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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Dimensional structural mass optimization of forged steel


connecting rod for aircraft piston engine

M Helal1,2, B F Felemban1 , A Alharthi1, S Almalki1, E Fathallah 3,4 , A A


Elsherbiny2 and H Eleashy5
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Taif University, Taif
21974
2
Production and Mechanical Design Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura
University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
3
Civil Engineering Department, M.T.C. Kobry Elkobba - Cairo, Egypt
4
Ships and Submarines Engineering Department, Military Technical College, Cairo,
Egypt.
5
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Future
University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt

E-mail: saidhabib2000@hotmail.com

Abstract. The connecting rod is an important component of the engine. It conveys the kinetic
energy from the piston to the crankshaft. All cars and aircraft engines contain at least one
connecting rod, which differs from one motor to another in terms of length, size and shape.
Hence, it is subjected to massive alternating load. This research aims to improve the connecting
rod design by reducing its mass without sacrificing durability and safety especially for aircraft
applications. Therefore, a static stress analysis is carried out on forged steel connecting rod using
ANSYS APDL. Geometric modelling of the connecting rod was created using ANSYS APDL.
Additionally, von-Mises stress and strain, principal stresses and strains, shear stress and the
deflation results of the connecting rod are investigated. The results showed a great opportunity
for mass weight reduction. Thus, a dimensional structural mass optimization was performed. The
optimization results were promising, which reduced the mass by 55.13% (in the tensile case) and
56.7% (in the compression case) from the initial design. Therefore, the efficiency of aircraft
engine can be maximized.

1. Introduction:
One of the most critical parts of the internal combustion engines is the connecting rod which connects
the piston to the crankshaft. In general, connecting rods are made of steel for vehicles and aircraft
engines. But, it can be made from different materials such as Titanium for high-performance engines, or
Aluminum (for the ability to absorb high impact and lightness at the expense of durability) or Cast iron
for applications such as motor scooters. The connecting rod is under reciprocating load and due to this
is under an incredible tensile and compression stress at every rotation. One of the most common engine
failure cases is the connecting rod failure, which can result from a physical defect in the rod, lubrication,
or bolt defects. Often these failures happen at competitive automobile events. But, not on production
cars during normal daily driving, which rarely occurs, due to the greater safety factor in parts production,
and quality control is often more systematic [1, 2]. The demand for robust and alternative materials has
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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

grown in the industry fields. A technique of hybridization involves a combination of two or more
reinforcements to obtain better mechanical properties, such as strength, stiffness, higher strength to
weight ratio, etc. And by combining two or more low-cost materials with different properties, the hybrid
materials are formed. These advanced materials are used for high-strength; light-weight applications in
automobiles, aerospace, etc. several techniques are used to create hybrid metal matrix composites such
as stir cum squeeze, casting process, and stir casting process [3].
In the early years, connecting rod optimization has started. Consumers are looking for more robust
and safer products at a reasonable price. However, the industry is looking for less time and cost
production. The best values for these variables that achieve all these constraints can be determined by
the optimization process, making it essential and primarily in the automotive industry. The car
performance is affected by the design and weight of the connecting rod. Thus, it also affects car
manufacture credibility. By considering the weight reduction structural factors during optimization, the
component can be lighter and maintain higher strength, which will create striking success in the
automotive and manufacturing industry. The benefits of connecting rod optimization go back to the
consumers themselves. Among the key goals are to boost the engine's efficiency and enhance the product
that guarantees human protection.[4]. The connecting rod can bear both static and dynamic loads. The
compression and tensile stresses on the connecting rod are generated respectively by the pressures
exerted by the combustion gases and the components of the inertial movement [5, 6]. In case of faulty
connection or fatigue, connecting rods fail. Also, connecting rods may fail due to failure of loading,
irregular adjustments of screws [7]. Connecting rod must resist the applied tensile stresses. consequently,
some design techniques, material selection, and fatigue tests have been presented [8].
Failure of connecting rod is attributed to the availability of strength that is required to withstand the
applied stresses. But by extending the life cycle by increasing the strength we can overcome it. Sathish
et al.[1], performed static stress analysis based on the finite element method to AA2014, AA6061 and
AA7075 aluminum alloy materials using ANSYS, and found that the AA2014 is the less weight and
better stiffness which has the minimum values of equivalent stress, equivalent elastic strain, and the total
deformation. Gopinath et al. [4], performed static analysis based on finite element analysis to forged
steel, aluminum and titanium connecting rod. Further, a weight reduction by topology optimization
technique on forged steel connecting rod is carried out. Rezvani et al. [9], studied the catastrophic joint
deformation failure of the 645E3B diesel engine connecting rod. The findings confirm that the failure
causes are assumed to be the hydro-lock condition due to the splash of water within the ignition chamber
and the higher-pressure proportion. Abad et al. [10], performed dynamic load analysis as well as
optimization of connecting rod. Lee et al. [11], investigated the buckling sensitivity by reducing the
connecting rod weight. And found that in buckling, the stress sensitivity is more than or equal to fatigue
and yield stress. Kreculj et al. [12], analyzed the impact load effect on the structure of aircraft. The
accumulated impact damage and the impact damage effect are discussed. Additionally, Ranjan Pani et
al. [13], performed a theoretical and a numerical buckling failure analysis and material selection for the
645E3b engine connecting rod. The theoretical part is taken to calculate the buckling load and stress
using the merchant-Rankine approach and the slider-crank mechanism approach. The numerical analysis
is done by ANSYS to validate the results. And conclude that, a proper buckling safety factor should be
taken to avoid the buckling failure. The Al-2024-T6 is not ideal for heavy-duty diesel engines due to the
lower buckling strength compared to 42CrMo4. Furthermore, Sharma et al. [14], carried out analysis
and modeling of carbon steel and aluminum boron carbide connecting rod and found that the nearest
working factory of safety to the theoretical factory of safety is the aluminum boron carbide connecting
rod which has 48.55% more stiffness and 10.35% less stress. Pathade et al. [15], performed a finite
element analysis (FEA) on the connecting rod using both ANSYS and pro-wild fire software and found
that the small end stresses are greater than in the bigger end. In addition, concluded that the chance of
the connecting rod failure may be at the fillet section of both ends. Bansal et al. [16], carried out a

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

dynamic and a static FEA on aluminum alloy connecting rod. The static load analysis preformed for
stress analysis, optimization and to determine the connecting rod von-Mises stresses. Ahmed et al. [17],
carried out FEA on a connecting rod with three aluminum alloys materials (AA2014, AA7075, and
AA6061) and carbon fiber. Bin et al. [18], performed FEA on a connecting rod to investigate the stress
distribution and fatigue life cycle. Gautam et al. [19], carried out a static stress analysis based on FEA
on SS304 connecting rod used in Cummins NTA885BC engine. Also, He et al. [20], carried out failure
analysis of a diesel engine connecting rod. The reason for the connecting rod's failure was the high-stress
concentration/high-stress level and lower yield strength. Londhe et al.[21], performed FEA and an
experimental study of the connecting rod and found that both the experimental and the simulation results
of the fatigue and static strain matched, thereby validating the FEA. Moreover, Rabb [22], studied the
fatigue failure of the connecting rod. Similarly, Rakic et al. [23], predicted the failure of a connecting
rod based on the FEA, which showed the concentration of maximum stress applied at position of original
fracture. Witek et al. [24], conducted stress analysis on connecting rod using ANSYS. They observed
that maximum principal stress can be found at zone near the bolt hole where the crack originated and it
exceeded the fatigue limit of 42CrMo4 steel. Seralathan et al.[25], performed static stress analysis based
on the FEA to different types of materials using ANSYS finite element code and found that, the A356-
5%SiC-10% Flyash stir cum squeeze casting material has the minimum values of equivalent stress,
equivalent elastic strain, and total deformation. A lot of research deals with weight loss [26, 27].
In this paper, the structural design optimization to reduce the weight of forged steel connecting rod
in aircraft engines using a finite element method is performed. The connecting rod model is created
using ANSYS APDL. The von-Mises stress, strain, shear stress and the deflation results of the
connecting rod are investigated.

2. Finite element modeling and optimization


The FEA is widely used for solving different problems of engineering and predicting the behavior of
structural elements as in [28-33]. FEA is the most significant applied technique for analyze engineering
structures according to specific design considerations. It dives the real object into a large number small
units called "elements" for dynamic and static analysis of simple to complex models in the presence of
varied design constraints. Further checks could be done to improve a design for optimum performance
and life about design failure [34]. The components of the connecting rod are illustrated in Figure 1.
Geometry and dimensions of the connecting rod are shown in Figure 2. The model was crated and
mapped in ANSYS software package by using ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL). The
accuracy of the results is controlled by the element type and meshing of the model, which is responsible
for dividing the model into a number of small elements. The smaller the elements size the more accurate
the results. In the present paper, the model is meshed using Plane183 element as shown in Figure 3. The
total number of elements and nodes are (1157) and (3949), respectively. The mechanical properties for
the Forged steel are as listed in Table 1.

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Big end

I-Beam

Small end
Nuts

Cap Bearing insert Rod


Figure 1: Connecting rod components.
R11 148.5
R2
C

Ø 28 Ø10.5
Rc1 Rc2

Figure 2: Connecting rod geometry and dimension (all dimensions are in mm).

Table 1: Mechanical properties of Forged Steel.

Young’s Modulus, E 200GPa


Poisson’s ratio, υ 0.3
Density, ρ 7850 Kg/m3
Shear Modulus, G 78 GPa
Tensile Strength, σU 892.63 MPa
Yield Strength, σy 648.06 MPa

(a) (b)
Figure 3: Meshing and element type (a) Connecting rod mesh and (b) the geometry of plane183
element.

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

2.1 Boundary condition


The connecting rod is subject to two types of loads, the first being in compression and the other
being in tension. In the tension case, the load is applied on the right half of small end at 120 degrees
and the big end is fully fixed as shown in Figure 4 (a). In the compression case: the load is applied on
the left half of the small end at 120 degrees and the big end is fully fixed as shown in Figure 4 (b).
The chosen pressure value is 24.2 MPa [35].

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Boundary condition of connecting rod (a) for tension (b) for compression.

2.2 Optimization statement


Design Optimization is a crucial mathematical method used in engineering and many other fields.
Generally, it is a process of finding the optimal value of one or many design parameter that meets the
system requirement and achieve the best performance [36]. Hence, the design optimization of the
connecting rod is to minimize the mass of the connecting rod while bearing the compressive and the
tension load acting on it [4]. The design optimization flow chart is shown in Figure 5.

2.3 Objective function


The objective function f(x) is the parameter that desired to be minimized or maximized. In this paper
the objective function is to minimize the connecting rod mass:
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐)

5
ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Strat

Define Optimization Problem

Design Variable Objective Function Constraints

Building Initial Design Model

Applying FEA using ANSYS APDL

Update Applying Static Analysis

Geometry Optimization

No
Converged?

Yes

Optimum Design Stop

Figure 5: Design optimization flow Chart

2.4 Design constraints:


Design constraints are the range that parameters cannot go over or below it to avoid failure and meet the
requirements. In this paper, constraints are characterized into two types: material and side constraints.
Material constraints:
To avoid connecting rod failure the following constraints must be satisfied:
1- The deflection (𝜹𝜹 ) of the connecting rod must not exceed the allowable deflection (𝜹𝜹𝒂𝒂 )
Mathematically:
𝛿𝛿 < 𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎
2- The von-Mises stress (𝝈𝝈) must not exceed the allowable stress (𝝈𝝈𝒂𝒂 ) Mathematically:

𝜎𝜎 < 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Side constraints:
Side constraints are identified as the range limits of the dimensions parameter as listed in the Table 2.

Table 2: Side Constraints

Lower limit Upper limit


𝐿𝐿
Outer big end (𝑅𝑅1 ) 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 𝑈𝑈
Outer small end (𝑅𝑅2 ) 𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅2 𝑈𝑈
Big circle (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 ) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 𝑈𝑈
Small circle (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 ) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 𝑈𝑈
Center distant between big and small circle (𝐶𝐶) 𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶 𝑈𝑈
Connecting rod thickness (𝑡𝑡) 𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 𝑈𝑈

3. Results and discussion


Based on Finite element analysis (FEA) and ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL), dimensional
structural mass optimization is performed on forged steel connecting rod for aircraft engines under 24.2
MPa tension and compressive pressure.

3.1 Real model results


Numerical static stress analysis of forged steel connecting rod under 24.2 MPa tensile and compression
pressure is obtained for a real model. Additionally, von-Mises stress, shear stress, total deformation,
von-Mises strain and principal stresses and strains of the connecting rod are obtained in both tension and
compression cases as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7, respectively.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

Figure 6: Connecting rod tensile case results of (a) von-Mises stress, (b) Total deformation (c) Shear
stress, (d) von-Mises strain, (e) 1st Principal stress (f) 2nd Principal stress (g) 3rd Principal stress and (h-
j) 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principal strain.

(a) (b)

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

(d) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

(h) (i)
Figure 7: Connecting rod compression case results of (a) von-Mises stress, (b) Total deformation, (c)
Shear stress, (d) von-Mises strain, (e) 1st Principal stress (f) 2nd Principal stress (g) 3rd Principal stress
and (h-j) 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principal strain.

3.2 Optimized model results


The aim of the optimization is to reduce the connecting rod mass while meeting all the material and
the side constraints. Numerical static stress analysis of forged steel connecting rod under 24.2 MPa
tensile and compresion pressure is performed for the proposed optimized model. Also, von-Mises
stress, shear stress, total deformation, von-Mises strain and prrincple stresses and strains of the
connecting rod are obtained for the proposed optimized model in both tension and compression cases
as demonstrated in Figure 8 and Figure 9 repectively. Detailed numerical results for real and
optimized model can be summarized in Table 3

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

(a) (b)

(d) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

(h) (i)
Figure 8: Connecting rod optimized (tensile case) results of (a) von-Mises stress, (b) Total
deformation, (c) Shear stress, (d) von-Mises strain, (e) 1st Principal stress (f) 2nd Principal stress (g) 3rd
Principal stress and (h-j) 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principal strain.

(a) (b)

(d) (c)

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

(h) (i)
Figure 9: Connecting rod optimized (Compression case) results of (a) von-Mises stress, (b) Total
deformation, (c) Shear stress, (d) von-Mises strain, (e) 1st Principal stress (f) 2nd Principal stress (g) 3rd
Principal stress and (h-j) 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principal strain.

Table 3.Detailed numerical results for real and optimized model

von-Mises Shear von-Mises Principals


Deflation Principals
stress stress elastic stresses
(mm) strains
(MPa) (MPa) strain (MPa)
Max.
Tension case

148.81 0.04 37 7.5e-4 -- --


Real model

Value
Position small end small end I-beam small end -- --
Min.
2×10-3 0 -36.75 4.04×10-8 -- --
Value

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

7.6×10-4, -
158.1,
2.13×10-4
Values -- -- -- -- 37.91 and
and -3.6×10-
-78.55 4

Figure 6 (a) 6 (b) 6 (c) 6 (d) 6 (e-g) 6 (h-j)


Max.
77.91 0.03 26.53 3.9×10-4 -- --
Value
Compression case

Position I-beam small end I-beam I-beam -- --


Min.
3.5×10-3 0 -26.53 5.4×10-8 -- --
Value
58.3, - 3×10-4,
Values -- -- 27and - 1.2×10-4 and
78.55 -4×10-4
Figure 7 (a) 7 (b) 7 (c) 7 (d) 7 (e-g) 7 (h-j)
Max.
215.74 0.07 64.4 1.1e-3 -- --
Value
small
Position small end small end small end -- --
end
Tension case

Min.
1.3×10-4 0 -63.3 6.53×10-10 -- --
Value
1.1×10-3,
216.8 , -
3.14×10-4
Values -- -- -- -- 26.7 and -
and -4.2×10-
Optimized model

86.5 4

Figure 8 (a) 8 (b) 8 (c) 8 (d) 8 (e-g) 8 (h-j)


Max.
154.2 0.065 26 7.7e-4 -- --
Value
middle of
small
Compression case

Position I-beam connecting I-beam -- --


end
rod
Min.
4 0 -23 5×10-10 -- --
Value
2.4×10-4,
34.71,
2.24×10-4
Values -- -- -- -- -6.42 and
and -
-155.2
7.73×10-4
Figure 9 (a) 9 (b) 9 (c) 9 (d) 9 (e-g) 9 (h-j)

4. Comparison between real and optimized model


From the previous results, structural optimization significantly minimizes the mass of the connecting
rod by 55.13 % in the tensile case and 56.7 % in the compression case, which in turn reduces the
production time and cost. Table 4 clarifies a comparison between the real and the optimized results of
the connecting rod.

Table 4: Comparison between the real and optimized results.

Parameter Real Model Optimum Model

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Tensile Compression Tensile Compression


1 von-Mises Stress (MPa) 148.81 77.91 215.7 154.2
2 Total Deformation (mm) 0.04 0.03 0.069 0.065
3 Factor of Safety (F.S) 4.35 8.32 3 4.2
3 Mass (Kg) 0.64 0.29 0.28
4 Volume (mm3) 81112 36391 35233
5 Weight reduction (%) - 55.13 56.7

5. Conclusion
In this paper, a static stress analysis was performed on forged steel connecting rod in aircraft engines
under 24.2 MPa tensile and compression pressure using ANSYS APDL. The maximum and the
minimum of von-Mises stress and strain, the principal stresses and strains, shear stress, and the deflection
were investigated. The results show a significant opportunity for weight reduction optimization. Thus, a
dimensional structural mass optimization was carried out to minimize the connecting rod's mass after
performing static stress analysis. That, in turn, will enhance the performance of aircraft engines. The
optimization results show notable weight reduction of the connecting rod by 55.13 % (in the tensile case)
and 56.7 % (in the compression case) from the initial design. However, fatigue analysis for a connecting
rod will be considered in further work.

Funding: This research received no external funding.


Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to Taif University (Taif, KSA), Mansoura University
(Mansoura, Egypt), Military Technical College (Cairo, Egypt) and Future University in Egypt (Cairo,
Egypt) for providing all the required facilities to carry out the present research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

Biography
Associate Professor Mahmoud M. K. Helal, received his B.Sc. and MSc. degrees from Production
and Mechanical Design Department, faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University in 2000 and 2005,
respectively. In 2011 he received his Ph.D. degree from Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT). He
works as an assistant professor in the Production and Mechanical Design Department at Mansoura
University. Dr. Helal's research interests lie in the structural optimization, the strength of the materials;
MEMS design assembly, micromanipulation robot and solid mechanics.

Assistant Professor Bassem F. Felemban, revived his B.Sc. Degree from Production and Mechanical
Design Department, King Abdelaziz University in 2009. Then he received the MSc. and Ph.D. degrees
from Mechanical Engineering, University of Central Florida ( UCF ). He is working as an assistant
professor in the Production and Mechanical Design Department at Taif University. Dr. Bassem F.
Felemban works as a member of Mechanical of Materials Research Group at UCF.

Abdullah Alharthi, studied Mechanical Engineering at department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty


of Engineering, Taif University. Email: eng.abdullah.harthi@gmail.com.
Sari Almalki, is studied Mechanical Engineering at department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Taif University. Email: sariayed.3@gmail.com
Assistant Professor Elsayed Fathallah, received his bachelor and master degrees in Civil Engineering
from Civil Engineering Department from Military Technical College in 1999 and 2007, respectively. In
2015 he received his Ph.D. degree from Harbin Engineering University, College of Aerospace and Civil
Engineering. He works as an assistant professor at both Civil Engineering and Ships and Submarines

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ASAT-19 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1172 (2021) 012001 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1172/1/012001

Engineering Department, Military Technical College. His research focuses on strength of the material
and structural optimization.
Abdallah A. Elsherbiny, received his B.Sc., MSc. degrees from Production and Mechanical Design
Department, faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University. He works as an assistant lecture in the same
department.
Assistant Professor, Hassan M. S. Eleashy, received his B.Sc., MSc. and Ph.D degrees from
Production and Mechanical Design Department, faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University in 2000,
2006, and 2014 respectively. He works as an assistant professor in the Mechanical Engineering
Department at Future University in Egypt. Dr. Eleashy research interests lie in the mechanism design,
structural synthesis of robots, planetary gear trains and stress analysis.
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[4] Gopinath, D. and Sushma, C.V., 2015. Design and optimization of four wheeler connecting rod
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