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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

Lightweight Materials for Automobiles

Nina Busarac1, Dragan Adamovic1, Nenad Grujovic1 and Fatima Zivic1

1
University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Sestre Janjic 6, 34000
Kragujevac, Serbia

busaracn@gmail.com

Abstract. This paper deals with vehicle lightweighting, as a strategy to help attain
sustainability in the automotive industry by facilitating improved fuel economy. We reviewed
innovative materials appropriate for the manufacturing of low-carbon vehicles (LCVs), such as
advanced high-strength steel (AHSS), aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, as well as novel
composite materials commonly used for lightweight construction applications. Research shows
that vehicle curb weight greatly affects fuel consumption. Primary weight reduction refers to
body-in-white (BIW), which can subsequently lead to secondary weight reductions in terms of
engine and powertrain size. This review takes into account the environmental aspect of the car
body material and the possibility of closed-loop recycling, especially for aluminum and
magnesium alloys.

1. Introduction
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and governments worldwide are putting pressure on original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the automotive sector to increase fuel efficiency and
sustainability. European Union set the fleet average CO2 emission per kilometer value at 95 g/km for
the year 2021 [1], and Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) requirements in the US are set at
55.8 miles per gallon (mpg) for 2025 [2]. UK government set out The Net Zero Strategy with a goal to
reach net-zero emissions by 2050, implying a future emphasis on electric vehicles [3]. With the ever-
increasing environmental protection requirements, manufacturers have turned to lightweighting, as
vehicle curb weight greatly affects fuel consumption and therefore greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
For internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, a 10% reduction in vehicle weight can potentially
result in a 6 to 8% savings in fuel consumption [4–9]. On the other hand, battery electric vehicles
(BEVs) need to employ the lightweighting strategy to offset the heavy battery weight, which amounts
to 70% of the BEV weight by some estimates [4], and also to increase the vehicle range.
It is important to mention that official policies are not the only driving forces of change toward
low-carbon vehicles (LCVs). A rise in consumer awareness, as well as the threat of energy insecurity,
play a major role too.
As we said, battery weight is a big constraint for electric and hybrid vehicles, but batteries are not
the only components making today’s cars heavier. Integrating more safety functions and vehicle
connectivity equipment (vehicle-to-vehicle or V2V wireless networks etc) does so too [4]. Additional
mass brought about by these systems needs to be offset through weight reductions.
Primary weight reduction refers to body-in-white (BIW), which can subsequently lead to lesser
power needs in terms of acceleration and braking. A lighter car body would require a potentially
smaller engine and powertrain, which would represent a secondary weight reduction or a phenomenon

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

known as mass decompounding [10]. It was and still is common to produce BIW from steel pressings
that are then welded together. Such construction makes up about 20% of vehicle weight [11]. If we
substituted steel for aluminum alloys, BIW weight reduction would be around 23% [11]. Overall
vehicle weight reduction has an impact on fuel economy in the range of 0.3 to 0.4 liter per 100 km per
100 kg of removed mass [2].
Looking at the bigger picture, novel light materials could require lighter tooling, and potentially
facilitate higher production rates. Another indirect cost saving can be found in easier transportation of
lighter vehicles to dealerships [12].
Lightweighting encompasses many aspects, one of them being material selection, where the multi-
material concept is regarded as the future [13]. In this concept, the best materials are chosen for each
application [6]. This means moving away from traditional mild steel and towards advanced high-
strength steel (AHSS), aluminum, magnesium, and composite materials, according to part
requirements. Car parts made of different optimally chosen materials need to be joined together. This
is where difficulties in joining dissimilar materials must be overcome. Aluminum alloys and AHSS are
hard to weld and the risk of galvanic corrosion and undesirable intermetallic compounds should be
considered. Aluminum superplastic forming is a possible strategy to minimize the number of welds, by
creating continuous complex parts [6]. To minimize welding manufacturers could design unibodies or
monocoques. A drawback of this strategy is that in case of a crash the whole construction needs to be
changed since it is essentially one piece [8]. Further, joints of polymer-based fiber composites and
metals are problematic due to internal stresses induced by temperature changes, because of
significantly different thermal expansion coefficients of these materials [6].
There are more aspects to consider when switching to advanced lightweight materials. Traditional
low-carbon steel cannot just be substituted with contemporary counterparts while keeping the old
sheet metal designs, and characterization and validation methods. New materials bring new
manufacturing challenges to tackle, such as understanding failure mechanisms, establishing new
material testing methods, and then design guidelines. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites (CFRC)
followed this path prior to application in series production, which will be further discussed in a later
section.
The recent pandemic caused supply chain disturbances, halts in production, imposed restrictions,
etc, that weakened the performance of automakers and impacted the overall economy. This could
hinder the growth of the lightweight material market. Despite this, some estimates suggest that the
market will reach $126.76 billion (USD) by 2030 globally and $50.45 billion (USD) in Europe, from
$71.65 billion and $26.15 billion estimated in 2020, respectively [14]. Metals are expected to hold the
largest share in the market for lightweight materials for electric vehicles [8].
Beyond fuel economy, other benefits that make lightweight materials attractive are the possibility
of achieving higher levels of performance [12], in terms of acceleration, cornering, top speeds,
stopping distances, etc; and increased safety (lesser mass factoring into kinetic energy).
Lastly, improving sustainability in the automotive industry also means finding end-of-life vehicle
(ELV) solutions. European Directive on end-of-life vehicles requires the reuse and recovery be a
minimum of 95% by an average weight per vehicle and year [15]. Researchers are working on tighter
loop and closed-loop recycling for aluminum alloys [16] and magnesium alloys [17], which would
decrease primary production-related emissions.

2. Advanced High-Strength Steel

Steels have long been used in automaking applications due to their high modulus of elasticity,
strength, formability, weldability, crashworthiness, etc, and low cost. Automotive steel can be plain
carbon steel, high-strength steel (HSS), or advanced high-strength steel (AHSS). Advanced high-
strength steels are characterized by having tensile strength higher than 550 MPa [18], allowing for
smaller cross-sections, as well as better load-carrying capacity and crashworthiness. First-generation
AHSS encompasses dual phase (DP) steels, transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels, complex
phase (CP) steels, and martensitic (MS) steels, while the second-generation refers to twinning-induced

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

plasticity (TWIP) steels, lightweight steels with induced plasticity (L-IP), and austenitic stainless steel
(AUST.SS) [18]. Figure 1 illustrates the comparison between properties of conventional steel, first-
and second-generation AHSS, as well as a possible third generation.

Figure 1. Comparison between properties of different steels.

Switching from low-carbon steel to AHSS can reduce component weight by up to 25% [6,7]. Other
lightweighting materials such as light alloys and carbon fiber composites could offer even greater
weight savings but AHSSs have advantages in terms of cost, although these steel grades deteriorate
stamping molds faster than lesser grades [7]. Another possible disadvantage is the metastable nature of
the AHSS microstructure, which can be disrupted during welding [6] due to heat input.

3. Aluminum Alloys
Material density is an important parameter to consider for lightweighting applications. The density of
aluminum is about one-third that of steel, meanwhile, the strength-to-density ratio of aluminum alloys
is comparable to first-generation AHSS. Other advantages of aluminum alloys are lower modulus of
elasticity (in terms of collision energy absorption), good machinability, formability, castability, etc,
plus switching to aluminum in many cases would not require significant reengineering [19].
Aluminum is a fast-growing lightweight material. The average aluminum content per vehicle for
European manufacturers is estimated to reach 198.8 kg by 2025, while global premium brands have
long surpassed that value, e. g. Jaguar and Land Rover with Al content around 500 kg [19]. An
example of aluminum-intensive BEV could be Tesla Model S, with its body and chassis made almost
entirely of aluminum and total Al content of 190 kg [20]. Interestingly, using aluminum for
automobile construction is not a new idea, e. g. Ford’s Model T Touring Car had used aluminum body
panels prior to 1918 when the material of choice was switched to steel because of lower cost [7].
Nowadays, that course is changing, due to new circumstances.
The use of aluminum alloys can allow for 30% to 60% vehicle weight reduction [7]. Following the
mixed material design approach, Al and AHSS can be used in conjunction to replace mild steel, such
as the example of the Ford F-150 which achieved a weight reduction of more than 300 kg by
combining an AHSS frame and Al body [6].
Combining dissimilar metals such as aluminum and steel brings up welding difficulties, because of
the difference in properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity, melting temperature, etc, the
formation of brittle intermetallic compounds, and possible galvanic corrosion. Intermetallic
compounds are mainly problematic for arc and laser welding, while sold-state friction welding offers

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

higher quality joints, and friction stir welding is especially convenient for long linear joints. Friction
stir spot welding was also developed to substitute resistance spot welding, for dissimilar joint
applications. Despite its issues, welding is still preferred to riveting or adhesive bonding, because both
of these other options require overlap, therefore increasing weight. They also offer less joint strength
and have longer cycle times for assembly [21].
As aluminum is becoming increasingly important in the automotive sector it is crucial to define
strategies that will minimize the amount of aluminum ending up as scrap. Aluminum could be
considered a permanent material [22], that is a material that does not lose its intrinsic properties in the
recycling loop, or in other words, it does not degrade significantly. For that reason use of aluminum
can contribute to the circular economy. One of the ideas for closing the production cycle is creating
lightweight aluminum foam panels or extruded profiles from non-recyclable aluminum waste, that
could be used in vehicle production [23].

4. Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium is a good candidate for a lightweighting material due to being 75% lighter than steel and
33% lighter than aluminum [6]. The 2017 Chrysler Pacifica replaced its steel rear liftgate with a
magnesium one, which resulted in a significantly lighter component [7].
As the lowest density structural metal [24], Mg offers clear advantages in terms of weight
reduction, but it still has drawbacks regarding price, ductility, joining, and corrosion behavior [6]. The
oxide layer that magnesium forms is porous and does not have the protective function of aluminum or
steel oxide layers. Due to melting temperature differences and immiscibility, fusion welding between
magnesium and steel is not realistic. Other methods of joining with different materials can lead to
galvanic corrosion, which does not accord with multi-material concepts. Formability is also an issue –
drawing depths are limited and elevated processing temperatures are a necessity. These and other
challenges explain why magnesium accounts for, on average, less than 1% of vehicle weight [24].
Overcoming them could allow automakers to exploit Mg to its full potential.
If magnesium were to be implemented in automotive applications on a larger scale, primary
production related emissions and energy consumption (which are higher than for steel or aluminum)
could become a sustainability issue [25]. In accord with the circular economy model, researchers
working on an EU-funded project found a way to recycle magnesium from industrial waste and
produce low-cost high-performance alloys, by combining it with secondary rare earth elements, and
designed a prototype tailgate [26].

5. Polymers
Polymers are already widely used in automotive applications and lightweighting is only intensifying it.
Plastics are not only lightweight but also have high absorption properties, favorable from the point of
safety standards. ICE vehicles require high-temperature resistant special engineering plastics, which
could decrease in importance if the trend of vehicle electrification continues. Instead, BEV
components will be made of polyamides (battery housing), polycarbonate (sensors and LEDs),
polypropylene (car interior and exterior), etc [27]. Polymers are also gaining importance in form of
polymer matrix composites, also called reinforced plastics.

6. Composite Materials
When strict fuel savings are required, non-metallic materials such as polymer matrix composites are
the answer. Adequate composites can be up to 35% lighter than aluminum and 60% lighter than steel
[5]. While being much lighter, composites can also be up to 10 times stronger than steel and 8 times
stronger than aluminum [9].
Automakers started experimenting with composite materials long ago. In the 1950s, Chevy
Corvette cars were made with fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) body panels, which marked the first
widespread use of FRPs in the automotive industry. Sheet molding compounds or SMCs (resin
systems reinforced by fabric) started being used in the 1970s [7]. Today, carbon fiber reinforced

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

polymers (CFRP), glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) and even natural fiber alternatives are some
of the relevant advanced composite materials that show great promise.
Carbon fiber composites are characterized by good stiffness and strength, can be made into
complex shapes, and show potential vehicle weight reduction of 50% to 70% [7]. One of the biggest
issues for CFRPs, besides joining to metals, is the high price. The price of automotive-grade CFRP
can be up to 3900% that of plain steel. Glass fiber reinforced polymers are less expensive, with the
price around 400% that of steel [8,14]. Carbon fiber is a more expensive choice, but it has better
properties. It is 30% lighter than glass fiber while being twice as strong. Although carbon fiber
production is an energy-intensive process, its use in lightweight vehicles shows energy net savings in
overall lifecycle studies [5].
CFRP started as a material for aerospace and other high-tech applications, due to initial cost, but it
is now expanding towards the mainstream. Currently, it is used in sports cars, luxury cars, and some
BEVs [2]. When manufacturers are switching from old material, like sheet metal, to a new material
like composite panel, new material-specific problems arise, such as anisotropy, ply drop-off [28], edge
effect [29], etc. Before carbon fiber composites could be commercially used, scientists and engineers
had to investigate and understand fiber/matrix failure mechanisms in order to establish simulation and
validation approaches, testing methods, and eventually design car parts safely using this new material.
Another option for non-structural and semi-structural parts is natural fiber reinforcement. There are
already some cars in series production that feature natural-fiber composites, such as Porsche 718
Cayman GT4 Clubsport [4]. Some other manufacturers are also implementing natural-fiber
composites, like Ford, who is using cellulose fibers in the armrests of the Lincoln MKX [9]. Amongst
other natural fibers being explored are bamboo and kenaf [6]. These fibers are additionally interesting
from a sustainability standpoint as they are derived from renewable sources.
In addition to polymer matrix composites discussed so far, metal matrix composites are gaining
importance with the development of advanced aluminum matrix composites or AMCs, reinforced with
ceramic particles like SiC, Al2O3, etc [30]. Advanced AMCs show promise for application in BEVs, e.
g. components of an axial flux motor [31]. AMCs could also be suitable for other applications, due to
their stiffness which can increase structural integrity and decrease vibrations.
On the other hand, titanium monoboride reinforced titanium matrix composites (Ti/TiB) found
application in ICE vehicles as a lighter alternative material for engine valves. Ti/TiB composites are a
powder metallurgy solution that exploits already good characteristics of Ti and improves formability
during hot working. TiB particles suppress grain growth at high temperatures and forging cracks,
making Ti/TiB composites suitable for high-temperature net-shape forming. Necessary wear resistance
can be obtained at a reasonable cost, by oxidation treatments [32].

7. Other materials
Like the aforementioned Ti matrix composites imply, titanium is another potential lightweighting
material. Ti alloys are known for high strength, durability, and corrosion resistance [33], but their high
cost and difficulties in casting, forming, and machining prevent them from being widely used in the
automotive sector. Lower heat and wear resistance, relative to steel (figure 2), also represent a
drawback [32]. Titanium-aluminum alloys are most common in automotive applications, e. g. Ti-6Al-
4V alloy used for manufacturing intake valves. To achieve the wear resistance required for the
application this alloy needs expensive coatings such as molybdenum thermal spray coating [33]. High
costs related to production and surface treatment greatly limit the scope of application of Ti alloys to
racing cars and the like.

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

Figure 2. Comparison of relevant characteristics of TiB reinforced composites, Ti alloy,

and steel.

Another important material that has recently shown lightweighting progress is stainless steel. A
new family of low-density stainless steel has been developed. The new dispersion-strengthened Fe-
Mn-Al-C-Cr system alloys are characterized by 17% lower density than conventional stainless steel, as
well as ultra-high strength (>1 GPa) and high ductility [34].
Lightweight porous structures or foams are one more way to decrease vehicle weight. Aluminum
foams have been shown as a suitable material for automotive applications due to their strength,
stiffness, vibration damping, and energy absorbing capacity. Mechanical properties can be further
improved by ceramic, metallic, or other reinforcements [35]. Polymer foams such as modified
polypropylene copolymer (co-PP) foam are used for automotive trim parts, due to their flexural
properties, impact properties, and sound insulation. Researchers are developing nanocomposites based
on co-PP foams reinforced with graphene nanoplatelets, which would improve mechanical properties
by regulating cell size and distribution [36].

8. Conclusion
High-performance and safe lightweight vehicles are a necessity for achieving sustainability in the
automotive sector. Lightweighting has transcended mere steel substitutions and has for some time now
been progressing towards mixed material concepts, accompanied by innovative design and multi-
objective optimization. As greater and greater emphasis is being put on battery electric vehicles in the
interest of environmentalism, lighter structural materials will be the key to offsetting battery weight
and extending vehicle range. Even though we are witnessing an increase in fossil fuel vehicle phase-
out tendencies, internal combustion vehicles are still being put on the market, though with tightened
fuel economy regulations. Improving fuel economy is, again heavily dependent on weight reductions.

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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012010 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012010

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