Unit -III

Emergence of New
Kingdoms in South India:
Later Cholas and Pandyas
Temple at Darasuram

Learning Objectives

™™To trace the origin of the later Cholas and the later Pandyas
™™To know about the prominent rulers of both the kingdoms
™™To acquaint with their administrative system
™™To understand the social, economic and cultural development during
their reign

I. The Later Cholas gradually declined under his successors. In

the 9th century Vijayalaya, ruling over a small
Introduction
territory lying north of the Kaveri, revived the
The Cholas are one among the popular and Chola Dynasty. He conquered Thanjavur and
well-known Tamil monarchs in the history of made it his capital. Later Rajendra I and his
South India. The elaborate state structure, the successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda
extensive irrigation network, the vast number Cholapuram, the newly built capital.
of temples they built, their great contributions
to art and architecture and their overseas Rajaraja I (A.D. (CE) 985 - 1016) was the
exploits have given them a pre-eminent position most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also
in history. grew popular beyond his times. He established
Chola authority over large parts of South India.
Revival of the Chola Rule
His much-acclaimed naval expeditions led to
The ancient Chola kingdom reigned supreme the expansion of Cholas into the West Coast and
with the Kaveri delta forming the core Sri Lanka. He built the famous Rajarajeswaram
area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present- (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur. His son
day Tiruchirappalli) as its capital. It rose to and successor, Rajendra Chola I (A.D. (CE)
prominence during the reign of Karikala but 1016 - 1044, matched his father in his ability to

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 expand the empire. The Chola empire remained On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the
a powerful force in South India during his reign. Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya
After his accession in A.D. (CE) 1023, his striking seized the Chola throne and began the rule
military expedition was to northern India, of Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga I.
capturing much territory there. He proclaimed Kulothunga established himself firmly on the
himself the Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats
Gangai region). The Gangaikonda Cholapuram to the Chola Empire. He avoided unnecessary
temple was built to commemorate his victories wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.
in North India. The navy of Rajendra Chola But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.
enabled him to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya The Pandya territory also began to slip out of
(southern Sumatra). Cholas’ control over the Chola control. Kanchipuram was lost to the
seas facilitated a flourishing overseas trade. Telugu Cholas. The year 1279 marks the end
Decline of the Chola Empire of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman
Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king
Rajendra Chola’s three successors were
Rajendra Chola III and established the rule of
not capable rulers. The third successor
the Pandyas in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in
civil unrest. With his death ended the Vijayalaya Administration
line of Chola rule.
The central administration was in the hands of
king. As the head of the state, the king enjoyed
enormous powers. The king’s orders were
written down in palm leaves by his officials or
inscribed on the temple walls. The kingship
was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his
eldest son as the heir apparent. He was known
as Yuvaraja. The Yuvarajas were appointed
as Governors in the provinces mainly for
administrative training.
Ruins of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
The Chola rulers established a well-
Matrimonial alliances between organised system of administration. The
the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas empire, for administrative convenience, was
began during the reign of Rajaraja I. divided into provinces or mandalams. Each
His daughter Kundavai was married mandalam was sub-divided into naadus.
to Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Within each naadu, there were many kurrams
Their son was Rajaraja Narendra who (groups of villages). The lowest unit was the
married the daughter of Rajendra Chola gramam (village).
named Ammangadevi. Their son was
Kulothunga I.

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 Local Governance There is a detailed description of how members
were elected to the committees of the village
Local administration worked through various
sabha in the inscriptions found there. One
bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar
member was to be elected from each ward.
and Nattar. With the expansion of agriculture,
There were 30 wards in total. The eligibility to
numerous peasant settlements came up on the
contest was to men in the age group of 35–70,
countryside. They were known as Ur. The Urar,
well-versed in vedic texts and scriptures, and
who were landholders acted as spokesmen in
also owned land and house. The process of
the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman villages also
election was as follows: The names of qualified
functioned in carrying out administrative,
candidates from each ward were written on the
financial and judicial functions. Nagarattar
palm-leaf slips and put into a pot. The eldest of
administered the settlement of traders. However,
the assembly would engage a boy to pull out one
skilled artisans like masons, blacksmiths,
slip and declare his name. Various committees
goldsmiths, weavers and potters also lived in
were decided in this way.
Nagaram. Nattar functioned as an assembly of
Nadu and decided all the disputes and issues Revenue
pertaining to Nadu.
The revenue of the Chola state came mainly from
The assemblies in Ur, Sabha, Nagaram and the land. The land tax was known as Kanikadan.
Nadu worked through various committees. The Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey
The committees took care of irrigation, roads, of land in order to fix the government’s share
temples, gardens, collection of revenue and of the land revenue. One-third of produce was
conduct of religious festivals. collected as land tax. It was collected mostly in
kind. In addition to land tax, there were taxes
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
on profession and tolls on trade.

Social Structure Based on Land

Relations
The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to royal
officials, Brahmins, temples (devadana villages)
and religious institutions. Land granted to Jain
institutions was called pallichchandam. There
were also of vellanvagai land and the holders
of this land were called Vellalars. Ulu-kudi, a
sub-section of Vellalar, could not own land but
Uttiramerur Inscriptions had to cultivate Brahmadeya and vellanvagai
lands. The holders of vellanvagai land retained
Uttiramerur presently in
melvaram (major share in harvest). The ulu-kudi
Kanchipuram district was
got kil-varam (lower share). Adimai (slaves) and
a Brahmadeya village (land
panicey-makkal (labourers) occupied the lowest
grants given to Brahmins).

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 rung of society. In the intermediate section Chola art. Temples during the Chola period
came the armed men and traders. were not merely places of worship. They were
the largest landholders. Temples promoted
Irrigation
education, and devotional forms of art such
Cholas gave importance to irrigation. The 16- as dance, music and drama. The staff of the
mile long embankment built by Rajendra Chola temples included temple officials, dancing
in Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an illustrious girls, musicians, singers, players of musical
example. Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross channel, instruments and the priests.
is a traditional type of harnessing rain water in
Cholas as Patrons of Learning
the Cauvery delta. Vati is a drainage channel
and a vaykkal is the supply channel. The Chola kings were great patrons of learning.
commonly owned village channel was called ur- Rajendra I established a Vedic college at
vaykkal. The nadu level vaykkal is referred to as Ennayiram (now in Villupuram District). There
nadu-vaykkal. The turn-system was in practice were 340 students learning the Vedas, grammar
in distributing the water. and Upanishads under 14 teachers. This example
was later followed by his successors and as a result
Religion
two more such colleges had been founded, at
Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Hymns, Tirubuvanai near present-day Puducherry and
in praise of the deeds of Lord Siva, were Tirumukkoodal in present-day Chengalpattu
composed by the Saiva saints, the Nayanmars. district, in 1048 and 1067 respectively. The
NambiyandarNambi codified them, which great literary works Periyapuranam and
came to be known as the Thirumurai. Kamba Ramayanam belong to this period.

Temples Trade
The Chola period witnessed an extensive There was a flourishing trade during the
construction of temples. The temples in Chola period. Trade was carried out by two
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-
Darasuram are the repository of architecture, gramattar. Anju-vannattar comprised West
sculpture, paintings and iconography of the Asians, Arabs, Jews, Christians and Muslims.

Big Temple Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple

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 They were maritime traders and settled on the the later Pandyas re-established their authority.
port towns all along the West Coast. It is said Their rule continued until 16th century.
that mani-gramattar were the traders engaged
Revival of Pandya Kingdom (A.D. (CE)
in inland trade. In due course, both groups
600 - 920)
merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar and
disai-ayirattu-ai-nutruvar functioning through Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from
the head guild in Ayyavole, Karnataka. This the Kalabhras towards the close of 6th century.
ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime trade He was succeeded by two others. Arikesari
covering South-East Asian countries. Through Maravarman was the first strong Pandya ruler
overseas trade with South-East Asian countries who ascended the throne in A.D. (CE) 642. He
elephant tusks, coral, transparent glass, betel was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and
nuts, cardamom, opaque glass, cotton stuff with Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper
coloured silk threads were imported. The items plates praise his victory over his counterparts:
exported from here were sandalwood, ebony, Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
condiments, precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, Arikesari Maravarman is identified with the
grains and salt. Kun Pandian, the persecutor of Jains.

II. The Later Pandyas Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar

Introduction converted Arikesari from Jainism to
Saivism. On his conversion, Arikesari
Pandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil is alleged to have impaled around 8000
dynasties that ruled southern India since the Jains on stakes. Though the number
4th century B.C. (BCE) but intermittently. is an exaggerated one, the anti-Jain
Korkai, associated with pearl fisheries, is attitude of Arikesari after his conversion
believed to have been their early capital and to Saivism cannot be doubted.
port. They moved to Madurai later, as many
early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been
After Arikesari, the greatest of the dynasty
unearthed in Madurai and its surroundings.
was Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (Varaguna
Under the Pandya kings of the Sangam Age,
I) (756-815), the donor of the Velvikkudi plates.
Madurai was a great centre of culture. Poets
Nedunjadayan expanded the Pandya territory
and writers of Tamil language gathered there
to include Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem
and contributed to the development of Tamil
and Coimbatore districts. Nedunjadayan’s
Classics. The Pandyas had re-established their
successors Srimara Srivallabha and Varaguna
strong position in south Tamil Nadu by the end
II, were successively defeated by Pallavas. Later
of the 6th century A.D. (CE), after eliminating
they could not face the rising Chola dynasty
the rule of Kalabhras. But they could not resist
under Parantaka I. Parantaka I defeated the
the rising power of the later Cholas who ruled
Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the country
South India from 9th to 13th century. Thereafter
in 920. Thus ended the Pandya rule revived by
taking advantage of the decline of Chola power,
Kadungon.

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 Rise of Later Pandyas (1190 - 1310) Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu, Arcot
and Salem in the western region.
The Chola viceroyalty became weak in Pandya
country after the death of Adhirajendra (the last
king of Vijayalaya line). Eventually the Pandya
kingdom could emerge as the only leading
Tamil dynasty in the 13th century. Madurai
continued to be their capital. Now Kayal was
their great port. Marco Polo, a famous traveller
from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in 1288 and
1293. He tells us that this port town was full of
ships from Arabia and China and bustling with
business activities.

Marco Polo hailed the Pandyan

Kingdom as ‘the richest and the most Coin of Pandya Kingdom
splendid province in the world’. Together
with Ceylon, he added, it ‘produced
There were two or three co-regents who ruled
most of the gems and pearls that are
simultaneously along with Sundarapandyan:
found in the world’. In his travel account
VikramaPandyan and ViraPandyan. After
he recorded the incidents of sati and the
Sundarapandyan, MaravarmanKulasekaran
polygamy practiced by the kings.
ruled successfully for a period of 40 years , giving
the country peace and prosperity. He had two
Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
sons. The king’s appointment of ViraPandyan
The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya as a co-regent provoked the other son Sundara
Kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Pandyan who killed his father Maravarman
Sundarapandyan (1251 to 1268). He brought Kulasekaran. In the civil war that ensued,
the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, which ViraPandyan won and became firmly
extended up to Nellore in Andhra. He held the established in his kingdom. The defeated
Hoysalas in check. The Chera ruler, the chief of SundaraPandyan fled to Delhi and took refuge
Malanadu, accepted his feudatory position and under the protection of Ala-ud-din Khalji. This
paid tribute to Sundarapandyan. Emboldened provided the opening for the invasion of Malik
by the decline of the Chola state, the Boja King Kafur.
of Malwa region Vira Someswara challenged
After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan
Sundarapandyan. In a war at Kannanur,
Kingdom came to be divided among a number
Sundarapandyan defeated Someswara.
of kings from the main ruling Pandya’s family.
Sundarapandyan succeeded in establishing
In Madurai, a Muslim State subordinate to the
his authority over the chieftains of Cuddalore,
Delhi Sultan came to be established.

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 Polity and Society Administrative Divisions

State Pandy nadu, as in Chola state, consisted of many

provinces known as vala-nadus, which, in turn,
Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their were divided into many nadus and kurrams.
capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated The administrative authorities of nadus were
as Koodal. The kings are traditionally revered the nattars. Nadu and Kurram contained
as Koodal-kon, Koodal Nagar Kavalan. The settlements, viz. mangalam, nagaram, ur and
Pandyas derived military advantage over kudi, where different social groups inhabited.
their neighbours by means of their horses.
Village Administration
They imported these horses through Arabs
with whom they had commercial and cultural An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli district)
contact. dated A.D. (CE) 800 provides an account of
village administration. It looks similar to
The king claimed that he was ruling Chola’s local governance that included village
according to Manu Sastra. This doctrine assemblies and committees. Both civil and
supported the social hierarchy in the military powers seem to have been vested in the
society. Kings and local chiefs created same person.
Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or
Irrigation
Chatur-vedi-mangalam with irrigation
facilities. The actual landowning groups are The Pandya rulers created a number of irrigation
described as the Bumiputtirar, otherwise called sources. On either side of the rivers Vaigai and
the vellalar. Historically they were locals and Tamiraparani, channels leading to the irrigation
hence they were referred to as nattu-makkal. tanks were built. In southern Tamilnadu,
The communal assembly of this group is like the Cholas, Pandyas introduced the new
Cittira Meli Periyanattar. irrigation technology. Irrigation works were
done by local administrative bodies, local chiefs
Royal Officials and officials. Repairs were mostly undertaken
by local bodies. Sometimes, traders also dug out
A band of officials executed the royal orders.
tanks for irrigation.
The prime minister was uttara-mantri. The
historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Religion
Kulaciraiyar and Marankari worked as
Pandyas extended patronage to vedic practices.
ministers. The royal secretariat was known
Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional
as eluttu-mandapam. The most respected
sources mention the rituals like Asvameda yaga,
officials were maran-eyinan, sattan-ganapathy,
Hiranya garbha and Vajapeya yaga, conducted
enathi-sattan, tira-tiran, murthi-eyinan and
by every great Pandya king. The impartiality of
others. The titles of military commanders
rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism
were palli-velan, parantakan-palli-velan,
is also made known in the invocatory portions
maran-adittan and tennavan-tamilvel.
of the inscriptions. Temples of both sects were

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 patronised through land grant, tax-exemption Trade
and renovation.
Arab settlements on the west coast of southern
The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints India, from 7th century, had led to the
(Nayanmaras and Alwars) combined expansion of their trade connection to the
contributed to the growth of Tamil literature east coast because the governments of the east
and spiritual enlightenment. The period was coast pursued a more liberal and enlightened
marked by intense religious conflict. The Bhakti policy towards overseas traders. Their charters
movement of the time prompted the heterodox exempted traders from various types of port
scholars for a debate. Many instances of the dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was an agency
defeat of Buddhists and Jains in such debates established by an Arab chieftain by name Malik-
are mentioned in Bhakti literature. The Pandya ul-Islam Jamal-ud-din. This agency facilitated
kings of the period supported and promoted availability of horses to Pandya kings.
Tamil and Sanskrit.
In 13th and 14th centuries, horse trade
Temples became brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state
that the kings invested in horses as there was
Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did
a need of horse for ceremonial purposes as well
not build any new temples but maintained
as for fighting wars. Those who were trading in
the existing temples, enlarging them with
horses were called kudirai chetties. They were
the addition of gopuras, and mandapas. The
active in maritime trade also. The busiest port
monolithic mega size ornamented pillars are
town under the Pandyas was Kayal Pattinam
the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style.
(now in Thoothukudi district) on the east coast.
The sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa
Gold coins were in circulation as the trade was
and Subramanyar are the best specimens in
carried through the medium of gold. It was
these temples. Pandyas specially patronised the
variously called kasu, kalanchu and pon.
historic Meenakshi temple at Madurai and kept
expanding its premises by adding gopuras and
The vast trade in horses of that
mandapas.
time has been recorded by Wassaff. He
writes: ‘…as many as 10,000 horses were
imported into Kayal and other ports of
India of which 1,400 were to be of Jamal-
ud-din’s own breed. The average cost of
each horse was 220 dinars of “red gold’.

Summary
™™The Cholas and Pandyas are well known
Tamil monarchs.
™™Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty.
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
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 ™™The prominent Chola rulers are Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
™™Uttiramerur inscriptions provide details of village administration.
™™Kodunkon recovered Pandya territory from Kalabhras. Arikesari Maravavarman and Parantaka
Nedunjadayan were his two prominent successors.
™™The illustrious rulers of later Pandya kingdom were Sadaayavarman Sundarapandyan and
Maravarman Kulasekaran.
™™Maritime trade during Pandyas is highlighted by Marco Polo and Wassaff.

Glossary
1. M a t r i m o n i a l political alliances through marriages திருமண உறவுகள் மூலம்
alliances அரசியல் கூட்டு
2. Embankment a wall or stone structure built to prevent தடுப்பணை
a river flooding an area as well as to
store its water
3. Ardent passionate தீவிரமான
4. Feudatory a subordinate to another sovereign/ அரசருக்குக் கட்டுப்பட்ட
ruler குறுநில மன்னர்
5. Refuge shelter புகலிடம்
6. Repository place in which things are stored கருவூலம்

Evaluation

I.Choose the Correct answer 3. Which of the following was the lowest unit
of Chola administration?
1. Who revived the later
Chola dynasty? a. Mandalam b. Nadu
c. Kurram d. Ur
a. Vijayalaya
4. Who was the last ruler Vijayalaya line of
b. Rajaraja I
Chola dyanasty?
c. Rajendra I
d. Athirajendra a.VeeraRajendra b. Rajadhiraja
c. AthiRajendra d. Rajaraja II
2. Who among the following Pandya rulers is
known for ending the Kalabhra rule? 5. An example of Chola architecture can be
seen at_______.
a. Kadunkon b. ViraPandyan
a. Kannayiram b. Uraiyur
c. Kun Pandyan d. Varaguna
c. Kanchipuram d. Thanjavur

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 6. To which of the following, Marco Polo V Consider the following statements.
went in the last decade of 13th century in Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
India?
1. Which of the following statements about
a. Chola mandalam Later Cholas are correct?
b. Pandya country 1. They had a system of Local self
c. Kongu region government.
d. Malainadu 2. They maintained a strong navy.
3. They were the followers of Buddhism.
II Fill in the blanks
4. They built big temples.
1. ____________________built the
a.1,2 and 3
famous Brihadeshwara Temple at
b.2,3 and 4
Thanjavur.
c.1,2 and 4
2. _______________established a Vedic d.1,3 and 4
college at Ennayiram.
2. Which of the following statements are true
3. __________________was the donor of
with regard to Rajendra Chola?
Velvikudi copper plates.
1. He assumed the title Gangaikonda
4. The royal sectretariat of Pandya kingdom
Chola.
was known as_________________.
2. He conquered Southern Sumatra.
III Match the Following 3. He is credited with consolidating the
Chola power.
A B
4. His naval power enabled him to conquer
1. Madurai Inland traders
Srivijaya.
2. Gangaikonda Maritime traders
a. 1 and 2
Cholapuram
b. 3 and 4
3. Anju- Vannattar Capital of Cholas c. 1,2 and 4
4. Mani- gramattar Capital of Pandyas d. All the above

IV. True or False 3. Assertion:- The Yuvarajas were appointed

Governors in the provinces.
1. A Muslim state subordinate to Delhi Sultan Reason:- This was done for their training
was in Madurai. in administration.
2. Koodal – nagar Kavalan was the title of a a. R is the correct explanation of A.
Pandya king. b. R is not the correct explanation of A.
3. Chola kingdom was situated in Vaigai c. A is wrong and R is correct.
delta. d. A and R are wrong.
4. Kulothunga I belonged to Chalukya – 4. Arrange the following administration
Chola dynasty. divisions in descending order.
5. The elder son of the Chola king was called 1.Nadu 2.Mandalam
Yuvaraja. 3.Ur 4. Kurram
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 5. Arrange the events in chronological VI Answer in one or two sentences
order.
1. What were the items exported during the
1. Maravarman appointed Virapandyan as
later Chola period?
co – regent.
2. Civil war broke out. 2. What was called Chatur-vedi-mangalam?
3. A Muslim State was established in Madurai.
3. Write about Kanikadan.
4. MaravarmanKulasekaran had two sons –
Virapandyan and Sundrapandyan VII. Answer the following
5. SundraPandyan sought help from Ala – 1. Highlight any five aspects of Cholas’ legacy.
ud-din Khalji.
6. Malik Kafur invaded Madurai. VIII HOTs
6.Find out 1. Chola kings were great patrons of learning:
Support the statement with details.
Brahmadeya
IX Students activity

Devadana Who am I?

1. I was responsible for Malik Kafur invasion.

2. I built 16-mile embankment-lake in
Pallichchandam
Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
3. I am a water supply channel.
Vellanvagai 4. I codified Thirumurai.
5. I was a great port. Marco Polo visited me
twice.

Who is he? Why is this person so

important?

Marco Polo

What are his observaons about Why do you think his observaons
Pandya Kingdoms? are so important?

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 X Answer Grid
1. Name the two literary works of Chola 2. Which port is associated with pearl fishery?
period. Ans:
Ans:

3. What do kasu, kalanchu and pon refer to? 4. In which district is Kayal -Pattinam located?
Ans: Ans:

5. Who was the Pandya king, defeated by 6. Where is the famous Meenakshi temple located?
Parantaka I? Ans:
Ans:

XI Field trip.
Visit any one temple built during Chola or Pandya period and see its magnificence.

References
1. K.A Nilakanda Sastri, A History of South India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.

2. Y. Subbarayalu, South India under The Cholas, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012.

3. R Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300, New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.

4. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2010.

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