspectives can offer a more comprehensive approach to intervention compared
to solely using one perspective.
Embedded- Explicit Approach
Basic goals involve development of basic literacy skill linked with reading achievement and positive
literacy learning attitude in children and an understanding of the function and intention of literacy via literacy-
embedded activities. The two goals reflect that of components perspective and child and environmental
influences perspective.

Research integration

Search your library collection of online journals for Senechal &

Lefevre's (2002) study. titled, Parental Involvement in the Development of Children's
Reading Skill: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study." In summary, the article presents the
findings of the final phase of a 5-year longitudinal study with 168 middle- and upper middle-
class children in which the complex relations among early home literacy experiences, subsequent receptive
language and emergent literacy skills, and reading achievement were examined., Answer the questions
regarding the article:

Guide Questions:
1. What is the implication of children's early exposure to books?
2. How do parents affect their children's early literacy skills?
3. What activities can you suggest with regard to promoting parental involvement in language and
literacy development?

Activity: Parental Involvement in Developing Literacy

As a group activity, you are required to interview two parents with regard to their practices in teaching
their kids to read.
1. Form groups of three (3).
2. Discuss among yourselves the parents (with a child aged between 3 to 10 years old) you would want
to interview.
3. Get the appropriate consent for the interview and set an interview schedule that is convenient to both
you and the parent-interviewee.
4. Use this interview guide:
a. What reading materials do you have at home?
b. What reading materials do you make available for your child to read?
c. How do you encourage your child to read? What activities do you do?
d. What are your child's interests when it comes to books or other reading materials? How did you
find out about these interests?
e. if you were to make a book for your child to read, what would it talk about? Why?
5. Put the answers in a table with the questions presented together with the parent's answers.
 6. Discuss the results of your interview in class.

Questions:
1. What insights did you get from the parents?
2. If you were a teacher, how would you design your classroom to support emergent literacy?

Activity: Designing a Mini-Lecture for Parents

In this activity, you are required to design a mini lecture for parents in a community regarding
the role of parental involvement in developing language and literacy among children. The output
of the activity will be submitted to your corresponding communities for consideration to be
implemented.
In this activity, you may need to get permission from the school and the community to allow you to
conduct the lecture. Ask your university's/college's extension office regarding the process involved in
coordinating with your institution's partner communities.
1. Form groups of five (5)
2. Decide on what area on language and literacy development you would like to discuss with parents.
3. Develop a concept paper for the mini-lecture following this format:
a. Title of the lecture
b. Rationale
c. Activity related to the topic
d. Proposed lecture
e. Facilitation questions
f. Evaluation
4. Ask the groups to comment on your concept Paper and rate you using the rubrics below:
Topic Mark
Story Content (5)
The mini lecture cover relevant topics for parents.
Previous Knowledge /Course Objectives Integrated in the Book (5)
Learning principles are evident in the presentation of the lecture.
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
There is evidence of the theories in the development of the mini-lecture
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The lecture presents a concise representation of what the students would want to
convey to the participants (e.g., importance of early support for language
development).
Value of Activities (5)
The lectures were formulated with quality and presentation is clear, coherent, and
creative.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The mini-lecture is inclined to the students' teaching and personal beliefs.
Total (40)
ASSESS
Write a reflection paper on the importance of parental involvement in literacy development.
Use the following guide questions:
1. How important is language and literacy development?
2. What roles do children's support systems have in developing literacy?
3. How do you see yourself contributing to your students literacy development

Final Module

Socio-Emotional Development of Children and Adolescents

 The area of emotions and social relations among learners is an interesting area to explore and study.
How children make friends, resolve conflicts, and how these are evident in their relationships as adults. This
section highlights stages and phases within the stages of emotional development covering the importance of
socialization in the development of gender preferences and orientation as well as the development of moral
judgment.
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)
Analyze the development of social identity and emotions of young learners.

CHAPTER 13
Theories of Socio-Emotional Development
Before the discussion of developmental theories that may explain the changes, one might see in a learner, it
is important to investigate how these theories are generally classified. Three broad models or world views
can be delineated by examining the assumptions of the developmental theories.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze the importance of varying and changing social identity among learners.

WORLDVIEWS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

The Organismic World View
The organismic worldview likens
humans to plants and other living organisms
(Haynes, 2009). In this view, human beings are organized
wholes or systems; they cannot be understood piece by piece,
or behavior by behavior, because they are greater than the
sum of their parts. In addition, humans are active in the
developmental process; forces springing from within
themselves, rather than environmental events, are primarily
responsible for their development. Do you see yourself as a
plant? What aspects of your experiences do you see yourself
grow from?
The Mechanistic World View
The mechanistic. world view likens human beings to
machines (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). More specifically, this model
assumes that humans (1) are a collection of parts (for example,
they can be analyzed behavior by behavior, much as machines can
be taken apart piece by piece); (2) are relatively passive in the
developmental process, changing mainly in response to outside
stimulation (much as machines depend on outside energy sources
to operate); (3) change gradually or continuously as parts, or
specific behavior patterns, are added or subtracted; and (4) can
develop along a number of different paths, depending on
environmental influences. How do you see yourself when it comes
to this view?

The Contextual World View

The contextual worldview offers as a metaphor for human
development, an ongoing historical event or drama, an ever-changing interplay of forces (Haynes, 2009). The
focus is on the dynamic
relationship between person and environment. Humans are active in the developmental process (as in the
organismic world view), and the environment is active as well (as in the mechanistic world view). The potential
exists for both qualitative and quantitative change, and development can proceed along many different paths
depending on the intricate interplay of internal and external influences.
Given the worldviews, a child's social and emotional development are explained through various
theories. A theory is a set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena. Basically, then, a
theory is a perspective of something (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). A good theory should help us better describe,
predict, and explain human development. Theories that fail to meet these evaluation Criteria-theories that are
not parsimonious, internally consistent, falsifiable, and supported need to be revised or ultimately discarded
altogether. Each theory makes a particular assumption or statement about the nature of socio-emotional
development.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

The Psychodynamic Theories: Freud, Erikson and Object Relations Theory
Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that behavior is motivated by inner forces.
memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control. These inner forces which
may stem from one's childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the lifespan.

Instincts and Motives

Central to Freud's psychoanalytic theory is the notion that human
beings have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied.
Freud viewed the newborn with two kinds of instincts, or inborn
biological forces that motivate behavior. The life instincts (eros) aim
for survival and direct life-sustaining activities such as breathing,
eating and reproducing, The death instincts (Thanatos) are
destructive forces that motivate us to harm others and even
ourselves. According to Freud, these biological instincts are the
source of the psychic (or mental) energy that fuels human behavior
and is channeled in new directions over the course of human
development. Freud strongly believed in unconscious motivation,
in the power of
instincts and other inner forces to influence behavior even though
they are not known to us. Freud's theory is highly biological in nature:
Biological instincts forces that often provide an unconscious motivation for our actions - are said to guide
human development.

Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud believed that each individual has a fixed amount of psychic energy that can be used to
satisfy basic urges or instincts and to grow psychologically. As the child develops, this psychic energy is
divided among three components of the personality: the id, the ego and the superego.
At birth, all the psychic energy resides in the id. The id is the impulsive, irrational part of the personality
whose entire mission is to satisfy the instincts. It obeys the "pleasure principle," seeking immediate
gratification, even when biological needs cannot be realistically or appropriately met. If you think about it,
young infants do seem to beall id" in many ways. When they are hungry or wet, they simply fuss and cry until
their needs are met; they are not known for their patience.
The second component of the personality is the ego, the rational side of the individual that operates
according to the reality principle'" and tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts. According to Freud,
the ego begins to emerge during infancy when psychic energy is diverted from the id to energize important
cognitive such as perception, learning, and problem solving, The hungry
toddler may be able to do more than merely cry when she is hungry; she may be able to draw on the resources
and be able to verbalize that she wants something. However, a toddler’s ego is still relatively immature; they
want now. As the ego matures further, children' become more and more able to postpone their pleasures until
a more appropriate time and to devise logical and realistic plans for meeting their needs.
The third part of the Freudian personality is the superego, the individual's internalized and moral
standards. The superego develops from the ego and strives for perfection rather than for pleasure or realism.
It begins to develop as 3 to 6-year-old children internalize (take on as their own) the moral standards and
values of their parents. Typically, it grows stronger as children continue to absorb the values of adults. Once
the superego emerges, children have parental voice in their heads that tells them that it would be wrong to
satisfy their ids by grabbing or stealing other children's snacks, and that voice makes them feel guilty or
ashamed when they do violate society's rules and standards. The superego insists that we find socially
acceptable or ethical outlets for the id's undesirable impulses.
The Psychosexual Stages of Development Theory
Freud viewed the sex instinct as the most important of the life instincts because the psychological
disturbances of his patients often revolved around childhood sexual conflicts. He maintained that, as the child
matures biologically, the sex instinct's psychic energy, which he called libido, shifts from one part of the body
to another over the years, seeking to gratify different biological needs. In the process, the child moves through
five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Table 13.1
The Psychosexual Stages*

Approximate Stage of Description Major Characteristics

Age Psychosexual
Stages
Birth to 12-18 Oral Libido is focused on the mouth Interest in oral gratification
months as a source of pleasure. from sucking, eating
Obtaining oral gratification mouthing, and biting
from a mother figure is critical
to later development.
12-18,months Anal Libido is focused on the anus, Gratification from expelling and
to 3 years and toilet training creates withholding feces; coming to
conflicts between the child's terms with society's controls
biological urges and society's relating to toilet training
demands.
Phallic Libido centers on the genitals. Interest in the genitals; coming to
3 to 5 years Resolution of the Oedipus or terms with Oedipal conflict,
Electra complex results in leading to identification with
identification with the same- same-sex parent
sex parent and development
of the superego.
5-6 years to Làtency Libido is quiet; psychic energy Sexual concerns largely
Adolescence is invested in schoolwork and unimportant
play with same-sex friends.
Adolescence to Genital Puberty reawakens the sexual Reemergence of sexual
Adulthood instincts as youths seek to interest and establishment of
establish mature sexual mature sexual relationships
relationships and pursue the
biological goal of reproduction

Freud emphasized nature more than nurture. He believed that inborn biological instincts drive
behavior and that biological maturation guides all children through the five psychosexual stages. Yet he also
viewed nurture - especially early experiences within the family – as an important contributor to individual
differences in adult personality.
At each psychosexual stage, the id's impulses and social demands come into conflict. Harsh child-
rearing methods can heighten this conflict and the child's anxiety. To defend itself against anxiety, the ego,
without being aware of it, adopts defense mechanisms. We all use these coping devices, but some people
become overdependent on them because of unfavorable experiences early in life. A type of defense
mechanism connected to the psychosexual stages is fixation, a kind of arrested development in which part
of the libido remains tied to an early stage. To illustrate:

1. Oral Stage: A boy who was rarely allowed to linger at the breast, was screamed at for chewing papers
and other fascinating objects around the house, or was otherwise deprived of oral gratification might
become fixated at the oral stage to satisfy unmet oral needs and to avoid the potentially even greater
conflicts of the anal stage. He might display his oral fxation by being a chronic thumb-sucking, and,
later in life, by chain-smoking, talking incessantly, or being over- dependent on other people.
2. Anal Stage: A girl who is harshly punished for toilet training mistakes or forced to sit for hours on the
potty seat may become fixated at the anal stage and become an inhibited or stingy adult. Or she may
 deal with her anxiety through another important defense mechanism, regression, which involves'
retreating to an earlier, less traumatic stage of development. In this way, Freud argued, early
experiences may have long-term effects on personality development.
3. Phallic Stage: This stage is particularly treacherous for children according to Freud. From age 3 to
6, children are said to develop strong attraction for the parent of the other sex. According to Freud, a
3- to 5-year old develops an intense longing for his mother and begins to view his father as a rival for
his mothers affection. Freud called this the Oedipus complex after Oedipus, the legendary King of
Thebes (for better understanding, please read the story of Oedipus Rex).
Fearing that his father might castrate him as punishment, the preschool boy resolves his
conflict by identifying with his father, taking on as his own the father's attitudes, attributes, and
behaviors, in order to reduce the chances that his father will be angry with him. As a result, he learns
his masculine sex role and develops a superego by internalizing his father's moral standards. If
parents punish a young boy for being curious about male and female anatomy, Freud believed, the
product may be a sexually inhibited man who is not quite sure how to relate with women.
Although Freud admitted that he was unsure about the development of preschool girls, he
claimed that they experience an Electra complex (Electra was the mythological Greek who avenged
her father's murder by killing her mother). Once a 4-year-old girl discovers that she lacks a penis, she
blames her mother for this 'castrated' condition, experiences penis envy, and hopes that the father
she now idolizes will share the valued organ she lacks. As a girl recognizes the impossibility of
possessing her father, she identifies with her mother, who does possess her father. If development
proceeds normally, then, girls resolve their conflicts by identifying with their mothers, thereby taking
on a feminine" role and developing a superego.
In short, Freud insisted that the past lives on. Early childhood experiences may haunt a person in later life
and influence adult personalities, interests and behaviors. Parents significantly affect a child's success in
passing through the biologically' programmed psychosexual stages. They can err by overindulging the child's
urges, but more commonly they create lasting and severe inner conflicts and anxieties by denying an infant
oral gratification, using harsh toilet-training practices with a toddler, or punishing the preschooler who is
fascinated by naked bodies. Heavy reliance on fixation, regression, and other defense mechanisms may then
be necessary just to keep the ego intact and functioning.
Erik Erikson studied with Freud's daughter Anna, and emigrated from Germany to the United States
when Hitler rose to power. Like Freud, Erikson concerned himself with the inner dynamics of personality and
proposed that the personality evolves through systematic stages. Erikson's
points of view differed from Freud's in the following ways (Douvan,1997):
1. Erikson placed less emphasis on sexual urges as the drivers of development and more emphasis on
social influence such as peers, teachers, schools, and the broader culture. rational ego and its
adaptive powers. largely rational, and able to overcome the effects of harmful early experience.
2. Erikson placed less emphasis on the irrational, selfish id and more on the rational ego and its adaptive
powers.
3. Erikson held a more positive view of human nature, seeing us as active in our development, largely
rational, and able to overcome the effects of harmful early experience.
4. Erikson maintained that human development continues during adulthood.

The Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson believed that human beings everywhere face eight major Psychosocial crises, or conflicts
during their lives. Whether the conflict of a particular stage is successfully resolved or not, the individual is
pushed by both biological maturation and social demands into the next stage. However, the unsuccessful
resolution of a conflict will influence how subsequent stages play out.
The first conflict, trust versus mistrust, revolves around whether or not an infant becomes able to
rely on other people to be responsive to his or her needs. To develop a sense of trust, infants must be able
to count on their primary caregivers to feed them, relieve their discomfort, come when beckoned, and return
their smiles and babbles. Whereas Freud focused on the significance of a caregiver's feeding practice,
Erikson believed that the caregivers general responsiveness was critical to later development. If caregivers
neglect, reject, or respond inconsistently to the infant, he or she will mistrust others. A healthy balance
between the terms of the conflict must be struck for development to proceed optimally. Trust should outweigh
mistrust, but an element of skepticism is needed as well. An infant who is overindulged may become too
trusting.

The Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Radius of significant Psychosocial Modalities
Person
1 Trust vs Mistrust Maternal person To get
To give in return
2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Parental Persons To hold on
To let go
3 Initiative vs Guilt Basic family To make (going after)
4 Industry vs Inferiority Neighborhood and school To “make like” (playing)
5 Identity vs Role Confusion Peer groups and out groups, To make things
models of leadership (completing)
To make things together
6 Intimacy vs Isolation Partners in friendship, sex, To be oneself (or not to
competition and cooperation be)
To share being oneself
7 Generativity vs Self-absorption Divided labor and shared To lose of find oneself to
household other
8 Integrity vs despair “Humankind” “Mankind” To make be
To take care of

During the so-called "terrible twos" toddlers must learn to trust themselves enough to assert their wills.
This is the psychosocial conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt. Toddlers are determined to do things
themselves to demonstrate their independence and their control over their parents. They say "me, me, me
and no, no, no" loudly proclaiming that they have wills of their own. If their parents humiliate or punish them
when they have toileting accidents or spill their milk, they may end up doubting their competence or even
believing that they are fundamentally bad people.
Four and five-year-old children who have achieved a sense of autonomy enter Erikson's stage of
initiative versus guilt, in which they develop a sense of purpose by devising bold plans but must also learn
not to step on other people in the process. In the preschool years of imaginative play, children acquire new
motor skills, plot and plan to build sandcastles or conquer. the monsters in their fantasy play and take great
pride in accomplishing the goal they set. A sense of initiative Erikson believed, paves the way for success in
elementary school, when children face the conflict of industry versus inferiority. To gain a sense of industry,
children must master the important cognitive an social skills-reading, writing, cooperative teamwork, and so
on- that are necessary to win the approval of both adults and peers.
Erikson is best known for characterizing adolescence as a time of "identity crisis" a critical period in
the lifelong process of forming one's identity as a person. During this psychosocial stage of identity versus
role confusion, adolescents attempt to define who they are (n terms of career, religion, sexual, identity, and
so on), where they are heading, and where they it into society. They often change their minds and experiment
with new looks, new majors and new group memberships in the process.
According to Erikson, adolescence is a time of dramatic. changes in the self. He characterized
adolescence as a critical period in the lifelong process of forming one's identity as a person. Identity refers to
a firm and coherent definition of who one is, where one is going, and where one fits in the society. To achieve
a sense of identity, the' adolescent must somehow integrate many separate perceptions that are part of the
self-concept into a coherent sense of self and must feel that he or she is, deep down, the same person
yesterday, today and tomorrow- at home, at school or at work.
The search for identity involves grappling with many important questions: What kind of career do I
really want? What religions, moral and political values can I really call my own? Who am I as a man or woman
and as a sexual being? Where do I fit in the world? What do I really want out of my life?

James Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory and stimulated much research on identity formation by
developing an interview that allows investigation to assess where an adolescent is in the process of identity
formation. Adolescents are classified into four identify statuses based on their progress toward an identity in
each of several domains (for example, occupational religious, and political/ideological). The key questions
are whether or not an individual has experienced crisis (or has seriously grappled with identity issues and
explored alternatives) and whether or not he or she has achieved a commitment (that is, a resolution of the
questions raised). On the basis of crisis and commitment, an individual is classified into one of the four identity
statuses.
The Four Identity Statutes as Shown in the Current Religious Beliefs
No Crisis Experienced Crisis Experienced
Commitment Made Diffusion Status Moratorium Status
The person has not yet thought The individual is currently experiencing an
about or resolved identity issues identity crisis and actively raining questions
and has failed to chart directions in and seeking answers. Example: “Im in the
life. Example: “ I haven’t thought middle of evaluating my belief and hope
much about religion and I guess I that I’ll be able to figure out what is right for
don’t know what to believe exactly” me. I like many of the answers provided by
my Catholic upbringing, but I have also
become skeptical; about some teaching
and have been looking into Buddhism to
see if it might help me answer my
questions”
No Commitment Fore Closure Status Identity Achievement Status
Made The individual seems to know who The individual has resolved his or her
he or she is but has latched to an identity crisis and made commitments to
identity prematurely without much particular goals, beliefs and values.
thought. (e.g., by uncritical;ly Example: “I really did some soul-searching
becoming what parents or authority about my religion and other religions too
figures suggest he or she should). and finally know what I believe and what I
Example: :My parents are Baptist don’t”.
and I am a Baptist; its just the way I
grew up:

Whereas Freud's stages stopped with adolescence, Erikson outlined three key psychosocial conflicts
during the adult years. Young adulthood, Erikson believed, is a time dealing with the psychosocial conflict of
intimacy versus isolation. The young adult who has not resolved the issue of identity versus role confusion
may be threatened by the idea of entering a committed, long-term relationship and being "tied down" or may
become over dependent on a partner as a source of identity. In middle age, adults become concerned with
the issue of generativity versus stagnation.
They struggle to gain a sense that they have produced something that will outlive them, whether by
raising happy, healthy children or by doing something meaningful through their work or volunteer activities. If
all goes well, they will genuinely care about the welfare of future generation, as opposed to being in a rut;"
absorbed with their own problems
Finally, elderly adults confront the psychosocial conflict of integrity versus despair. They try to find a
sense of meaning in their lives that will help them face the inevitability of death. If they are successful, they
are able to look back over their lives and say that there is little they would change; if they are not, they may
dwell on past injustices and paths not taken and have difficulty preparing for death.
Erikson clearly did iot agree with Freud that the personality is essentially "set in stone" during early
childhood. Yet he, like Freud and other psychoanalytic theorists, believed that people everywhere progress
through systematic stages of development, undergoing similar personality changes at similar ages. As
individuals successfully resolve the central conflict of each stage of psychosocial development, they gain new
personality strengths (or "ego virtues'") - for example, in infancy, trust of self and other people, and in middle
adulthood, a greater concern for future generations. Individual differences in personality presumably reflect
the different experiences individuals have as they struggle to cope with the challenges of each life stage.

The Virtues in Each Psychosocial Stage*

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Erikson's Virtues or Approximate Ages
Qualities of Strength in Years
 1 Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0-1
2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Will 2-3
3 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-6
4 Industry vs. Inferiority Competence 7-12 or so
5 Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12- 18 or so
6 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love The 20s
7 Generativity vs. Self-absorption Care Late 20s to 50s
8 Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 50s and beyond

Object Relations Theory

A normal person being over a year of age likes some people better than others. We choose to spend
more time with the people we prefer, if we can, and we seek them out when we are unhappy. When we are
young children, we feel safe with our special people; when we are adults, we try to protect such people if they
are young or vulnerable, If we are both adults, we may choose them as sex partners, helpers, or companions.
We generally prefer people who are most familiar to us. If we are separated from them for a lo ng time, we
are distressed, and if they die or desert us, we grieve. We do not react in the same way to the loss of unfamiliar
people. This pattern of emotional relationships is present in one form or another in all cultures and people.
The primary concern of object relations theory is to explain how individuals develop in relation
emotional interactions they have with people around them (Alan Sroufe,
2007). Unlike Freud's view that the adult personality is forged during the
preschool years as a result of Oedipal conflict resolution, object relation
theory emphasizes the infant's relationship to the mother during the first
few years of life. Each affective transaction with the social environment
are mentally stored in the form of representations of the self emotionally
interacting with significant objects.
Emotions are central to the construction of object relations which
principally involve the communication of affect, and the specific quality of
such affective exchanges implies a particular form of relatedness
(Mercer, 2006). An example of this is when parents emotionally invest in
the memories with their children, when parents travel with their young
children early on (when their children were below 7 or so), some may say
that the investment may not benefit the children because of their young
age. This theory explicates that though the children may not vividly remember the details of the travel, they
will remember the emotions they incurred during the travel (happiness, contentment, feelings of security). So,
the memory of the feelings Iinger on even if the memory of the experience details may be forgotten.
The inner representations of salient social interactions, like the look of the face of the mother
while she establishes eye-to-eye contact with her baby while breastfeeding, are not merely disembodied
memories or ideas; they are imbued with great emotional energy as well. The essential development question
posed by object relations theory is, mbat are the eariy events that account for the transformation of the
relatively uninformed infant to the relatively patterned adult?

LEARNING THEORIES IN SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Watson's Behaviorism
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Il
guarantee to take any one at random, train him to become any type of specialist. I might
select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief , and yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of bis talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of bis
ancestors," (Watson, 1913).
The statement reflects a belief that nurture is everything and nature or hereditary
endowment, counts for nothing. It was made by John B. Watson, a strong believer in the
importance of learning in human development and the father of the school of thought in
psychology called behaviorism.
A basic premise of Watson's behaviorism is that conclusions about human
development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations
about unconscious motives or cognitive processes that remain unobservable. Moreover, according to
Watson, learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses are building blocks, of
human development. Like John Locke, Watson believed that the infant is a tabula rasa to be written on by
experience. Children have no inborn tendencies; how they turn out will. depend entirely on the environment
in which they grow up and the ways in which their parents and other significant people in their lives treat
them. According to a behavioral perspective, then it is a mistake to assume that children advance through a
series of distinct stages partly programmed by biological maturation, as Freud, Erikson, and others have
argued. Instead, development is viewed as nothing more than learning. It is a continuous process of behavior
change that is particularistic and can differ enormously from person to person. Watson's basic view was
advanced by the influential work of B.F. Skinner.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner (1905-1990), whose name is as well-known as that of any
American psychologist, had a long, distinguished career at Harvard University.
Through his research with animals, Skinner gained understanding of one very
important form of learning, In operant (or instrumental) conditioning, a learner's
behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequence it
produces. Reinforcers are consequences that increase the probability that a
response will occur in the future. A boy may form a long-term habit of sharing toys
with playmates if his parents reinforce his sharing with praise, or a computer
saleswoman may work harder at making sales if she receives a commission for
each sale. Punishers, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a
response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. A teenage girl
who is not allowed to go out with her friends every time she stays out beyond her
curfew and a man who is criticized each time he interrupts people during meeting are likely to cut down on
the responses that resulted in punishment. Very simply, we learn to keep doing the things that have positive
consequences and stop doing the things that have negative consequences.
Like Watson, then Skinner believed that the course of human development depends on the individual's
learning experience. One boy's aggressive behavior may be reinforced over time because he gets his way
with other children and his parents encourage his "macho" behavior. Another boy may quickly learn that
aggression is prohibited and punished. The two may develop in entirely different directions based on their
different histories of reinforcement and punishment. Skinner did acknowledge that evolution has provided us
with a brain that allows us to learn from experience and that even influences what we can learn most easily
and what we find most reinforcing, However, he believed that the essence of human development is the
continual acquisition of new habits of behavior and that these learned behaviors are controlled by external
stimuli (reinforcers and punishers).
From a learning theory perspective, even development that seems stage-like need not be caused By
Biological maturation. Instead, age-related changes in the environment could produce age-related changes
in behavior. Six-Year-old starting school might change in response to a new system of reinforcement and
punishments imposed by their teachers, or older adults might change when they are forced to retire and lose
access to the reinforcers that employment brought them.
Most developmentalist appreciate that Skinner's operant-conditioning principles can help explain
many aspects of human development. Yet some theorists believe that Skinner placed too much emphasis on
a single type of learning and too little emphasis on the role of cognitive processes such as attention, memory,
and reflection in learning. For this reason, today's developmental scholars are more attracted to Albert
Bandura's cognitive social learning theory than to Skinner's learning theory.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura's social learning theory claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active
processing of information from the environment plays a major role in learning and human development.
Bandura argues that human learning is very different from rat learning because humans have far more
sophisticated cognitive capabilities. Bandura agrees with Skinner
that operant conditioning is an important type of learning, but he notes that humans think about the
connections between their behavior and its consequences, anticipate what consequence likely to follow from
their future behavior, and often are more affected by what they believe will happen than by the consequence
they actually encounter. For example, a woman may continue to
pursue a medical degree despite many punishing hardships and few
immediate rewards because she anticipates a greater reward when
she completes her studies. We are not just passively shaped by the
external consequences of our behavior, we actively think about past
and present experiences and anticipate the future. We also reinforce
or punish ourselves with mental pats on the back and self-criticism.
Nowhere is Bandura's cognitive emphasis clearer than in his
highlighting of observational learning as the most important
mechanism through which human behavior changes. Observational
learning is simply learning that results from observing the behavior of
other people (called models). It is the kind of learning involved when
children learn patterns of aggression from watching TV. A teenager may pick up the latest dance, and a
middle-aged executive may learn how to use a new computer program by observing other people. Such
observational learning depends on cognitive processes. We must, for example, pay attention to the model,
actively digest what we observe, and store this information in memory if we are to imitate at a later date what
we have observed. Over the years we are exposed to hundreds of social models and have the opportunity to
learn thousands of behavior patterns (some good, some bad) simply by observing others perform them. We
need not be reinforced in order to learn this way. We do, however, take note of whether the model's behavior
has positive or negative consequences and use this information to decide whether to imitate what we have
observed.
Watson and Skinner may have believed that humans are passively shaped by the environment to
become whatever those around them groom them to be, but Bandura does not. Because he views humans
as active, cognitive being. He holds that human development occurs through a continuous reciprocal
interaction among the person, the person's behavior, ahd the environment - a perspective he called
reciprocal determinism. Our personal characteristics and behaviors affect the people in our social
environment, just as these individuals influence our personal characteristic and future behaviors.
Like Watson and Skinner, though, Bandura is skeptical of the idea of universal stage of
human development. He maintains that development is context specific and can proceed along many different
paths. It is also continuous, occurring gradually through a lifetime of learning, Bandura does acknowledge
that children's cognitive learning capabilities mature over childhood, so that they can remember more about
what they have seen and can imitate a greater variety of novel behaviors. Yet he also believes that children
of the same age will not be much alike at all if their learning experience has differed.
Obviously, there is a fundamental disagreement between stage theorist like Freud and Erikson and
learning theorists like Bandura. Learning theorists do not give us general description of the normal course of
human development, because they insist that there is no such description to give. Instead, they offer a rich
account of the mechanism through which behavior can change over time. They ask us to apply basic
principles of learning to understand how each individual change with age.

CONTEXTUAL THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Contextual theories of development hold that changes over the lifespan arise from ongoing
interrelationships between a changing organism and a changing world. Changes in the person produce
changes in his or her environment; changes in the environment produce changes in the person; and this
interchange goes on continuously. According to this perspective, development can take a variety of forms
depending on the individual and the historical, cultural, and social context in which he or she develops.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Approach to Development

 American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, developed a theory that capitalized on context when it
comes to development. He highlighted how culture and the context of relationships between and among those
caring for the child could affect how the child grows. Gradually, Bronfenbrenner has formulated his own
ecological approach to development; to leave no doubt about his emphasis on nature and nurture, he has
begun to call his approach “bio-ecological" in recent years (Haves OʻToole, & Halpenny, 2017). According to
this model, the developing person is embedded in a Series of environmental systems that interact with one
another and with the individual to influence development. In Bronfenbrenner's view, people are not just lumps
of clay molded by outside forces (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). They shape their physical and
social environments and are, in turn, shaped by the environment they have helped
create. In other words, the relationship between person and environment is one of
reciprocal influence; person and environment form a dynamic, ever-changing system.
He categorizes these into four systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979):
1. Microsystem - This involves the interactions of the child and other people in
the immediate setting, such as the home, school, or peer group. Initially, the microsystem
is small, involving care -giving interactions with parents, usually at home. As children get
older, they do more, with more people, in more places. As children move from the
household arena to the neighborhood and community, their interactions with others
increase quite a lot. The child who starts elementary school now has a larger network of
friends and playmates to interact with. When the child visits a friend at the friend's house,
he may come in contact with the friend's mother. siblings, and visitors to the house. Thus, the
microsystem may consist of the child's nuclear family, but may also expand to include those others
with whom the child interacts.
2. Mesosystem -This involves the interactions of the various settings within the microsystem. For
instance, the home and school interact during parent-teacher conferences. The school and the larger
community interact when children are taken out on field trips or when the school system is trying to
pass a school levy. The ecological approach addresses the joint impact of two or more settings on the
child (and by extension in the parent-child relationship).
3. Exosystem - This involves the institutions in which the child does not directly participate, but which
have an indirect influence on the child. For example, the school board is part of the child's exosystem
in that board members construct curricula for the child's education, determine what books will be in
the school library (or on class reading lists), and so forth. Similarly, the parents’ workplaces and
economic situations determine the hours that they will be available to the child, determine the mood
when they are dealing with the child, and so forth. Parents may want to spend more time with their
children, but because of work constraints are not able to.
4. Macrosystem -This involves the interaction of children with the beliefs, values, expectations and
lifestyles of their cultural settings. There are studies which look at children's interactions with their
macrosystems in different cultures, but there can be macrosystems within a culture also. For example,
in the traditional household, the mother probably takes on most of the household chores, such as
cooking meals, cleaning, scheduling pediatrician appointments, carpooling, etc., while the father goes
out to work each day and has as his primary responsibility the financial support of his family. In this
type of family, a family value may be for children to be very involved in extracurricular activities. For
example, son plays basketball, family is at every game; daughter takes dancing lessons, parents are
there for recitals. In the single parent mom family, children may be more expected to pitch in and carry
more of the load of household chores. Children in this type of family may not be as encouraged to
participate in extra activities but may be expected to take an after-school job to help out with household
expenses. Different types of families, different types of parenting, different needs and expectations.

Ecological theory has encouraged some educational applications:

- A “curriculum of caring" which encourages young people (students) to help care for children of working
parents, help families during times of crisis, and visit the sick or elderly.
- Facilitate the entry of children into the educational system by acquainting families with school
personnel and encouraging activities when children are still preschoolers (example, high school in
community which helped pass a levy to build new school by saying that the school would be used by
the community, and stay open 17 to 18 hours a day, community can use running track, etc.
 - Team up new moms with experienced moms for advice, support (Mother Mentors Groups, Mothers
and Other groups)
- Field trips for young children to businesses in area so each realizes that they have a stake in the
future of the other. Fosters positive, good feelings.
- On-site day care facilities.
- Inducing businesses to create more flexible work schedules for parents.

The more opportunities a child has and the richer the child's experiences with his/her environment
(neighborhood playgrounds, family friendly work environments, schools with equal resources for students,
crime-free neighborhoods), the more fully the child can develop all his/her potential and the more likely it is
that the child will grow up to be a caring, contributing, responsible adult (parents are not in this alone - they
are primary influence, to be sure, but it really does take a village to raise a child).
Research Integration

Make an internet search for the journal article titled, "Emotional Development in Children
with Different Attachment Histories: The First Three Years” by Kochanska (2001). The
study talks about how the development of fear, anger, and joy was examined in 112 children
using a longitudinal design. Children were observed at 9, 14, 22, and 33 months in standard
laboratory episodes designed to elicit fear, anger, or joy. At 14 months, mother-child attachment was
assessed in the Strange Situation. Based on the article, answer the following questions:

1. What findings do you think are important in understanding how children develop their emotions? Why?
2. As a future teacher, how would you contribute to your students' emotional development?
3. What areas in the study will support your answer?

Glass Discussion: In class, create buzz groups with three to four members to answer the
following questions. Assign a rapporteur (someone who will take note and discuss your answers) who will
present your agreements in class.
1. How do you think your own socio-emotional development can be described using Erikson’s theory?
2. How is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory useful in thinking about children's development? What, if
anything, does Bronfenbrenner's theory suggest about important resources for students?

Activity: Interviewing Parents

Form groups of five and select three parents to interview. The interview guide is provided below,
and you are to transcribe the interview. The responses to the interview questions will be
summarized and discussed in class.
Interview Guide:
1. How do you describe your relationship with your child/children?
2. What strategies were you able to impart to them when it comes to:
a. making friends
b. handling conflicts
c. addressing frustrations
d. promoting a positive outlook in life
3. What are the things you would like your children to remember when it comes to their relationship with
you? How do you see to it that these things are experienced by your child/ children?

ASSESS

Activity: In-Class Reflection

There will be four in-class writing assignments based on the readings and your work to date.
A question will be posed during the class. You will need to tie in your reading and other work
in the response. These will be assessed by how well you link the readings to your
understanding of the readings and how you see yourself as a teacher and your thoughts about the two.
Questions:
1. Describe how you used previous knowledge and experience during the past two weeks.
2. Link experiences to specific course objectives. For example, if you will be teaching children about
coping, you would incorporate child development, teaching, and learning strategies, coping skills, etc.
3. What research and/or practice questions can you generate based on your understanding of the
theories? What additional knowledge do you require for the theories to be practiced in the next two
weeks?
4. Describe the value of activities to your individual learning and meeting personal objectives.
5. Discuss the impact on your personal beliefs about teaching.

Rubrics for Grading the In-class Reflection

Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The reflection stated what the topics are all about and important points were
highlighted.
Previous Knowledge/ Course Objectives (5)
The reflection showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g., how emotions
are linked with cognitions, etc.).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The reflection posed information learned by the student that translates theory
learned into how experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The reflection specified how the article informs the self-realizations and integration to
teaching, several examples of teaching observations are stated.
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how
activities are reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed
one's personal beliefs about teaching. Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

CHAPTER 14
Theories of Moral Development
Morality has been seen in different perspectives, however, morality has been generally defined as the ability
(1) to distinguish right from wrong, (2) to act on this distinction, and (3) to experience pride when one does
the right thing and guilt or shame when one does not. Accordingly, such definitions identified the three basic
components of morality as well:

1. An affective or emotional component, consisting of the feelings (guilt, concern for others' feelings,
and so on) that surround right or wrong actions and that motivate moral thoughts and actions.
2. A cognitive component, centering on how we think about right or wrong and go about deciding
how to behave; this component involves social-cognitive skills like role-taking
3. A behavioral component, reflecting how we actually behave when, for example, we experience
the temptation to cheat or are called upon to help a needy person.

This chapter discusses the different perspectives explaining how morality develops. As a future
teacher, there is a need for you to understand the value system and how your students understand what is
right from wrong. The point in knowing and understanding is to be able to provide them with the help they
need to make better decisions and promote social justice.
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)
Employ moral dilemmas in understanding how learners make moral decisions.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Jean Piaget is among the first psychologists whose work remains
directly relevant to contemporary theories of moral development. In his
early writing, he focused specifically on the moral lives of children,
studying the way children play games in order to learn more about
children's beliefs about right and wrong. According to Piaget, all
development emerges from action; that is to say, individuals construct
and reconstruct their knowledge of the world as a result of interactions
with the environment (Thomas, 1997). Based on his observations of
children's application of rules
when playing, Piaget determined that morality, too, can be considered a
developmental process. For example, Ben, a ten-year-old studied by
Piaget, provided the following critique of a rule made-up by a child playing
marbles: "It isnt a rule! Its a wrong rule because its outside of the rules”.
A fair rule is one that is in the game". Ben believed in the absolute and
intrinsic truth of the rules, characteristic of early moral reasoning. In contrast, Via, aged thirteen, illustrates
an understanding of the reasoning behind the application of rules, characteristic of later moral thinking. When
asked to consider the fairness of a made-up rule compared to a traditional rule, Via replied “It is just as fair
because the marbles are far apart” (making the game equally difficult) (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2004).
In addition to examining children's understanding of rules about games, Piaget interviewed children
regarding acts such as stealing and lying. When asked what a lie is, younger children consistently answered
that they are "naughty words." When asked why they should not lie, younger children could rarely explain
beyond the forbidden nature of the act: "because it is a naughty word". However, older children were able to
explain because it isn't right', and it wasn't true'". Even older
children indicated an awareness of intention as relevant to the meaning of an act: A lie is when you
deceive someone else. To make a mistake is when you make a mistake". From his observations, Piaget
concluded that children begin in a “heteronomous" stage of moral reasoning, characterized by a strict
adherence to rules and duties, and obedience to authority.
This heteronomy results from two factors. The first factor is the young
child's cognitive structure. According to Piaget, the thinking of young children
is characterized by egocentrism. That is to say that
young children are unable to simultaneously take into account their own view
of things with the perspective of someone else (Turiel, 2004). This
egocentrism leads children to project their own thoughts and wishes onto
others. It is also associated with the unidirectional view of rules and power
associated with heteronomous moral thought, and various forms of "moral
realism." Moral realism is associated with "objective responsibility;" which is
valuing the letter of the law above the purpose of the law. This is why young
children are more concerned about the outcomes of actions rather than the
intentions of the person doing the act. Moral realism is also associated with
the young child's belief in immanent justice." This is the expectation that punishments automatically follow
acts of wrongdoing. The second major contributor to heteronomous moral thinking in young children, is their
relative social relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between adults and children, power
is handed down from above. The relative powerlessness of young children coupled with childhood
egocentrism feeds into a heteronomous moral orientation.
However, through interactions with other children in which the group seeks to play together in a way
all find fair, children find this strict heteronomous adherence to rules sometimes problematic. As children
consider these situations, they develop towards an "autonomous" stage of moral reasoning, characterized by
the ability to consider rules critically, and selectively apply these rules based on a goal of mutual respect and
cooperation. The ability to act from a sense of reciprocity and mutual respect is associated with a shift in the
child's cognitive structure from egocentrism to perspective taking Coordinating one's own perspective with
that of others means that what is right needs to be based on solutions that meet the requirements of their
reciprocity. Thus, Piaget viewed moral development as the result of interpersonal interactions through which
individuals work out resolutions which all seem fair. Paradoxically, this autonomous view of morality as
fairness is more
compelling and leads to more consistent behavior than the heteronomous orientation held by young children.
Piaget concluded from this work that schools should emphasize cooperative decision making and problem
solving, nurturing moral development by requiring students to work out common rules based on fairness.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development and Education

Lawrence Kohlberg modified and elaborated Piaget’s work, and laid the
groundwork for the current debate within psychology on moral
development. Consistent with Piaget, he proposed that children form
ways of thinking through their experiences which include understandings
of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare
(Thomas, 1997). Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment
beyond the stages studied by Piaget, and determined that the process of
attaining moral maturity took longer and was more gradual than Piaget
had proposed.
Based on his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral
reasoning grouped into three major levels. Each level represented a
fundamental shift in the social-moral perspective of the individual.
At the first level, the preconventional level, a person's moral
judgments are characterized by a concrete, individual perspective. Within this level, a Stage 1 heteronomous
orientation focuses on avoiding breaking rules that are backed by punishment, obedience for its own sake
and avoiding the physical consequences of an action to persons and property. As in Piaget's framework, the
reasoning of Stage 1 is characterized by egocentrism and the inability to consider the perspectives of others.
At Stage 2, there is the early emergence of moral reciprocity. The Stage 2 orientation focuses on
the instrumental, pragmatic value of an action. Reciprocity is of the form, "you scratch my back and iIl scratch
yours." The Golden Rule becomes, If someone hits you, you hit them back." At Stage 2, one follows the rules
only when it is to someone’s immediate interests. What is right is what's fair in the sense of an equal
exchange, a deal, an agreement. At Stage 2, there is an understanding that everybody has his/her own
interest to pursue and these conflicts, so that right is relative (in the concrete individualist sense). Individuals
at the conventional level of reasoning, however, have a basic understanding of conventional morality, and
reason with an understanding that norms and conventions are necessary to uphold society. They tend to be
self-identified with these rules, and uphold them consistently, viewing morality as acting in accordance with
what society defines as right.
Stage 3 are aware of shared feelings, agreements, and expectations which take primacy over
individual interests. Persons at Stage 3 define what is right in terms of what is expected by people close to
oneself, and in terms of the stereotypic roles that define being good - e.g., a good brother, mother, teacher.
Being good means keeping mutual relationships, such as trust, loyalty, respect, and gratitude. The
perspective is that of the local community or family. There is not as yet a consideration of the generalized
social system. Stage 4 marks the shift from defining what is right in terms of local norms and role expectations
to defining right in terms of the laws and norms established by the larger society. This is the "member of
society" perspective in which one is moral by fulfilling the actual duties defining one's social responsibilities.
One must obey the law except in extreme cases in which the law comes into conflict with other prescribed
social duties. Obeying the law is seen as necessary in order to maintain the system of laws which protect
everyone.
Finally, the post conventional level is characterized by reasoning based on principles, using a prior to
society' perspective. These individuals reason based on the principles which underlie rules and norms but
reject a uniform application of a rule or norm. While two stages have been presented within the theory, only
one, Stage 5, has received substantial empirical support. Stage 6 remains as a theoretical endpoint which
rationally follows from the preceding 5 stages. In essence, this last level of moral judgment entails reasoning
rooted in the ethical fairness principles from which moral laws would be devised. Laws are evaluated in terms
of their coherence with basic principles of fairness rather than upheld simply on the basis of their place within
an existing social order. Thus, there is an understanding that elements of morality such as regard for life and
human welfare transcend particular cultures and societies and are to be upheld irrespective of other
conventions or normative obligations. These stages (1-5) have been empirically supported by findings from
longitudinal and cross-cultural research (Thomas, 1997).

Kohlberg used these findings to reject traditional character education practices. These approaches
are premised in the idea that virtues and vices are the basis to moral behavior, or that moral character is
comprised of a "bag of virtues," such as honesty, kindness, patience, strength, etc. According to the traditional
approach, teachers are to teach these virtues through example and direct communication of convictions, by
giving students an opportunity to practice these virtues, and by rewarding their expression. However, critiques
of the traditional approach find flaws inherent in this model. This approach provides no guiding principle for
defining what virtues are worthy or espousal, and wrongly assumes a community consensus on what are
considered “positive values". In fact, teachers often end up arbitrarily imposing certain values depending upon
their societal, cultural and personal beliefs. In order to address this issue of ethical relativity, some have
adopted the values clarification approach to moral education. This teaching practice is based on the
assumption that there are no single, correct answers to ethical dilemmas, but that there is value in holding
clear views and acting accordingly. In addition, there is a value of toleration of divergent views. It follows,
then, that the teacher's role is one of discussion moderator, with the goal of teaching merely that people hold
different values; the teacher does attempt to present her views as the "right" views.
Kohlberg rejected the focus on values and virtues, not only due to the lack of consensus on what
virtues are to be taught, but also because of the complex nature of practicing such virtues. For example,
people often make different decisions yet hold the same basic moral values. Kohlberg believed a better
approach to affecting moral behavior should focus on stages of moral development. These stages are critical,
as they consider the way a person organizes their understanding of virtues, rules, and norms, and integrates
these into a moral choice. In addition, he rejected the relativist viewpoint in favor of the view that certain
principles of justice and fairness represent the pinnacle of moral, maturity, as he found that these basic moral
principles are found in different cultures and subcultures around the world.
The goal of moral education. it then follows, is to encourage individuals to develop to the next stage
of moral reasoning. Initial educational efforts employing Kohlberg's theory were grounded in basic Piagetian
assumptions of cognitive development. Development, in this model, is not merely the result of gaining more
knowledge, but rather consists of a sequence of qualitative changes in the way an individual thinks. Within
any stage of development, thought is organized according to the constraints of that stage. An individual then
interacts with the environment according to their basic understandings of the environment. However, the child
will at some point encounter information which does not it into their world view, forcing the child to adjust their
view to accommodate this new information. This process is called equilibration, and it is through equilibration
that development occurs. Early moral development approaches to education, therefore, sought to force
students to ponder contradiction inherent to their present level of moral reasoning.
The most common tool for doing this was to present a "moral dilemma" and require students to
determine and justify what course the actor in the dilemma should take. Through discussion. students should
then be forced to face the contradictions present in any course of action not based on principles of justice or
fairness.
While Kohlberg appreciated the importance and value of such moral dilemma discussions, he held
from very early on that moral education required more than individual reflection, but also needed to include
experiences for students to operate as moral agents within a community. In this regard, Kohlberg reconciled
some of the differences in orientation that existed between the theories of moral growth held by Piaget and
Durkheim. In order to provide students with an optimal context which in which to grow morally, Kohlberg and
his colleagues developed the "just community" schools approach towards promoting moral development. The
basic premise of these schools is to enhance students' moral development by offering them the chance to
participate in a democratic community. Here, democracy refers to more than simply casting a vote. It entails
full participation of community members in arriving at consensual rather than "majority rules" decision-making.
One primary feature of these schools is their relatively small size (often they are actually schools within
schools), aimed at providing the students with a sense of belonging to a group which is responsive to
individual needs.
The central institution of these schools is a community meeting in which issues related to life and
discipline in the schools 'are discussed and democratically decided, with an equal value placed on the voices
of students and teachers. An underlying goal of these meetings is to establish collective norms which express
fairness for all members of the community. It is believed that by placing the responsibility of determining and
enforcing rules on students, they will take prosocial behavior more seriously. At the same time, this approach
stems from the cognitive-developmentalist view that discussion of moral dilemmas can stimulate moral
development.
However, this is not to say that Just Community School simply leaves students to their own devices;
teachers play a crucial leadership role in these discussions, promoting rules and norms which have a concern
for justice and community, and ultimately enforcing the rules. This role is not an easy one, as teachers must
listen closely and understand a student's reasoning, in order to help the student to the next level of reasoning.
This requires a delicate balance between letting the students make decisions and advocating in a way which
shows them the limits in their reasoning. actions, not just their reasoning, Students are, in effect, expected
to "practice what they preach" by following the rules determined in community meetings.

Turiel's Domain Theory

In the early 1970s, longitudinal studies conducted by the Kohlberg research
group began to reveal anomalies in the stage sequence, Researchers committed to
the basic Kohlberg framework attempted to resolve those anomalies through
adjustments in the stage descriptions. Other theorists, however, found that a
comprehensive resolution to the anomalous data required substantial adjustments in
the theory itself. One of the most productive lines of research to come out of that period
has been the domain theory advanced by Elliot Turiel and his colleagues.
Within domain theory, a distinction is drawn between the child's developing
concepts of morality, and other domains of social knowledge, such as social
convention. According to domain theory, the child's concepts of morality and social
convention emerge out of the child's attempts to account for qualitatively differing
forms of social experience associated with these two classes of social events. Actions
within the moral domain, such as unprovoked hitting of someone, have intrinsic effects
(i.e., the harm that is caused) on the welfare of another person. Such intrinsic effects
occur regardless of the nature of social rules that may or may not be in place regarding the action. Because
of this, the core features of moral cognition are centered around considerations of the effects which actions
have upon the well-being of persons, Morality is structured by concepts of harm, welfare, and fairness.
In contrast, actions that are matters of social convention have no intrinsic interpersonal consequences.
For example, there is nothing intrinsic to the forms of address we employ that makes calling a college teacher
“professor" better or worse than calling the person Mr. or Ms., or simply using their given names. What makes
one form of address better than another is the existence of socially agreed upon rules. These conventions,
while arbitrary in the sense that they have no intrinsic status, are nonetheless important to the smooth
functioning of any social group. Conventions provide a way for members of the group to coordinate their
social exchanges through a set of agreed upon and predictable modes of conduct. Concepts of convention
then, are structured by the child's understandings of social organization.
These hypothesized distinctions have been sustained through studies over the last 20 years. These
studies have included interviews with children, adolescents and adults; observations of child- child and adult-
child social interactions; cross-cultural studies; and longitudinal studies examining the changes in children's
thinking as they grow older. An example of the distinction between morality and convention is given in the
following excerpt from an interview with a four-year-old girl regarding her perceptions of spontaneously
occurring transgressions at her preschool (Turiel, 2004).

Moral Issue: Did you see what happened? Yes, They were playing, and John hit him too hard. ls that
something you are supposed to do or not supposed to do? Not so hand to hunt. ls there a rule about that?
What is the rule? You 're not to hit hard. What if there were no rules about hitting hard, would it be all right to
do then? No Why not? Because he could get hurt and start to cry.

Conventional Issue: Did you see what just happened? les They were noisy. Is that something you are
supposed to or not supposed to do?. Not do. ls there a rule about that? Yes, We have to be quiet. What if
there were no rules, would it be all right to do then? Yes Why? Because there is no rule.

Morality and convention, then, are distinct, parallel developmental frameworks, rather than a single
system as thought of by Kohlberg, However, because all social events, including moral ones, take place
within the context of the larger society, a person's reasoning about the right course of action in any given
social situation may require the person to access and coordinate their understandings from more than one of
these two social cognitive frameworks. It was Turiel's insight to recognize that what Kohlberg's theory
attempts to account for within a single developmental framework is in fact the set of age-related efforts people
make at different points in development to coordinate their social normative understandings from several
different domains. Thus, domain theory posits a great deal more inconsistency in the judgments of individuals
across contexts and allows for a great deal more likelihood of morally (fairness and welfare) based decisions
from younger and less developed people than would be expected from within the traditional

Kohlberg paradigm.
Current work from within domain theory has sought to explore how the child's concepts of moral and
conventional regulation relate to their developing understandings of personal prerogative and privacy. This
work is exploring how children develop their concepts of autonomy and its relation to social authority. This
has led to a fruitful series of studies of adolescent-parent conflict with important implications for ways in which
parents may contribute to the healthy development of youth. This work is also being extended into studies of
how adolescents perceive the authority of teachers
and school rules.
Moral Issues and Values Education
The implications of domain theory for values education are several. First, the identification of a domain
of moral cognition that is tied tò the inherent feature of human social interaction means that moral education
may be grounded in universal concerns for fairness and human welfare and is not limited to the particular
conventions or norms of a given community or school district. By focusing on those universal features of
human moral understanding, public schools may engage in fostering children's morality without being
accused of promoting a particular religion, and without undercutting the basic moral core of all major religious
systems.
Second, educational research from within domain theory has resulted in a set of recommendations
for what is termed "domain appropriate" values education. This approach entails the teacher's analysis and
identification of the moral or conventional nature of social values issues to be employed in values lessons.
Such an analysis contributes to the likelihood that the issues discussed are concordant with the domain of
the values dimension they are intended to affect. A discussion of dress codes, for example, would constitute
a poor basis for moral discussion, since mode of dress is primarily a matter of convention. Likewise,
consideration of whether it is right to steal to help a person in need, would be a poor issue with which to
generate a lesson intended to foster students’ understandings of social conventions. A related function of the
teacher would be to focus student activity (verbal or written) on the underlying features concordant with the
domain of the issue. Thus, students dealing with a moral issue would be directed to focus on the underlying
justice or human welfare considerations of the episode. With respect to conventions, the focus of student
activity would be on the role of social expectations and the social organizational functions of such social
norms.
Based on this kind of analysis teachers are also better enabled to lead students through consideration
of more complex issues which contain elements from more than one domain. By being aware of the
developmental changes that occur in students' comprehension of the role of social convention, and related
changes in students understanding of what it means to be fair or considerate of the welfare of others, teachers
are able to frame consideration of complex social issues in ways that will maximize the ability of students to
comprehend and act upon the moral and social meaning of particular courses of action.

Carol Gilligan and the Morality of Care

A second major critique of Kohlberg's work was put forth by Carol Gilligan, in
her popular book, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's
Development. She suggested that Kohlberg's theories were biased against women, as
only males were used in his studies. By listening to women's experiences, Gilligan
offered that a morality of care can serve in the place of the morality of justice and rights
espoused by Kohlberg (Thomas, 1997). In her view, the morality of caring and
responsibility is premised in nonviolence, while the morality of justice and rights is
based on equality.
 Another way to look at these differences is to view these two moralities as providing two distinct
injunctions - the injunction not to treat others unfairly and the injunction not to turn away from someone in
need (care). She presents these moralities as distinct, although potentially connected.
In her initial work, Gilligan emphasized the gender differences thought to be associated with these
two orientations. The morality. of care emphasizes interconnectedness and presumably emerges to a greater
degree in girls owing to their early connection in identity formation with their mothers (Giligan, 1983). The
morality of justice, on the other hand, is said to emerge within the context of coordinating the interactions of
autonomous individuals. A moral orientation based on justice was proposed as more prevalent among boys
because their attachment relations with the other, and subsequent masculine identity formation entailed those
boys separate from that relationship and individuate from the mother. For boys, this separation also heightens
their awareness of the difference in power relations between themselves and the adult, and hence engenders
an intense set of concerns over inequalities. Girls, however, because of their continued attachment to their
mothers are not as keenly aware of such inequalities, and are, hence, less concerned with fairness as an
issue. While this gender debate is unsettled, Gilligan's work has contributed to an increased awareness that
care is an integral component of moral reasoning.

Research Integration

Using the search engine and website sources of your library, look for Revell & Arthur's
(2007) study on Character education in schools and the education of teachers. The
study explored student
teachers' attitudes to and experience of character and values education in schools and
looks at their assessment of the opportunities provided by schools for the development of character. The data
came from over 1000 student teachers in two universities. After reading the article, answer the following
questions:

1. What opportunities when it comes to character and values education were provided to the student
teachers? What did they do when the opportunities were not available?
2. Do you expect your course to teach you to influence pupils' values or morals in any way? How?

Activity: Exploration of Moral Dilemmas

This activity will require you to ask a group of students and summarize their thoughts.
1. Form a group with five members.
2. Plan how you will be working on the task, who will handle the tasks and who will oversee th e whole
process (leader).
3. Interview 25 persons (ten persons– below 18, ten persons between 19– 35, and five persons who are
36 and above); and ask their views regarding:
a. What is a moral issue for you?
b. What is a moral decision?
c. What are the usual problems you face in addressing a moral issue?
d. How do you make a moral decision?
4. Gather the responses from the selected respondents and put together the similar issues.
5. Present the results of your mini survey to your class. Use the rubrics in rating your output.

Rubrics for Grading the Summarized Moral Issues and Moral Decisions
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The moral issues and moral decisions reflected important aspects of the topic.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The discussion showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how moral
decisions are linked with emotions attributed to the dilemma, etc.).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
 The reflection posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned
into how experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The reflection specified how the article informs the self-realizations and integration to
teaching. Several examples of teaching observations are stated (how moral decision
making should be taught in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how activities
are reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed one's
personal beliefs about teaching. Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

Activity: Creation of Moral Dilemmas

This activity is a continuation of the Explore activity, you will create moral dilemmas based on
the moral issues and moral decisions you gathered.
1. Synthesize the output of the class, this means you will put together the common
answers all the groups were able to gather.
2. Set aside the salient issues, as this may still be used later.
3. Review the responses of all the people the whole class interviewed, from there answer the
following questions:
a. What are the common moral issues of thc people (children -below 18, young adults below
35, and adults 36 and above)?
b. How do they make moral decisions based on the issues? What factors do they consider?
4. From the answered questions, create moral dilemma stories, where the issues are highlighted
and the moral decisions are provided.
5. Present the moral dilemmas in class.

Your work will be rated based on the following rubrics:

Rubrics for Grading the Created Moral Dilemma
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The moral issues and moral decisions reflected important aspects of the topic.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The discussion showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how moral
decisions are linked with emotions attributed to the dilemma, etc.).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The reflection posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned
into how experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The reflection specified how the article informs the self-realizations and integration to
teaching. Several examples of teaching observations are stated (how moral decision
making should be taught in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how activities
are reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed one's
personal beliefs about teaching. Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

ASSESS
Knowing what you know when it comes to moral development, answer the following questions:
1. What is the level of moral development likely to be among the children you intend to teach? How might
this affect your approach to how you manage students' relations with others in class?
2. Do you believe that helping students develop good character is just as important as teaching reading,
writing and math? Or should families solely be in control of character and moral instruction? Why?
Your work will be rated using this rubrics:
Rubrics for Grading the In-Class Reflection
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The moral issues and moral decisions reflected important aspects of the topic.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The discussion showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how moral decisions are
linked with emotions attributed to the dilemma, etc.).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The reflection posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned into how
experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The reflection specified how the article informs the self-realizations and integration to teaching.
Several examples of teaching observations are stated (how moral decision making should be taught
in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how activities are
reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed one's personal beliefs
about teaching. Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

CHAPTER 15
Socio-Emotional Development and It's Pedagogical Implications
An important area in understanding social and emotional development is how gender development
figure in the process of emotional and social development. Theories explain that we tend to hone different
ways of expressing emotions for boys and girls and socialize them differently. Have you wondered why some
parents' preference for colors change upon learning the sex of their unborn child? These are the areas we
will focus on in this chapter.
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)
Develop gender sensitive children's stories.

THEORIES OF GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT

Several theories of the development of gender roles have been proposed. Some
theories emphasize the role of biological differences between the sexes, whereas others
emphasize social influences on children. Some emphasize what society does to children, others what children
do to themselves as they try to understand gender and all its implications.

Biosocial Theory
The biosocial theory of gender-role development proposed by John Money and Anke Ehrardt
calls attention to the ways in which biological events influence the development of boys and girls. But it also
focuses on ways in which early biological development influence how people react to a child and suggest that
these social reactions then have much to do with children's assuming gender roles.
Chromosomes, Hormones and Social Labeling
 Money and Ehrdardt (Sigelman & Rider, 2009) stress that the male (XY) or the female (X)
chromosomes most of us receive at conception are merely a starting point in biological differentiation
of the sexes. A number of critical events affect a person's eventual preference for the masculine or feminine
role (Booth, Carver, && Granger, 2000).
1. If certain genes on the Y chromosome are present, a previously undifferentiated tissue develops into
testes as the embryo develops; otherwise it develops into ovaries
2. At a second critical point, the testes of a male embryo normally secrete more of the male hormone
testosterone, which stimulates the development of a male internal reproductive system, and another
hormone that inhibits the development of female organs. Without these hormones the internal
reproductive system of a female will develop from the same tissues.
3. At a third critical point, three to four months after conception, secretion of additional testosterone by
the testes normally leads to the growth of a penis and scrotum. If testosterone is absent (as in normal
females) or if a male fetus cells are insensitive to the male sex hormones he produces, female external
genitalia (labia and clitoris) will form.
4. Finally, the relative amount of testosterone alters the development of the brain and nervous system.
For example, it signals the male brain to stop secreting hormones in a cyclical pattern so that males
do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty.
Clearly, the fertilized egg have the potential to acquire the anatomical and physiological features of either
sex. Events at each critical step in the sexual differentiation process determine the outcome.
Once a biological male or female is born, social labeling and differential
treatment of girls and boys interact with biological factors to steer development.
Parents and other people label and begin to react to the child on the basis of the
appearance of his or her genitalia. If a child’s genitals are abnormal and he or
she is mislabeled as a member of the other sex, this incorrect label will have an
impact of its own on the child’s future development (Booth et al., 2000).
For example, if a biological male were consistently labeled and treated as a
girl, he would, by about age 3, acquire the gender identity of a girl. Finally,
biological factors enter the scene again at puberty when large quantities of
hormones are released, stimulating the growth of the reproductive system and
the appearance of secondary sex characteristic. These events, in combination
with one's
earlier self-concept as a male or female, provide the basis for adult gender
identity and role behavior.

Evidence of Biological Influence

A good deal of evidence suggests that biological factors influence the development of males and
females in many species of animals. Evolutionary psychologists notice that most societies socialize males to
have instrumental traits and females to have expressive ones and conclude that
traditional gender roles may be a reflection of our species heredity (Dudgeon & Inhorn, 2003), In addition.
individual differences in masculinity and femininity may be partly genetic. Twin studies suggest that individual
heredity accounts for 20 to 50% of the variation in the extent to which peonle describe themselves as having
masculine and feminine psychological traits, In other words, experience does not explain everything.
Biological influences on development are also evident in studies of children who are exposed the
wrong" hormones prenatally. Before the consequences were known, some mothers who previously had
problems carrying pregnancies to term were given drugs containing progestins, which are converted by the
body into the male hormone testosterone. These drugs had the effect of masculinizing female fetuses so that,
despite their XX genetic and female internal organs, they were
born with external organs that resembled those of a boy. Several of these androgenized females
their genitals and were then raised as girls. When Money and Ehrhardt (Sigelman & Rider, 2009) compared
them with their sister and other girls, it became apparent that many more androgenized girls were tomboys
and preferred boys’ toys and vigorous activities to traditionally feminine pursuits, As adolescents, they began
dating somewhat later than other girls and felt that marriage should be delayed until they have established
their career. A high proportion (37%) described themselves as homosexual or bisexual. Androgenized
females also perform better than most other females on tests of spatial ability, further evidence that early
exposure to male hormones has "masculinizing" effects on a female fetus.
 In addition, male exposure to testosterone and other male hormones may be part of the reason why
males are more likely than females to commit violent acts. Evidence from experiments conducted with animals
is quite convincing for example, female rhesus monkeys exposed prenatally to the male hormone
testosterone often threaten other monkeys, engage in rough- and-tumble play, and try to "mount" a partner
as males do at the beginning of a sexual encounter. Men with high testosterone levels tend to have high rates
of delinquency, drug abuse, abusiveness, and violence, although nature interacts with nurture so that these
links between testosterone and antisocial behavior are not nearly as evident among men in low
socioeconomic status.
However, because testosterone levels rise as a result of aggressive and competitive activities, it has
been difficult to establish unambiguously that high concentrations of male hormones cause aggressive
behavior in humans. Indeed, animal studies tell us that early experience can alter the developing nervous
system of males and females and, in turn, their behavior. Much evidence now suggests that prenatal exposure
to male or female hormone has lasting effects on the organization of the brain and, in turn, on sexual behavior,
aggression, cognitive abilities, and other aspects of development. Yet biology does not dictate gender-role
development. Instead, gender-role development evolves from the complex interaction of biology, social
experience, and the individual's behavior.

Evidence of Social-labeling Influence

We must also take seriously the social aspect of Money and Ehrhardts biosocial theory (Sigelman &
Rider, 2009). How a child is labeled and treated can also have a considerable impact on gender development.
For instance, some androgenized females have been labeled as boys at birth and raised as such until their
abnormalities were detected. Money and Ehrhardt report that the discovery and correction of this condition
(by surgery and relabeling as a girl) caused few if any adjustment problems if the sex change took place
before the age of 18 months. After age 3, sexual reassignment was exceedingly difficult because these
genetic females had experienced prolonged masculine gender typing and had already labeled themselves as
boys. These findings led Money and Ehthardt to conclude that there is a critical period (between 18 months
and 3 years) for the establishment of gender identity when the label society attaches to the child is likely to
"'stick" Yet studies in which the same infants are presented to some people as boys and to others as girls
often indicate that labeling itself has little impact on how people perceive and treat these infants.
In sum, Money and Ehrhardts biosocial theory stresses the importance of early biological
developments that influence how parents and other social agents label a child at birth and that possibly also
affect behavior more directly. However, the theory also holds that whether children are socialized as boys or
girls strongly influences their gender-role development. In short, biological and social factors interact.

Psychoanalytic Theory
As is true of thinking about most areas of development,
thinking about gender-role development was shaped early on by
Freud's psychosexual theory. The 3 to 6 years-old children in
Freud's phallic stage are said to harbor a strong, biologically
based love for the parent of the other sex, experience internal
conflict and anxiety as a result of this incestuous desire and
resolve the conflict through a process of identification with the
same-sex parent. According to Freud, a boy experiencing his
Oedipus complex loves his mother, fears that his father will
retaliate by castrating him, and ultimately is forced to identify with his father, thereby emulating his father and
adopting his fathers’ attitudes and behavior (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). Freud believed that a boy would show
weak masculinity later in life if his father was inadequate as a masculine model, was often absent from the
home, or was not dominant or threatening enough to foster a strong identification based on fear.
 Meanwhile, a preschool-age girl is said to experience an Electra
complex involving a desire for her father (and envy of him for the penis she
lacks) and a rivalry with her mother. To resolve unconscious conflict, she
identifies with her mother. Her father also contributes to gender-role
development by reinforcing her for "feminine" behavior resembling that of her
mother. Thus Freud emphasized the role of emotion (love, fear, and so on)
in motivating gender-role development and argued that children adopt their
roles by patterning after their same-sex parents. Freud identified the
preschool years as a critical time for gender-role development. In addition,
his view that boys, because of fear of castration, have a more powerful
motivation than girls to adopt their gender role is consistent with finding the boys seem to learn gender
stereotypes and gender- type behavior faster and more completely than girls do. It is also true that boys
whose fathers are absent from home tend to be less traditionally sex-typed than other boys. Finally, Freud's
notion that father plays an important role in the gender typing of their daughters as well as their sons had
been confirmed.
However, on other counts psychoanalytic theory has not fared well at all. Many preschool children are
so ignorant of male and female anatomy that it is hard to see how most boys could fear castration or most
girls could experience penis envy. Moreover, Freud assumed that a boy’s identification with his father is based
on fear, but most researchers find that boys identify most strongly with fathers who are warm and nurturing
rather than overly punitive and threatening.
Finally, children are not especially similar psychological to their same-sex parents. Apparently other
individuals besides parents influence a child's gender-related characteristic. And apparently we must look
elsewhere for more complete explanation of gender-role development.

Social Learning Theory

According to social learning theorist such as Albert
Bandura and Walter Mischel (Bandura, 1982), children learn masculine or
feminine identities, preferences, and behaviors in two ways. First, through
differential reinforcement, children are encouraged and rewarded for sex-
appropriate behaviors and punished for behaviors considered more
appropriate for members of the other sex. Second, through observational
learning, children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models. In
this view, a child gender-role development depends on which of his or her
behaviors people reinforce or punish and on what sorts of social models are available. Change the social
environment and you change the course of gender-role development.

Differential Reinforcement
Parents clearly use differential reinforcement to teach boys how to be boys and girls how to be girls.
Beverly Fagot and Mary Leinbach (Schmader, 2002), for example, have found that parents are already
encouraging sex-appropriate play and discouraging cross-sex play during the second year of life, before
children have acquired their basic gender identities or display clear preferences for male or female activities.
By the tender age of 20 to 24 months, daughters are reinforced for dancing, dressing up (as women), following
their parents around, asking for help, and playing with dolls; they are discouraged from manipulating objects,
running, jumping, and climbing By contrast, sons are often reprimanded for such "feminine" behaviors as
playing with dolls or seeing help and are often actively encouraged to play with "masculine toys such as
blocks, trucks, and push-and-pull toys.
Does this gender curriculum" in the home influence children? It certainly does. Parents who show the
clearest patterns of differential reinforcement have children who are relatively quick to label themselves as
girls or boys and to develop strongly sex-typed toy and activity preferences. It turns out that fathers play a
central role in gender socialization; they are more likely than mothers to reward children's gender-appropriate
behavior and to discourage behavior considered more
appropriate for the other sex. Women who chose
nontraditional professions are more likely than women in
traditionally female fields to have had fathers who
encouraged them to be assertive and competitive. Fathers
then, seem to be an especially important influence on the
gender-role development of both sons and daughters.
Could differential treatment of boys and girls by
parents also contribute to sex differences in ability?
Possibly so. Jacqueline Eccles and her colleagues in 1990
(Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) have
conducted several studies to determine why girls tend to
shy away from math and science courses and are underrepresented in occupations that involve math and
science. They suggest that parental expectations about sex in mathematical ability become self-fulfilling
prophecies. The plot goes something like this:
1. Parents influenced by societal stereotypes about sex differences in ability, expect their sonsto
outperform their daughter in math.
2. attribute their son's successes in math ability but credit their daughter's successes to hard work. These
attributions for performance further reinforce the belief that girls lack mathematical talent and turn in
respectable performance only through plodding effort.
3. Children begin to internalize their parent's views, so that girls come to believe that they are "no good"
in math.
4. Thinking that they lack, ability, girls become less interested in math, less likely to take math courses,
and less likely than boys to pursue career possibilities that involve math after high school.

In short, parents who expect their daughter to have trouble with numbers get what they expect. The
negative effects of low parental expectancies on girls' self-perceptions are evident even when boys and girls
perform equally well on tests of math aptitude and attain similar grades in math. Girls whose parents are
nontraditionally in their gender-role attitudes and behaviors do not show that declines in math and science
achievement in early adolescence that girls from more traditional families display, so apparently the chain of
events Eccles describes can be broken.
Peers, like parents, reinforce boys and girls differentially. As Beverly Fagot (Dudgeon & Inhorn, 2003)
discovered, boys only 21 to 25 months of age belittle and disrupt each other for playing with "feminine" toys
or with girls, and girls express their disapproval of other girls who chose to play with boys. Some scholars
believe peers contribute at least as much to gender typing as parents do.

Observational Learning
Not only do social learning theorists call attention to differential treatment, of girls and boys by parents,
peers and teachers, but they emphasize that observational learning also contributes in important ways to
gender typing. Children see which toys and activities are for girls" and which are "for boys" and imitate
individuals of their own sex. At about the age of 6 or 7 children begin to pay much closer attention to same -
sex models than to other sex-models; for example, they will choose toys that members of their own sex prefer
even if it means passing up more attractive toys. Children who see their mothers perform so-called masculine
tasks and their fathers perform household and childcare tasks tend to be less aware of gender ste reotypes
and less, gender-typed than children who are exposed to traditional gender-role models at home. Similarly,
boys with sisters and girls with brothers have less gender-typed activity preferences than children who grow
up with same-sex sibling. Not only do children learn by watching the children and adults with whom they
interact but they also learn from the media-radio, television, movies, magazines-and even from their picture
books and elementary school readers. Although sexism in children's picture books has decreased over the
past 50 years it is still the case that male characters are more likely than female character to be engage in
active, instrumental activities, such as climbing, riding bikes, and making things, where areas female
characters are depicted as passive, dependent, and often helpless, spending their time picking flowers, to be
playing quietly indoors and "creating problems that require masculine solutions"

Cognitive Theory
 Some theorists emphasized cognitive aspects of gender-role development, claiming that, as children
acquire understanding of gender, they actively teach themselves to be girls or boys Lawrence Kohlberg based
his cognitive theory on Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, whereas Martin and Halverson based their
theory on an information-processing approach to cognitive development.

Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a cognitive theory of gender typing (Tindall & Waters, 2015) that is quite
different from the other theories we have considered and helps explain why boys and girls adopt traditional
gender roles even when their parents do not want them to do so. Among Kohlbergs major themes are these:
1. Gender-role development depends on stage-like changes in cognitive development; children must
acquire certain understandings about gender before they will be influenced by their social
experiences.
2. Children engage in self-socialization; instead of being passive targets of social influence, they actively
socialize themselves.

Kohlberg suggests that children first come

to understand that they are girls or boys and then actively seek out
same-sex models and a wide-range of information about how to act like
a boy or a girl. To Kohlberg, it's not I’m treated like a boy; therefore I
must be a boy.'" It’s more like I'm a boy, and so now I’ll do everything I
can to find out how to behave like one."
What understandings are necessary before children will teach
themselves to behave like boys or girls? Kohlberg believes that children
everywhere progress through the following stages as they acquire an
understanding of what it means to be a female or male (Thomas, 1997):
1. Basic gender identity is established by age 3, when the child
recognizes that he or she is a male or a female.
2. Somewhat later the child acquires gender stability - comes to
understand that this gender identity is stable over time. Boys invariably become men, and girls grow
up to be women.
3. The gender concept is complete, somewhere between the ages of 5 and 7, when the child achieves
gender consistency and realizes that one's sex is stable across situations. Now children know that
one's sex cannot be altered by superficial changes such as dressing up as a member of the other sex
or in engaging in cross-sex activities.

Gender Schema Theory

Carol Martin and Charles Halverson (Marin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, 2002) proposed a somewhat different
cognitive theory, an information-processing one. Like Kohlberg, they believe that children are intrinsically
motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors that are consistent with their cognitive judgments about
the self However, Martin and Halverson argue that self-socialization begins as 'soon as children acquire a
basic gender identity, at the age of 2 or 3. According to their schematic processing model, children acquire
gender schema - organized set of beliefs and expectations about males and females that influence the kinds
of information they will attend to and remember.
First, children acquire a simple in-group/out-group schema that allows them to classify some objects,
behaviors, and roles as appropriate for males and others as appropriate for females. Then they seek out
more elaborate information about the role of their own sex, constructing an own-sex schema.

Research Integration

Based on the discussions above, search for the article written by Martin and Ruble in 2002,
titled "Children's search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender
development." The article discusses how young children search for cues about gender-who
should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys
are different.
Guide Questions:
1. What constellations do children form when it comes to their gender identity?
2. How do the constellations develop?
3. What is your role as a teacher in providing gender cues to children? How would you demonstrate
these roles?

Activity: Designing a Gender Sensitive Children's Story Book

This activity will require you to work in groups and prepare a children's book that is gender sensitive
that talks about how society sees girls and boys.
1. Form groups of three.
2. Look for children's stories about men and women empowerment (e.g. Bedtime Stories for Rebel
Girls/Boys).
3. Examine how each story uplifts the character and how you would want your character to be
remembered by your readers.
4. Decide on the story you would want to do.
5. Create a storyboard for the theme you have chosen.
6. Present the storyboard to the class following this format:
a. Tentative title
b. Main characters
c. Setting
d. General plot with conflict
e. Gender issue addressed
You will be rated based on the following rubrics:
Rubrics for Grading the Storyboard
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The storyboard ‘reflected important aspects of understanding gender and gender socialization.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The story showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how gender is linked with
parents' knowledge of gender attribution etc).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The story posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned into how
experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The story specified how the article informs the self-realization and integration to teaching.
several examples of teaching observations are stated (how gender identity and gender
socialization should be taught in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how activities are
reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed one's personal
beliefs about teaching, Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

Activity: Creating a Gender Sensitive Children's Book

This activity will require you to work in groups and prepare a children's book that is
gender sensitive that talks about how society sees girls and boys based on the storyboard
presented.
1. Begin your story and work on until it ends.
2. Ask your other classmates to comment on your work.
3. Design the book pages when it comes to illustrations and color combination.
4. Your classmates will rate your book based on this rubric. (See above rubrics for indicators):
 Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The storybook ‘reflected important aspects of understanding gender and gender
socialization.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The story showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how gender is
linked with parents' knowledge of gender attribution etc).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The story posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned
into how experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The story specified how the article informs the self-realization and integration to
teaching. several examples of teaching observations are stated (how gender
identity and gender socialization should be taught in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how
activities are reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed
one's personal beliefs about teaching, Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)

ASSESS
Activity: Exhibiting your Gender Sensitive Children's Book
This activity will require you to present your stories to the experts and your target readers:
1. Show your book to experts, the experts could be your teachers in other classes.
2. Read the book to a selected number of target readers, ask them if they are able to
understand it.
3. Discuss among yourselves the value of the activity by answering these questions:
a. How did the book address gender empowerment?
b. Is the book gender sensitive? Why or why not?
Topic Mark
Summary (5)
The storybook ‘reflected important aspects of understanding gender and gender
socialization.
Previous Knowledge/Course Objectives (5)
The story showed references to previous topics discussed (e.g, how gender is
linked with parents' knowledge of gender attribution etc).
Question/Additional Knowledge Improvement for Practice (10)
The story posed information learned by the student that translates theory learned
into how experiences are understood.
Article and Relation to Practice (10)
The story specified how the article informs the self-realization and integration to
teaching. several examples of teaching observations are stated (how gender
identity and gender socialization should be taught in schools).
Value of Activities (5)
The activities were thoroughly explained (examples included), to provide how
activities are reflections of one's teaching values.
Impact on Personal Beliefs (5)
The reflection shows how the activities undertaken had enhanced or changed
one's personal beliefs about teaching, Insights are well-discussed.
Total (40)