Australia (continent)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about the landmasses next to Wallacea. For the country, see Australia.
For the continental mainland, see mainland Australia. For other uses, see Australia
(disambiguation).
"Oceania (continent)" redirects here. For the region, see Oceania.
Not to be confused with Australasia.
Coordinates: 26°S 141°E

Australia

Area 8,600,000 km2 (3,300,000 sq mi) (7th)

Population 39,000,000[note 1] (6th)

Population 4.2/km2 (11/sq mi)

density

Demonym Australian/Papuan

Countries show

Dependencies show

External (2)

show

Internal (3)
 Languages English, Indonesian, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, 269

indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, and

about 70 Indigenous Australian languages

Time zones UTC+8, UTC+9:30, UTC+10

Internet TLD .au, .id, and .pg

Largest cities List of cities in Australia by population

List of cities and towns in Papua New Guinea by

population

show

List

The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts by the

names Sahul (/səˈhuːl/), Australia–New Guinea, Australinea,[citation needed] Meganesia,
or Papualand to distinguish it from the country of Australia, consists of
the landmasses located next to Wallacea.[1] The name "Sahul" takes its name from
the Sahul Shelf, which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The
continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, the island of New Guinea (Papua
New Guinea and portions of Indonesia), the Aru Islands, the Ashmore and Cartier
Islands, most of the Coral Sea Islands, and some other offshore continental islands.
Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, Australia is the smallest of the seven
traditional continents.
The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into
several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia
and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania.
When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial
Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000
to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent
into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of
New Guinea and Tasmania.
With a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres (3,310,000 sq mi), the
Australian continent is the smallest, lowest, flattest, and second-driest continent
(after Antarctica) on Earth.[2][3] As the country of Australia is mostly on a single
landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to
as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.[4]
Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and
linguistically diverse countries in the world.[5] It is also one of the most rural, as only 18
percent of its people live in urban centres.[6] West Papua, a province of Indonesia, is
home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[7] Australia, the largest landmass
in the continent, is highly urbanised,[8] and has the world's 14th-largest economy with
 the second-highest human development index globally.[9][10] Australia also has the
world's 9th largest immigrant population.[11][12]

Contents

 1Terminology
 2Geology and geography
 3Human history
o 3.1Indigenous peoples
o 3.2Pre-colonial history
o 3.3European exploration
o 3.4Modern history
 4Ecology
o 4.1Flora
o 4.2Fauna
 5Climate
 6Demography
o 6.1Religion
o 6.2Languages
o 6.3Immigration
 7Economy
 8Politics
 9Culture
o 9.1Sport
 10See also
 11Notes
 12References
 13Bibliography

Terminology[edit]

Mainland Australia showing the continental Sahul Shelf (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea
in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south

The continent of Australia is sometimes known by the names Sahul, Australinea, or

Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, and consists of the
landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. This includes mainland
Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which comprises Papua New
Guinea and Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua, provinces
of Indonesia).[13][14][15][16][17] The name "Sahul" takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which
is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent.
The term Oceania, originally a "great division" of the world, was replaced by the
concept of Australia as a continent in the 1950s.[18] Today, the term Oceania is often
used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, Zealandia and
various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-
continent model.[19][20]
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Before the 1970s,
the single Pleistocene landmass was called Australasia, derived from
the Latin australis, meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a
wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental
shelf. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene
continent.[21] Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, [22] the
name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the
continent.[21]
In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name Meganesia, meaning "great island" or "great
island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands,[23] and this
name has been widely accepted by biologists.[24] Others have used Meganesia with
different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his
definition[25] and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii.[26] Another
biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004.[27] Australia–New
Guinea has also been used.[28]

Geology and geography[edit]

Main articles: Geology of Australia, Geography of Australia, and Geography of Papua
New Guinea

The Sahul continent

The Australian continent, being part of the Indo-Australian Plate (more specifically,
the Australian Plate), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth [29] and it has
had a relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of
Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia.[30] New Zealand and
Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia, with New
Guinea being in Melanesia.
The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into
several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia
and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania.
When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial
Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past
18,000[31] to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the
continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous
islands of New Guinea and Tasmania.[32] The continental shelf connecting the islands,
half of which is less than 50 metres (160 ft) deep, covers some 2.5 million square
kilometres (970,000 sq mi), including the Sahul Shelf[33][34] and Bass Strait.
Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between
tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part
of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore
currently has no active volcanism.[35]

Sea level rise since the Last Glacial Maximum.

The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location
on its tectonic plate, Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only
continent with this distinction.[36] The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the
southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million
years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a
continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising
sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between
about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea,
separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland.
A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands,
and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of
the Pacific Plate. The Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the
continent; it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. Papua New Guinea
has several volcanoes, as it is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic
eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis because of
this.[37] Mount Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the
continent,[38] and at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft) above sea level, Puncak Jaya is
the highest mountain.

Human history[edit]
Main articles: History of Australia, History of Western New Guinea, and History of
Papua New Guinea
The Australian continent and Sunda were points of early human migrations after
leaving Africa.[39] Recent research points to a planned migration of hundreds of people
using bamboo rafts, which eventually landed on Sahul.[40][41][42]
Indigenous peoples[edit]

Aboriginal pictographs known as Wandjina in the Wunnumurra Gorge, Barnett River, Kimberley, Western
Australia

Further information: Prehistory of Australia, Aboriginal Australians § Origins, History

of Indigenous Australians, and History of Papua New Guinea
Indigenous Australians, that is Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait
Islander people, are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby
islands. They migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago[43] and arrived in
Australia at least 50,000 years ago, based on archaeological evidence. [44] More recent
research points to earlier arrival, possibly 65,000 years ago.[45]
They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. There is
evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and
the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may
be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.[46] The earliest known human
remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South
Wales.[47] Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest
known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among
humans.[48] Dreamtime remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art, the
oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.[49]
Papuan habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago
in New Guinea.[50] Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands
was documented as early as the seventh century, and archipelagic rule of New Guinea
by the 13th. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Sumatra-based empire
of Srivijaya (7th century–13th century) engaged in trade relations with western New
Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China,
but later making slaves out of the natives.[51] The rule of the Java-based empire
of Majapahit (1293–1527) extended to the western fringes of New Guinea.[52] Recent
archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied
sites in the highlands at New Guinean altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), rather than
being restricted to warmer coastal areas.[53]
Pre-colonial history[edit]

Terra Australis, as it appears on a map by Rumold Mercator, 1587

Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to

Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although
not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. [54] Ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle speculated of a large landmass in the southern hemisphere,
saying, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern
pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...". [55] His ideas were later expanded
by Ptolemy (2nd century AD), who believed that the lands of the Northern
Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the south. The theory of balancing land
has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius, who uses
the term Australis on his maps.[56]
Terra Australis, a hypothetical continent first posited in antiquity, appeared on maps
between the 15th and 18th centuries.[57] Scientists, such as Gerardus
Mercator (1569)[58] and Alexander Dalrymple as late as 1767 argued for its existence,
with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the south as
a counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere.[59] The
cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries,
as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal
data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential
locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent included Tierra del Fuego,
separated from South America by a small strait; New Guinea; and what would come
to be called Australia.[60]
European exploration[edit]
Main articles: Netherlands New Guinea, European exploration of Australia,
and History of Australia (1788–1850)

A typical map from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography (ca. 1590s–1720s).
In 1606 Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon made the first documented European sight
and landing on the continent of Australia in Cape York Peninsula.[61] Dutch
explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of
the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's
Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands.[62] He was the first
known European explorer to reach these islands.[63]
In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the
expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, discovered
the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres
Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres,
who was the first European to explore the Strait. When Europeans first arrived,
inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone,
wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch
recognised the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. The first known
Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably
the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of
the 16th century.
On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct
observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point.[64] On 29
April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a
place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first
contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal, who he fired upon, injuring
one.[65] His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered the
eastern coastline of Australia.[66] Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships
and about 850 convicts into Sydney on 26 January 1788.[67] This was to be the location
for the new colony. Phillip described Sydney Cove as being "without exception the
finest harbour in the world".[68]
Modern history[edit]
Main articles: History of Australia (1901–45), History of Australia since 1945, Military
history of Australia during World War II, and Pacific War
In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New
Guinea, but the British government did not approve. [69] The Commonwealth of
Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by
the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun, on 1 January 1901. From that point a system
of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an
entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing
division of powers between that government and the States. With the encouragement
of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern
coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea was annexed
outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated
Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British
New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua, with formal Australian
administration beginning in 1906.[70]
An Australian light machine gun team in action near Wewak, Papua New Guinea, in June 1945

The bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever
mounted by a foreign power on Australia.[71] In an effort to isolate Australia, the
Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of
New Guinea. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese
attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea.
The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone
for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The
offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of
connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.[72]
Following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other
Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, "Special
Autonomy" status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation
has been partial and often criticized.[73] The region was administered as a single
province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua.
Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief
Minister Michael Somare, who pledged to lead the country to self-government and
then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December
1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined
the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975.[74]
Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for
the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British
migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally
acceptable to Australians or British workers".[75] Australia fought on the side of Britain
in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when
threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a
post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every
continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the
end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014. [76]

Ecology[edit]
Flora[edit]
See also: Flora of Australia and Fungi of Australia
Australian eucalyptus forest in a state of regeneration.

Baliem Valley in the New Guinea Highlands

For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated.
During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the
overall trend was towards greater aridity. When South America eventually separated
from Antarctica, the development of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current changed
weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked
intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of
the long-established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to the distinctive
hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.
Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus (eastern Australia
and New Guinea), the rainforest emergents Araucaria (eastern Australia and New
Guinea), Nothofagus (New Guinea and Tasmania)
and Agathis (northern Queensland and New Guinea), as well as tree ferns and
several species of Eucalyptus. Prominent features of the Australian flora are
adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These
adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known
families Proteaceae (Banksias and Grevilleas), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus or gum
trees, Melaleucas and Callistemons), Fabaceae (Acacias or wattles),
and Casuarinaceae (Casuarinas or she-oaks), which are typically found in the
Australian mainland. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical
rainforest species with origins in Asia, such as Castanopsis
acuminatissima, Lithocarpus spp., elaeocarps, and laurels, together with typically
Australasian flora. In the New Guinean highlands, conifers such
as Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Papuacedrus and Libocedrus are present.[77]
For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered Great
Dividing Range. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool
uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90
million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with
the Eurasian plate to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent
to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by
reverse (downwards) buckling, the Torres Strait that now separates the two main
landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of Wallacea, which served as
island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from Southeast Asia's rainforests to
colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into
Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow
plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals
between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.
Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the "golf-
ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift:
the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and
southern Argentina and Chile.[78]
Fauna[edit]
See also: Fauna of Australia and Fauna of New Guinea

The king bird-of-paradise is one of over 300 bird species in West Papua.

Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass
the separate lands have a related biota.[79] There are over 300 bird species in West
Papua, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very
restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia, Vogelkop bowerbird, and
the king bird-of-paradise.[80]
Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24%
of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to
Australia.[81] This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long
geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate
change on the soil and flora over geological time. Australia and its territories are home
to around 800 species of bird;[82] 45% of these are endemic to Australia.[83] Predominant
bird species in Australia include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied
currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing
kookaburra.[84] The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of
Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the
[85]

country.[86] The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.[87]

Natural history illustrator John Gould popularised the koala with his 1863 work The Mammals of Australia.

As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a

unique fauna, flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also
existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete
the placental mammals and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six
orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195
of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity
of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-
building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. New Guinea
has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. Bird life also
flourished—in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes, suborder Passeri) are
thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later
became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica, before radiating into a
great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe. [88]
Animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to
Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed
in animal, fungal and plant life.

 While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of
species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the
overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward
the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained
reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal,
fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular ecological niches.
 Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species
arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
 Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively
infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents
had volcanic activity and/or massive glaciation events to turn over fresh,
unleached rocks rich in minerals, the rocks and soils of Australia–New Guinea
were left largely untouched except by gradual erosion and deep weathering. In
general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of
species/level of biodiversity. This is because where nutrients are plentiful,
competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope
for innovative co-evolution as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In
 contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning
individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for
divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.
Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be
expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands
is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across
Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are
severely threatened by population growth.

Climate[edit]
Main article: Climate of Australia
In New Guinea, the climate is mostly monsoonal (December to March), southeast
monsoon (May to October), and tropical rainforest with slight seasonal temperature
variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around 80 °F (27 °C) year round. But
the higher altitudes, such as Mendi, are constantly around 70 °F (21 °C) with cool lows
nearing 52 °F (11 °C), with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The New Guinea
Highlands are one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall,
which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island
experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly 4,500
millimetres (180 in) of rainfall annually.
The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern
coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid
subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The
northern parts of the country have a tropical climate.[89] Snow falls frequently on
the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South
Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Temperatures in Australia
have ranged from above 50 °C (122 °F) to well below 0 °C (32 °F). Nonetheless,
minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is
associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of
the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside
considerable wet periods.[90]

Ice cap at top of Puncak Jaya in Papua (1972).



Autumn in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales.

A tropical rainforest in Papua New Guinea.

Simpson desert in Northern Territory.

Monsoonal squall in Darwin.



Snow in Jindabyne, New South Wales, a town in the Snowy Mountains.

Grassland in Queensland with mountains in background.

 Spring in the apple orchards of Tasmania.

Demography[edit]
Religion[edit]
Main articles: Religion in Australia and Religion in Papua New Guinea

Migrants to Australia disembarking from a ship, ca. 1885

Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of

Australians belong to no religion.[91] Other religions in the region
include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in
Australia. Traditional religions are often animist, found in New Guinea. Islam is
widespread in the Indonesian New Guinea.[92] Many Papuans combine their Christian
faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices.[93]
Languages[edit]
Main articles: Languages of Australia, Languages of Papua New Guinea,
and Languages of Indonesia
"Aboriginal Australian languages", including the large Pama–Nyungan family,
"Papuan languages" of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the
large Trans–New Guinea family, and "Tasmanian languages" are generic terms for
the native languages of the continent other than those
of Austronesian family.[94] Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok
Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New
Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such
as Italian, Greek, Arabic, Filipino, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Spanish, among
others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances
[95]

in mixed languages such as Maisin. Tok Pisin is an English creole language spoken
in Papua New Guinea.[96] Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other
country,[5] with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total,
but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers.[97]
Immigration[edit]
Main article: Immigration to Australia
Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s,
there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European
countries, making Australia a multicultural country.[98] Sydney is the
most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken,
with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at
home.[99] Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born
overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among
others.[100][101] Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-
speaking population outside of Europe,[102] and the second largest Asian population in
Australia after Sydney.[103][104][105]

Economy[edit]

Melbourne has been placed alongside New York City and Berlin as one of the world's great street art spots,
ranked the world's most liveable city for several years running and designated a "City of Literature"
by UNESCO in its Creative Cities Network.[106]

Main articles: Economy of Australia and Economy of Papua New Guinea

Australia is the only first world country in the Australian-New Guinea continent,
although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy
in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP
is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing
power parity.[107] The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock
exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific.[108] In 2012, Australia was the 12th
largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-
adjusted GDP.[109] Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian
economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3.0%
of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015,
[110]

there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.[111]

The Sydney Opera House is an iconic image of Sydney, and the continent itself.[112][113] Ranking highly
in quality of life measurements, Sydney is consistently selected as one of the world's most liveable cities.

Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of
living,[114] making it one of the most livable cities.[115] It is classified as an Alpha+ World
City by GaWC.[116][117] Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable
city list,[118] and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region.[119][120]
Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two-thirds of their
export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's
development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign
demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil
company and began to export in 2004 and this was the largest project in PNG's
history.[121][122] Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by
the International Monetary Fund.[123] Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and
resource sector led to the country becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the
world in 2011.[124][125]

Politics[edit]

Government House, Canberra is the official residence of the Governor-General.

Main articles: Politics of Australia and Politics of Papua New Guinea

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy[126] with Elizabeth II at its
apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of
the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Australia by
the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who
by convention act on the advice of her ministers.[127][128] There are two major political
groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor
Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor
partner, the National Party.[129][130] Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is
considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left.[131]
Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm. As such, Queen Elizabeth II is its
sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared the draft
constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua
New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that
imperial honours had a cachet.[132] The monarch is represented by the Governor-
General of Papua New Guinea, currently Bob Dadae. Papua New Guinea (along with
the Solomon Islands) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-
general are elected by the legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch.

Culture[edit]
Main articles: Culture of Australia, Culture of Papua New Guinea, and Australian
Aboriginal culture

Didgeridoo player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with East Journey[133]

Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-
Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences.[134][135][136] The divergence and
evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive
Australian culture.[137][138][139] Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has
strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. [140][136] Other
cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale
immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[140][136][141][142] The Australian Museum in
Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest
and largest museums in the continent, as well as in Oceania.[143][144] Sydney's New
Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in the continent.[145]

Kurulu Village War Chief at Baliem Valley in New Guinea.

It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New
Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which
they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group
has created its own expressive forms in art, performance
art, weaponry, costumes and architecture. Papua New Guinea is one of the few
cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of bride price.[146] In particular, Papua New
Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story-boards.
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best
known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia
can be traced back at least 30,000 years.[147] Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock
artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as
those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern
Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase
National Park in Sydney.[148][149] Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and
ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime. Reverence for the land and oral
traditions are emphasized.[150]
Sport[edit]
Main articles: Sport in Australia and Sport in Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea's national team at the 2008 International Cup (Australian rules football) in Melbourne

Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of football (rugby
league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules
football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are
also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most
popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also
unofficially holds the title as the national sport.[151] The most popular sport in Australia
is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian
rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television
ratings.[152][153][154]
Australia has hosted two Summer Olympic Games: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney
2000. Australia has also hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney
1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, and Gold Coast 2018). In
2006 Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010
and 2014 World Cups as an Asian entrant.[155]