Babylonian Empire: King Nebukhadnetzar

The Babylonian Empire was built by King Nebukhadnetzar and lasted few years after
his death. Nebukhadnetzar besieged Jerusalem and performed three deportations of
the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Judah to Babylon. With the last deportation he
destroyed Jerusalem and almost the whole population went in exile; initially
relocated in different lands of those where the deported Northern Israelites dwelled,
the exile of Judah lasted only 70 years; after then, only a few of them returned back
to Jerusalem. They became numerous throughout the Medo-Persian Empire that
succeeded the Babylonian; in that period, they also shared the same lands inhabited
by the Northern Israelites.

Babylon
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"Babilu" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Babalu. For other uses,
see Babylon (disambiguation).

Babylon

Bābilim

A partial view of the ruins of Babylon

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 • Arabic: ‫ بابل‬Babil
Alternative name
• Akkadian: 𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍 Bābili(m)[1]
• Sumerian: 𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍 KÁ.DIG̃ IR.RAKI[1]
• Aramaic: 𐡋𐡋𐡋 Bāḇel[1]
• Classical Syriac: ‫ ܒܒܠ‬Bāḇel
• Greek: Βαβυλών Babylṓn
• Hebrew: ‫ בָּ בֶ ל‬Bavel
• Old Persian: 𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍 Bābiru
• Elamite: 𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍 Babili
• Kassite: Karanduniash, Karduniash

Location Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq

Region Mesopotamia

Coordinates 32.542199°N 44.421435°ECoordinates:

32.542199°N 44.421435°E

Type Settlement

Part of Babylonia

Area 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi)

History

Founded c. 1894 BC

Abandoned c. AD 1000

Cultures Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite,

Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid,
Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian

Site notes

Archaeologists Hormuzd Rassam, Robert Koldewey, Taha

Baqir, recent Iraqi Assyriologist

Condition Ruined

Ownership Public

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name Babylon

Criteria Cultural: (iii), (vi)

 Designated 2019 (43rd session)

Reference no. 278

Region Arab States

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you
may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.
Babylon was the capital city of the ancient Babylonian Empire, which itself is a term
referring to either of two separate empires in the Mesopotamian area in antiquity.
These two empires achieved regional dominance between the 19th and 15th
centuries BC, and again between the 7th and 6th centuries BC. The city, built along
both banks of the Euphrates river, had steep embankments to contain the river's
seasonal floods. The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on
a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC) of the Akkadian
Empire. The site of the ancient city lies just south of present-day Baghdad. The last
known record of habitation of the town dates from the 10th century AD, when it was
referred to as the "small village of Babel".
The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First
Babylonian dynasty in the 19th century BC. The Amorite king Hammurabi founded
the short-lived Old Babylonian Empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a
major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known
as Babylonia, and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the region's holy city. The empire
waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna, and Babylon spent long periods
under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After the Assyrians had destroyed
and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian
Empire, a neo-Assyrian successor state, from 609 to 539 BC. The Hanging Gardens
of Babylon ranked as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall
of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of
the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires.
It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 –
c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a
population above 200,000.[2] Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range
from 890[3] to 900 hectares (2,200 acres).[4]
The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85
kilometres (53 mi) south of Baghdad, and its boundaries have been based on the
perimeter of the ancient outer city walls, an area of about 1,054.3 hectares (2,605
acres).[5] They comprise a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The
main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references
in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible,
descriptions in other classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand
descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and
sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth
century BC.[6] UNESCO inscribed Babylon as a World Heritage Site in 2019. The site
receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of whom are
Iraqis.[7][8] Construction is rapidly increasing, which has caused encroachments on
the ruins.[9][10][11]
Contents

• 1Name
• 2Rediscovering Babylon
• 3Geography
• 4Sources
o 4.1Early references
o 4.2Classical dating
• 5History
o 5.1Old Babylonian period
o 5.2Middle Babylon
o 5.3Assyrian period
o 5.4Neo-Babylonian Empire
o 5.5Persian conquest
o 5.6Hellenistic period
o 5.7Renewed Persian rule
o 5.8Muslim conquest
o 5.9Modern era
▪ 5.9.1Excavation and research
▪ 5.9.2Iraqi government
▪ 5.9.3Under US and Polish occupation
▪ 5.9.4Present-day
• 6Cultural importance
o 6.1Biblical narrative
• 7Babylon in art
• 8See also
• 9Notes
• 10References
o 10.1Sources
o 10.2Further reading
• 11External links

Name[edit]
The spelling Babylon is the Latin representation of Greek Babylṓn (Βαβυλών),
derived from the native (Babylonian) Bābilim, meaning "gate of the god(s)".
The cuneiform spelling was 𒆍𒆍𒆍𒆍 (KA₂.DIG̃ IR.RAKI).[12][failed verification] This would
correspond to the Sumerian phrase kan dig̃irak.[13] The sign 𒆍 (KA₂) is the logogram
for "gate", 𒆍 (DIG̃ IR) means "god", and 𒆍 (RA) is a sign which phonetic value is used
to represent the coda of the word dig̃ir (-r) followed by the genitive suffix -ak. The
final 𒆍 (KI) is a determinative and it indicates that the previous signs are to be
understood as a place name.
Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-
translation of the original Sumerian name.[14][15] However, the "gate of god"
interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic folk etymology to explain an
unknown original non-Semitic placename.[16] I. J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the
original name was Babilla, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other
similarly named places in Sumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian
place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later
transformed into Akkadian Bāb-ili(m), and that the Sumerian name Kan-dig̃irak was a
loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name. [17][18] The
re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time
of the "Neo-Sumerian" Third Dynasty of Ur.[19] (Bab-Il).
In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears
as Babel (Hebrew: ‫ בָּ בֶ ל‬Bavel, Tib. ‫ בָּ בֶ ל‬Bāḇel; Classical
Syriac: ‫ ܒܒܠ‬Bāwēl, Aramaic: ‫ בבל‬Bāḇel; in Arabic: ‫ َبا ِبل‬Bābil), interpreted in the Book
of Genesis to mean "confusion",[20] from the verb bilbél (‫בלבל‬, "to confuse").[21] The
modern English verb, to babble ("to speak foolish, excited, or confusing talk"), is
popularly thought to derive from this name but there is no direct connection. [22]
In Pali and Sanskrit literature, the name appears as Bāveru.[23]
Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities,
including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a
short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.[24][25]

Rediscovering Babylon[edit]
Excavations in ancient Mesopotamia started in the beginning of the first half of the
19th century, and became more intense in the decades that followed. The
excavation campaigns were mainly concerned with the locations of
the Assyrian capitals, such as Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh, whose ruins were more
prominent than others. Due to the importance of the name associated with the city,
excavations in Babylon were included later in these campaigns. These campaigns
were carried out by some of the best teams of archaeologists of that time. This was
followed by other campaigns during the second half of the 19th century to expand
knowledge of the city's sites, most of which are still unexplored. However, the
prospects for excavations shrunk dramatically, as a result of the Iraqi government's
implementation of its program, which required the reconstruction and restoration of
some of the city's landmarks, and as a result of the political situation in the country at
that time.[26][27]

Geography[edit]
Map of Babylon with major areas and modern-day villages

Babylon in 1932

Brick structures in Babylon, photographed in 2016

The ancient city, built along both banks of the Euphrates river, had steep
embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. The remains of the city are in
present-day Hillah,[15] Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of
Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The site
at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1
kilometer (1.24 mi × 0.62 mi), oriented north to south, along the Euphrates to the
west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has
since shifted so that most of the remains of the former western part of the city are
now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain.
Only a small portion of the ancient city (3% of the area within the inner walls; 1.5% of
the area within the outer walls; 0.1% at the depth of Middle and Old Babylon) has
been excavated.[28] Known remains include:

• Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-

Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site.
• Amran Ibn Ali – the highest of the mounds at 25 meters (82 ft) to the
south. It is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk that also contained
shrines to Ea and Nabu.
• Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of
the Hellenistic remains are here.
• Babil – a mound about 22 meters (72 ft) high at the northern end of the
site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a
palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.
Archaeologists have recovered few artifacts predating the Neo-Babylonian period.
The water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries, and artifacts from
the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to current standard
archaeological methods. Additionally, the Neo-Babylonians conducted significant
rebuilding projects in the city, which destroyed or obscured much of the earlier
record. Babylon was pillaged numerous times after revolting against foreign rule,
most notably by the Hittites and Elamites in the 2nd millennium, then by the Neo-
Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the 1st millennium BC. Much of the
western half of the city is now beneath the river, and other parts of the site have
been mined for commercial building materials.
Only the Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the Old Babylonian period.
These included 967 clay tablets, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature
and lexical documents.[28]
Nearby ancient settlements are Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat,
and Kutha. Marad and Sippar were 60 kilometers (37 mi) in either direction along the
Euphrates.[28]

Sources[edit]

Illustration by Leonard William King of fragment K. 8532, a part of the Dynastic

Chronicle listing rulers of Babylon grouped by dynasty.
The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself,
references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in
the Bible, descriptions in other classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and
second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an
incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak
in the sixth century BC.[6] Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number
of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo,
and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content
was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information. [29]
Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic
remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, Sippar, Mari, and Haradum.
Early references[edit]
The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from
the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. References
to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late
third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-
kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for Annūnı̄ tum and Ilaba.
Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which
collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an ensi as local governor.[18][30]
The so-called Weidner Chronicle (also known as ABC 19) states that Sargon of
Akkad (c. 23rd century BC in the short chronology) had built Babylon "in front of
Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of
Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad". (ABC 20:18–19). Van
de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian
king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather than Sargon of Akkad.[25]
Classical dating[edit]
Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's Chronographia,
claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the
founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, Belus.[31] A similar
figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who, according to Pliny,[32] stated that
astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era
of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was
built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy
(1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC.[33] All of these dates
place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC; however, cuneiform records have
not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts.

History[edit]
The Queen of the Night relief. The figure could be an aspect of the goddess Ishtar,
Babylonian goddess of sex and love.
The first attested mention of Babylon was in the late 3rd millennium BC during the
Akkadian Empire reign of ruler Shar-Kali-Sharri one of whose year names mentions
building two temples there. Babylon was ruled by ensi (governors) for the empire.
Some of the known governors were Abba, Arši-aḫ, Itūr-ilum, Murteli, Unabatal, and
Puzur-Tutu. After that nothing is heard of the city until the time of Sumu-la-El. After
around 1950 BC Amorite kingdoms appear in Uruk and Larsa in the south. [34]
Old Babylonian period[edit]

Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and
upon his death in 1750 BC
Old Babylonian cylinder seal, hematite. This seal was probably made in a workshop
at Sippar (about 65 km or 40 mi north of Babylon on the map above) either during, or
shortly before, the reign of Hammurabi.[35] It depicts the king making an animal
offering to the sun god Shamash.

Linescan camera image of the cylinder seal above (reversed to resemble an

impression).
According to a Babylonian date list, Amorite[a] rule in Babylon began (c. 19th or 18th
century BC) with a chieftain named Sumu-abum, who declared independence from
the neighboring city-state of Kazallu. Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent
with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the First Babylonian
dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the
records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a regional sphere of
influence for Babylon.[36]
Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory; its
first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful
states of Assyria, Elam, Isin, and Larsa overshadowed Babylon until it became the
capital of Hammurabi's short-lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r.
1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of
Hammurabi. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia,
including Isin, Larsa, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Kish, Adab, Eshnunna, Aksha
k, Akkad, Shuruppak, Bad-tibira, Sippar, and Girsu, coalescing them into one
kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered Elam to the
east, and the kingdoms of Mari and Ebla to the northwest. After a protracted struggle
with the powerful Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan of the Old Assyrian Empire, he forced
his successor to pay tribute late in his reign, spreading Babylonian power to
Assyria's Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Asia Minor.
After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be
known as Babylonia, whereas the north had already coalesced centuries before
into Assyria. From this time, Babylon supplanted Nippur and Eridu as the major
religious centers of southern Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's empire destabilized after
his death. Assyrians defeated and drove out the Babylonians and Amorites. The far
south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the native Sealand Dynasty, and the
Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty
remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state.
Texts from Old Babylon often include references to Shamash, the sun-god of Sippar,
treated as a supreme deity, and Marduk, considered as his son. Marduk was later
elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's
rising political power.[18]
Middle Babylon[edit]
In 1595 BC[b] the city was overthrown by the Hittite Empire from Asia Minor.
Thereafter, Kassites from the Zagros Mountains captured the city of Babylon,
renaming it Karduniash, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until
1160 BC.
Babylon weakened during the Kassite era, and as a result, Kassite Babylon began
paying tribute to the Pharaoh of Egypt, Thutmose III, following his eighth campaign
against Mitanni.[37][38] Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the Middle
Assyrian Empire (1365–1053 BC) to the north, and Elam to the east, with both
powers vying for control of the city.
By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and
Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian
dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to
domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves
of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including
the Arameans and Suteans in the 11th century BC, and finally the Chaldeans in the
9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The
Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC.
Assyrian period[edit]

Sennacherib of Assyria during his Babylonian war, relief from his palace in Nineveh
During the rule of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Babylonia was under
constant Assyrian domination or direct control. During the reign of Sennacherib of
Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain
named Merodach-Baladan, in alliance with the Elamites, and suppressed only by the
complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces
were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier
Babylon on the south. The destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the
subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the
god Nisroch was considered an act of atonement. Consequently, his
successor, Esarhaddon hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence for
part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son,
the Assyrian prince Shamash-shum-ukin, who eventually started a civil war in
652 BC against his own brother, Ashurbanipal, who ruled in Nineveh. Shamash-
shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples against Assyria, including Elam, Persia,
the Chaldeans, and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, and
the Canaanites and Arabs dwelling in the deserts south of Mesopotamia.
Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its
allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did
not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was
appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for
inclusion in his extensive library at Ninevah.[28]
After the death of Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire was destabilized due to a
series of internal civil wars throughout the reigns of the Assyrian kings Ashur-etil-
ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir, and Sinsharishkun. Eventually, Babylon, like many other parts
of the Near East, took advantage of the chaos within Assyria to free itself from
Assyrian rule. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by an alliance of
peoples, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance. [39]
Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit]
Main article: Neo-Babylonian Empire

Cuneiform cylinder from reign of Nebuchadnezzar II honoring the exorcism and

reconstruction of the ziggurat Etemenanki by Nabopolassar.[40]
Detail of a relief from the reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate

A reconstruction of the blue-tiled Ishtar Gate, which was the northern entrance to
Babylon. It was named for the goddess of love and war. Bulls and dragons, symbols
of the god Marduk, decorated the gate.
Under Nabopolassar, a previously Chaldean King, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule,
and in an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes who was his son in law together
with Cimmerians, finally destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 612 BC and 605
BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes called the
Chaldean) Empire.[41][42][43]
With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity
ensued, particularly during the reign of his son Nebuchadnezzar II (604–
561 BC).[44] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial
grounds, including the Etemenanki ziggurat, and the construction of the Ishtar
Gate—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the
Ishtar Gate is located in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, said to have been built for
his homesick wife, Amytis. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of
dispute. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey speculated that he had discovered
its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location. Stephanie
Dalley has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located in the Assyrian
capital, Nineveh.[45]
Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with the Babylonian exile of the
Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians,
in which ethnic groups in conquered areas were deported en masse to the
capital.[46] According to the Hebrew Bible, he destroyed Solomon's
Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in
the Babylonian Chronicles.[47][48]
Persian conquest[edit]
Main article: Fall of Babylon
In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, with a
military engagement known as the Battle of Opis. Babylon's walls were considered
impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates or
through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the
river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a
plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops
upstream diverted the Euphrates River, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city
through the lowered water. The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the
city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach.
The account was elaborated upon by Herodotus[49][29] and is also mentioned in parts
of the Hebrew Bible.[50][51] Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and
broad wall cemented with bitumen and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to
the city. He also writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury
their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among
them eat nothing but fish. The hundred gates can be considered a reference
to Homer, and following the pronouncement of Archibald Henry Sayce in 1883,
Herodotus' account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek
folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. However, recently, Dalley and
others have suggested taking Herodotus' account seriously. [49][52]

Babylonian soldier in the Achaemenid army, circa 470 BC, Xerxes I tomb.
According to 2 Chronicles 36 of the Hebrew Bible, Cyrus later issued a decree
permitting captive people, including the Jews, to return to their own lands. The text
found on the Cyrus Cylinder has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as
corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed [by
whom?]
because the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no
mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea.
Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius I, Babylon became the capital
city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a
center of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the ancient
Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalized, and Babylonian
scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative
capital of the Persian Empire and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many
important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better
understanding of that era.[53][54]
The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies
of Marduk, who was the most important god, but by the reign of Darius III, over-
taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main
shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were
numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 BC
(Nebuchadnezzar IV) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native
Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However, these revolts were
quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries,
until Alexander the Great's entry in 331 BC.
Hellenistic period[edit]
In October of 331 BC, Darius III, the last Achaemenid king of the Persian Empire,
was defeated by the forces of the Ancient Macedonian ruler Alexander at the Battle
of Gaugamela.
Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce.
However, following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar,
his empire was divided amongst his generals, the Diadochi, and decades of
fighting soon began. The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A
tablet dated 275 BC states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported
to Seleucia, where a palace and a temple (Esagila) were built. With this deportation,
Babylon became insignificant as a city, although more than a century later, sacrifices
were still performed in its old sanctuary.[55]
Renewed Persian rule[edit]
Main article: Babylonia § Persian Babylonia
Under the Parthian and Sassanid Empires, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province
of these Persian Empires for nine centuries, until after AD 650.[citation needed] Although it
was captured briefly by Trajan in AD 116 to be part of the newly conquered province
of Mesopotamia, his successor Hadrian relinquished his conquests east of the
Euphrates river, which became again the Roman Empire's eastern boundary. [56][57]
However, Babylon maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties
of Aramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Examples of
their culture are found in the Babylonian Talmud,
the Gnostic Mandaean religion, Eastern Rite Christianity and the religion of the
philosopher Mani. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd
centuries AD, and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of the Church of the East until
well after the Arab/Islamic conquest. Coins from the Parthian, Sasanian and Arabic
periods excavated in Babylon demonstrate the continuity of settlement there.[58]
Muslim conquest[edit]
Main article: Muslim conquest of Persia
In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was invaded and settled by the
expanding Muslim Empire, and a period of Islamization followed. Babylon was
dissolved as a province and Aramaic and Church of the East Christianity eventually
became marginalized. Ibn Hawqal (10th century) and the Arab scholar, al-Qazwini
(13th century), describe Babylon (Babil) as a small village. [59] The latter described a
well referred to as the 'Dungeon of Daniel' that was visited by Christians and Jews
during holidays. The grave-shrine of Amran ibn Ali was visited by Muslims.
Babylon is mentioned in medieval Arabic writings as a source of bricks, [28] said to
have been used in cities from Baghdad to Basra.[60]
European travellers, in many cases, could not discover the city's location, or
mistook Fallujah for it. Benjamin of Tudela, a 12th-century traveller, mentions
Babylon, but it is not clear if he went there. Others referred to Baghdad as Babylon
or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the
Tower of Babel.[61] Pietro della Valle travelled to the village of Babil in Babylon in the
17th century and noted the existence of both baked and dried mudbricks cemented
with bitumen.[60][62]
Modern era[edit]

Plan of ruins in 1905 with locations and names of villages

From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of
Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no
conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and
perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should
have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal
structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such
must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most
assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few
insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of
building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely
of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and
extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable
confusion.
Claudius J. Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon (1815), pp. 1–2.[63]

Lion of Babylon
The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travellers to Babylon,
including Carsten Niebuhr and Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp, as well as
measurements of its latitude. Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation
in 1792, provoked the British East India Company to direct its agents in Baghdad
and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London. [64]
By 1905, there were several villages in Babylon, one of which was Qwaresh with
about 200 households located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls.
The village grew due to the need for laborers during the German Oriental Society
excavations (1899-1917).
Excavation and research[edit]
Claudius Rich, working for the British East India Company in Baghdad, excavated
Babylon in 1811–12 and again in 1817.[65][66] Captain Robert Mignan explored the
site briefly in 1827 and in 1829 he completed a map of Babylon which includes the
location of several villages.[67][68] William Loftus visited there in 1849.[69] Austen
Henry Layard made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 before abandoning
the site.[70][71]

Location of the Al Qurnah Disaster where over hundreds of cases of antiquities from
Fresnel's mission were lost in 1855
"Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting by Charles LeBrun, depicts
Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with
pre-existing Hellenistic architecture.
Fulgence Fresnel, Julius Oppert and Felix Thomas heavily excavated Babylon from
1852 to 1854.[72][73] However, much of their work was lost in the Qurnah
Disaster when a transport ship and four rafts sank on the Tigris river in May
1855.[74] They had been carrying over 200 crates of artifacts from various excavation
missions when they were attacked by Tigris river pirates near Al-
Qurnah.[75][76] Recovery efforts, assisted by the Ottoman authorities and British
Residence in Baghdad, loaded the equivalent of 80 crates on a ship for Le Havre in
May 1856.[77][74] Few antiquities from the Fresnel mission would make it to
France.[74][75][72] Subsequent efforts to recover the lost antiquities from the Tigris,
including a Japanese expedition in 1971–2, have been largely unsuccessful. [77]

Original tiles of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.

Henry Rawlinson and George Smith worked there briefly in 1854. The next
excavation was conducted by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of the British Museum.
Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting
of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a
large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods,
common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological
context.[78][79] Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's
excavation began.[28]

Mušḫuššu (sirrush) and aurochs on either side of the processional street. Ancient
Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq
A team from the German Oriental Society led by Robert Koldewey conducted the
first scientific archaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conducted daily
from 1899 until 1917. The primary efforts of the dig involved the temple
of Marduk and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city
wall.[80][81][82][83][84][85] Artifacts, including pieces of the Ishtar Gate and hundreds of
recovered tablets, were sent back to Germany, where Koldewey's colleague Walter
Andrae reconstructed them into displays at the Vorderasiatisches Museum
Berlin.[86][87] The German archaeologists fled before oncoming British troops in 1917,
and again, many objects went missing in the following years.[28]
Further work by the German Archaeological Institute was conducted by Heinrich J.
Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid in 1962. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with
the Hellenistic theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple ziggurat Etemenanki.[88]
The site was excavated in 1974 on behalf of the Turin Centre for Archaeological
Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia and the Iraqi-Italian Institute
of Archaeological Sciences.[89][90] The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-
examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on
the area surrounding the Ishara and Ninurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of
Babylon.[91][92]
During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities
and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider
publication of these archaeological activities has been limited. [93][94] Indeed, most of
the known tablets from all modern excavations remain unpublished. [28]
Iraqi government[edit]
The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to Iraq since the creation of the
modern Iraqi state in 1921. The site was officially protected and excavated by
the Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration, which later became the Hashemite
Kingdom of Iraq, and its successors: the Arab Federation, the Iraqi
Republic, Ba'athist Iraq (also officially called the Iraqi Republic), and the Republic of
Iraq. Babylonian images periodically appear on Iraqi postcards and stamps. In the
1960s, a replica of the Ishtar Gate and a reconstruction of Ninmakh Temple were
built on site.[95]
On 14 February 1978, the Ba'athist government of Iraq under Saddam
Hussein began the "Archaeological Restoration of Babylon Project": reconstructing
features of the ancient city atop its ruins. These features included the Southern
Palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with 250 rooms, five courtyards, and a 30-meter
entrance arch. The project also reinforced the Processional Way, the Lion of
Babylon, and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In 1982, the
government minted a set of seven coins displaying iconic features of Babylon. A
Babylon International Festival was held in September 1987, and annually thereafter
until 2002 (excepting 1990 and 1991), to showcase this work. The proposed
reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took
place.[96][95][97]
Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the
ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar.
One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of
Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". These bricks became sought after as collectors'
items after Hussein's downfall.[98] Similar projects were conducted
at Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur and Hatra, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab
achievement.[99]
In the 1980s, Saddam Hussein completely removed the village of Qwaresh,
displacing its residents.[100][11] He later constructed a modern palace in that area
called Saddam Hill over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a ziggurat. In
2003, he intended to have a cable car line constructed over Babylon, but plans were
halted by the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Under US and Polish occupation[edit]
World Monuments Fund video on conservation of Babylon
Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the area around Babylon came under the control
of US troops, before being handed over to Polish forces in September 2003.[101] US
forces under the command of General James T. Conway of the I Marine
Expeditionary Force were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with
a helipad and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during the Iraq War. US
forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused irreparable damage to
the archaeological record. In a report of the British Museum's Near East department,
Dr. John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create
a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the
occupation forces:
They caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famous
monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick
pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12
trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects
contaminated the site for future generations of scientists. [102]
A US military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with
the "head of the Babylon museum".[103] The head of the Iraqi State Board for
Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to
sort out" and criticised Polish troops for causing "terrible damage" to the
site.[104][105] Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and
commissioned a report titled Report Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of
the Babylon Archaeological Site, which it presented at a meeting on 11–13
December 2004.[96] In 2005, the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of
Culture.[101]
In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the I Marine
Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military
personnel under his command. However, he also claimed that the US presence had
deterred far greater damage by other looters.[106] An article published in April 2006
stated that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it
into a cultural center.[107][108]
Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and
reports, were raided and destroyed.[109]

Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon photographed in 2005

Present-day[edit]
In May 2009, the provincial government of Babil reopened the site to tourists and
over 35,000 people visited in 2017.[7] An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the
city.[110][111] On 5 July 2019, the site of Babylon was inscribed as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.[8]
Thousands of people reside in Babylon within the perimeter of the ancient outer city
walls, and communities in and around them are "rapidly developing from compact,
dense settlements to sprawling suburbia despite laws restricting
constructions".[11] Modern villages include Zwair West, Sinjar Village, Qwaresh, and
Al-Jimjmah among which the first two are better off economically. [112] Most residents
primarily depend on daily wage earning or have government jobs in Al-Hillah, while
few cultivate dates, citrus fruits, figs, fodder for livestock and limited cash crops,
although income from the land alone is not enough to sustain a family. [11] Both Shi'a
and Sunni Muslims live in Sinjar village with mosques for both groups.[11]
The State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) is the main authority responsible
for the conservation of the archeological site. They are assisted by Antiquity and
Heritage Police and maintain a permanent presence there. The World Monuments
Fund is also involved in research and conservation. The SBAH Provincial
Inspectorate Headquarters is located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city
walls on the east side and several staff members and their families reside in
subsidized housing in this area.

Cultural importance[edit]

Woodcut in 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle depicting the fall of Babylon

"The Walls of Babylon and the Temple of Bel (Or Babel)", by 19th-century
illustrator William Simpson – influenced by early archaeological investigations
Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of
Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a
hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman
culture.[113]
Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the Bible, the
word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large,
bustling diverse city. Examples include:

• Babylon is used in reggae music as a concept in the Rastafari belief

system, denoting the materialistic capitalist world, or any form of
imperialist evil. It is believed that Babylon actively seeks to exploit and
oppress the people of the world, specifically people of African descent. It
is believed by Rastafarians that Babylon attempts to forbid the smoking of
ganja because this sacred herb opens minds to the truth. [citation needed]
• Freemasonry, which has its own versions of biblical legends, classically
considered Babylon as its birthplace and a haven for science and
knowledge.[114]
• Babylon 5 – a science fiction series set on a futuristic space station that
acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures.
Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting,
respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or
looking on each other with prejudice and suspicion.[citation needed]
• Babylon A.D. takes place in New York City, decades in the future.[non-primary
source needed]

• Babilonas (Lithuanian name for "Babylon") is a real estate development

in Lithuania[non-primary source needed]
• "Babylon" is a song by Lady Gaga that uses allusions to ancient Biblical
themes to discuss gossip.[non-primary source needed]
• Eternals (2021), depicts Babylon on its greatest extent and is shown to be
protected and aided in its development by the eternals.
Biblical narrative[edit]
In the Book of Genesis,[115] Babel (Babylon) is described as founded
by Nimrod along with Uruk, Akkad and perhaps Calneh—all of them
in Shinar ("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the
phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united
human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and
tower—the Tower of Babel. God halts construction of the tower by scattering
humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to
understand each other in the same language.
After Hezekiah, the king of Judah, became ill, Baladan, king of Babylon, sent a letter
and gifts to him. Hezekiah showed all of his treasures to the delegation, and the
prophet Isaiah later said to him: "Behold, the days are coming when everything that
is in your house, and what your fathers have stored up to this day, will be carried to
Babylon; nothing will be left."[116] Some 200 years later, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of
Babylon, invaded Judah, laid siege to Jerusalem and deported the Jews to
Babylon.[117]
The prophet Daniel lived in Babylon for most of his life. Nebuchadnezzar made
Daniel ruler over the entire province of Babylon for having interpreted his dream.
Years later, Belshazzar held a banquet, at which fingers of a hand appeared and
wrote on a wall. Daniel was called to provide an interpretation of the writings, upon
which he explained that God had put an end to Belshazzar's kingdom. Belshazzar
was killed that very night, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom. [118]
The Book of Isaiah says the following regarding Babylon: "It will be like Sodom and
Gomorrah when God overthrew them. It will never be inhabited or lived in for all
generations; no Arab will pitch his tent there; no shepherds will make their flocks lie
down there."[119] The Book of Jeremiah says that Babylon will "never again be
inhabited" and that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it" and
that it will be a land in which "no one of mankind passes."[120] The territories of
Babylon, Edom, Bozrah, Moab, Tyre, Hazor, and the sons of Ammon are all
predicted in the Bible to become like Sodom and Gomorrah, or uninhabited
forever.[121]
Several Biblical prophecy scholars, most notably Chuck Missler, maintain that the
"Doom of Babylon" as described in detail in Isaiah 13–14, Jeremiah 50–51, and
possibly Rev 17-18 must refer to a literal, future destruction of an actual city. Missler
has written that Babylon has yet to be completely destroyed as prophesied by Isaiah
and Jeremiah. The Persians were able to take Babylon without a fight in 539 BC.
In Jewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous
believers must struggle.[citation needed] In Christianity, Babylon symbolizes worldliness
and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon
with Lucifer. Nebuchadnezzar II, sometimes conflated with Nabonidus, appears as
the foremost ruler in this narrative.[122]
The Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible refers to Babylon many centuries after
it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "Whore of
Babylon", riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns, and drunk on the
blood of the righteous. Some scholars of apocalyptic literature believe this New
Testament "Babylon" to be a dysphemism for the Roman Empire.[123] Other scholars
suggest that Babylon in the book of Revelation has a symbolic significance that
extends beyond mere identification with the first century Roman empire.