Cambridge

Lower Secondary
Complete
Chemistry
Philippa Gardom Hulme
Anna Harris
Onn May Ling
Second Edition

Oxford excellence for Cambridge Lower Secondary

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Energy

1.1 What is energy?

You need energy
Activity
sitting
standing
washing, dressing
Energy (kJ) for each minute of activity
6
7
15
You need energy from food to walk, run, or
ride your bike. Energy from fuels is needed for walking slowly 13
Objectives transport and to produce electricity. The idea cycling 25
of energy helps us explain what can happen, playing football 59
y Describe where we get our
but not why things happen. For example, fuel swimming 73
energy from
allows a car to move, but that doesn’t tell you
y Know the unit of energy where it will go. But the concept of energy tells
It takes a lot of fuel to Science in context
you that without fuel the car cannot move.
launch a rocket into space.
The more active you are, the more energy you need. Athletes need lots of Your brain uses energy to
What is the unit of energy? energy. People who take on the challenge of walking to the North or South learn.
Energy is not an actual substance that moves from one object to another. It is a Pole need even more energy, because as well as walking and carrying their
way of keeping track of a very important quantity, a bit like money. food they need lots of energy to keep warm.

The unit of energy is the joule (J). One joule is a very small amount of
energy, so we often use kilojoules (kJ). 1 kJ = 1000 J. Energy balance
An adult should take in only as much energy as they need for the activities
Different foods store different amounts of energy.
that they do. If they take in more energy than they need, their body stores
it as fat for future use. If they eat less than they need, then the body will use
Food Energy (kJ) per 100 g of food
energy from its store of fat and they will lose weight.
banana 340
beans 400
Energy in fuels
rice 500
Food is not the only energy store – fuels such as coal, oil, or wood also
cooked chicken 800
The energy stored in provide us with stored energy that we can use. One kilogram of wood stores
chocolate 1500 a similar amount of energy
packaged food is usually
shown on the nutrition label. We can burn wood or coal to heat a room or to cook food. If we use an to 1 kg of chocolate.
For a long time a unit called a kilocalorie (kcal) was used for the energy electric kettle, then the energy needed to boil the water is transferred by
stored in food (1 kcal = 4.2 kJ). People called it a ‘calorie’ for short and you electricity. The energy used to generate this electricity may have been
still often see the kilocalorie content of foods on labels. stored in a fuel such as coal or oil.

How does your body use energy? Key points

How much energy do you need each day? It y We use the energy
depends on what activities you do. stored in food for all
Questions our activities and to
All activities have an energy cost. Keeping
your body warm, breathing, moving, and 1. Name three fuels. stay alive.
talking all need energy. Children need 2. Give two reasons why your body needs energy when you are asleep. y Energy is measured in
energy to grow bigger bones, muscles, and 3. Calculate the number of joules in 200 kJ. joules or kilojoules.
brains. 4. Explain why it is important for young children to take in more energy y The energy in the food
than they need for the activities they do each day. someone eats should
About three-quarters of the energy that 5. Calculate the number of minutes that you would need to cycle to use equal the energy they
you need every day is for processes in your up the energy in 100 g of chocolate. need.
body like breathing. You then need more
energy for all the other activities that you
Running or playing can use Your body needs 300 kJ per
hour to sleep. do such as walking, running, or lifting
3500 kJ per hour.
things.

20 21

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 Contents
Introduction 4 3 Metals and non-metals
Thinking and working scientifically 3.1 Magnificent metals 62
1 Asking questions 8
3.2 Comparing conductors 64
2 Planning and carrying out investigations 10
3.3 Amazing alloys 66
3 Collecting and recording data 12
3.4 Non-metal elements 68
4 Drawing graphs 14
3.5 Explaining metal and non-metal properties 70
5 Analysis 16
3.6 Better bicycles 72
6 Evaluation 18
3.7 Review 74
Stage 7 4 Chemical reactions 1
1 The particle model 4.1 What are chemical reactions? 76
1.1 The particle model 20 4.2 Atoms in chemical reactions 78
1.2 The states of matter 22 4.3 Investigating a chemical reaction 80
1.3 Using the particle model 24 4.4 Precipitation reactions 82
1.4 Changes of state – evaporating, boiling, and 4.5 Corrosion reactions 84
condensing 26 4.6 Review 86
1.5 Investigating boiling points 28 5 Acids and alkalis
1.6 Changes of state – melting and freezing 30 5.1 Acids and alkalis 88
1.7 Models in science 32 5.2 The pH scale 90
1.8 Review 34 5.3 Neutralisation reactions 92
2 Elements, compounds, and mixtures 5.4 investigating neutralisation 94
2.1 Elements and the periodic table 36 5.5 Acid rain 96
2.2 Discovering the elements 38 5.6 Gas products of acid reactions 98
2.3 Chemical symbols 40 5.7 Review 100
2.4 Atoms 42
6 Models of the Earth
2.5 Organising the elements 44
6.1 Models of the Earth 102
2.6 Compounds 46
6.2 Plate tectonics 104
2.7 What's in a name? 48
6.3 The restless Earth 106
2.8 Chemical formulae 50
6.4 Volcanoes 108
2.9 What's in a mixture? 52
6.5 Review 110
2.10 What’s in a solution? 54
Stage 7 review 112
2.11 Comparing elements, mixtures,
and compounds 56 Stage 8
2.12 What are you made of? 58
7 Inside atoms
2.13 Review 60
7.1 Inside atoms 114
7.2 Discovering electrons 116
7.3 Finding the nucleus 118
7.4 Inside sub-atomic particles 120
7.5 Proton and nucleon numbers 122
7.6 Review 124

2
 Contents

8 Pure substances and solutions 11 Patterns in the periodic table

8.1 Pure substances 126 11.1 Calculating density 188
8.2 Drinking seawater 128 11.2 Explaining density 190
8.3 Chromatography 130 11.3 Using density 192
8.4 Solutions and concentration 132 11.4 The periodic table: Group 1 194
8.5 How much salt is in the sea? 134 11.5 More about Group 1 196
8.6 Chlorine and water 136 11.6 The periodic table: Group 2 198
8.7 Solubility 138 11.7 Review 200
8.8 Investigating solubility and temperature 12 Chemical reactions 3
– doing an investigation 140
12.1 Mass and energy in chemical reactions 202
8.9 Investigating temperature and solubility
12.2 Writing symbol equations 204
– writing up an investigation 142
12.3 Metal displacement reactions 206
8.10 Review 144
12.4 Extracting metals 208
9 Chemical reactions 2 12.5 Extracting copper 210
9.1 More chemical reactions 146 12.6 Making salts from acids and metals 212
9.2 Word equations 148 12.7 More about salts 214
9.3 Energy changes 150 12.8 Making salts from acids and carbonates 216
9.4 Investigating fuels 152 12.9 Rates of reaction 218
9.5 Investigating food energy 154 12.10 Concentration and reaction rate 220
9.6 Metals and oxygen 156 12.11 Temperature and reaction rate 222
9.7 Metals and water 158 12.12 Surface area and reaction rate 224
9.8 Metals and acids 160 12.13 Review 226
9.9 The reactivity series 162
13 Planet Earth
9.10 Lead in the reactivity series 164
13.1 Continental drift 228
9.11 Review 166
13.2 Evidence from fossils 230
Stage 8 review 168
13.3 Evidence from seafloor spreading 232
Stage 9 13.4 Review 234
Stage 9 review 236
10 Structure, bonding, and properties
10.1 Proton number and the periodic table 170
Reference
10.2 Electrons in atoms 172
1 Choosing apparatus 238
10.3 Making ions 174
2 Working accurately and safely 240
10.4 Inside ionic compounds 176
Glossary 242
10.5 Covalent bonding 178
Index 246
10.6 Covalent structures 180
The periodic table of the elements 256
10.7 More about structures 182
10.8 Life-saving compounds 184
10.9 Review 186

3
 Introduction

How to use your Student Book

Welcome to your Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Chemistry Student Book. This book has
been written to help you study Chemistry at all three stages of the Cambridge Lower Secondary
Science curriculum framework.
Most of the units in this book work like this:

Metals and non-metals

3.3 Amazing alloys

Aeroplanes: heavy or light?
Name of alloy

low carbon steel

Other
elements
carbon
Properties

strong
Uses

bridges, buildings,
easily shaped ships, vehicles
Aeroplanes burn huge amounts of fuel.
manganese steel manganese hard mining equipment,
Fuel is expensive. And burning fuel
Objectives makes greenhouse gases. The lighter
carbon tough railway points
an aeroplane, the less fuel it burns. So stainless steel chromium does not rust knives and forks,
y Define the terms alloy
engineers make aeroplanes from metals nickel surgical instruments
and steel
that are light for their size. carbon
y Compare the physical Table 2. Properties of three types of steel (iron alloys).
properties of alloys and the What is an alloy?
elements in them Aluminium is a metal. It is light for its size. This makes it suitable for
Explaining alloy properties
As you have seen, alloys have different physical properties from the elements
y Explain how the uses of aeroplanes. But aluminium is not strong, so it breaks easily. And aluminium
that are mixed to make them. Alloys are stronger and harder, for example.
alloys depend on their is not hard, so it is easy to scratch and dent.
properties Engineers solve these problems by mixing aluminium with other elements. The different physical properties of alloys result from their atom
The mixture has different physical properties from pure aluminium. The arrangements. In a pure metal, the atoms are arranged in layers. The
mixture is stronger and harder than aluminium alone. A mixture of a metal diagram shows part of the atom arrangement in iron. The layers slide over
Particles in iron
with one or more other elements is an alloy. each other easily, so iron is soft and not very strong.

Material Composition Relative Strength when Carbon atoms are smaller than iron atoms. In steel, carbon atoms get
hardness pulled (MPa) between the iron atoms. The iron atom layers cannot slide over each other
easily. This makes steel harder and stronger than pure iron.
pure aluminium 100% aluminium 23 8
90% aluminium An alloy may also have different chemical properties from the elements that
Particles in steel (iron atoms
are in it. For example, pure iron goes rusty but stainless steel does not. You
6% zinc shown grey; carbon atoms
can read about chemical properties in Chapter 4. shown black)
aluminium alloy 7075 2% magnesium 150 572
Bronze – an ancient alloy
1% copper Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. It was first used about 6000 years ago
1% other metals to make tools and weapons. Bronze is harder than stone, which was used
before.
Table 1. Properties of aluminium and an aluminium alloy.
An ancient bronze axe
Some motors and gears are
Steel – a vital alloy made of bronze. They do not
need oiling, because bronze
Steel makes many things, from stunning structures to has low friction with other Key points
tiny components. metals.
Steels are alloys of iron. Iron is a metal. It is plentiful
y An alloy is a mixture
Questions of a metal with small
and cheap. But iron alone is too soft and bendy to be amounts of other
useful. In steels, iron is mixed with small amounts of a 1. Write definitions of alloy and steel. elements.
non-metal, carbon, and – in some cases – other metals.
TWS 2. Compare the physical properties of pure aluminium and an y An alloy has different
These elements change the properties of iron and make aluminium alloy. Use the data in Table 1. properties from the
it more useful.
3. Explain how the uses of low carbon steel are linked to its physical elements in it.
There are many types of steel. Each has its own TWS properties. Use data from Table 2.
The New Aswan Bridge, Egypt, has steel cables. properties and uses. Table 2 at the top of the next page y Different sized atoms
4. Explain why pure iron has different physical properties from its in an alloy change its
gives information about three types of steel.
alloys. Include a diagram in your answer. physical properties.

66 67

y Every page starts with the learning objectives for the unit. The learning objectives are
linked to the Cambridge Lower Secondary Science curriculum framework.
y Key words are marked in bold. You can check the meaning of these words in the glossary
at the back of the book.
y At the end of each unit there are questions to test that you understand what you have
learned. The first question is straightforward and later questions are more challenging.
The questions are written in the style of the Cambridge Checkpoint test, to help you prepare.
Answers are available in the Teacher Handbook which is available in print and digitally via
Kerboodle.
y The key points to remember from the unit are also summarised here.
These units cover the Chemistry topics in the Cambridge Lower Secondary Science curriculum
framework.
In addition, many of the units help you think and work scientifically, put science in context,
prepare for the next level, and test your knowledge.

4
 Introduction

Thinking and working scientifically

Thinking and working scientifically is an important component of the curriculum framework.
Metals and non-metals
Thinking

7.1
and working
scientifically
Comparing conductors
Tuqa sets up the apparatus. She makes sure the control variables are the
same by:

3.2
measuring the strips to check their size
What are heat sinks?
y weighing out pieces of wax of the same mass.
Tuqa’s family has a computer repair business. Tuqa knows that computers
The same candle heats the four metals at the same time, so the thermal
have metal heat sinks. A heat sink transfers thermal energy away from the
energy supplied is the same for each metal.
processor. It stops the computer getting too hot.
Tuqa also plans how to work safely. She will take care when lighting the
Objectives candle. She will let the hot metals cool before she touches them.
45
y Define the term scientific Making a prediction 40
question
Before starting, Tuqa wants to make a prediction. She looks in a
35
y Describe how to plan data book. She finds these data:

time for pin to drop off (s)

An aluminium heat sink. A copper heat sink.
30
a fair test
Tuqa notices that some computers have aluminium heat sinks. Other Element Thermal conductivity in W/m/K 25
y Describe how to make computers have copper heat sinks. She wonders which metals make better
aluminium 2.4 20
accurate and reliable heat sinks. She also wonders why she never sees iron or zinc heat sinks.
copper 3.9
measurements 15
iron 0.8
Planning the enquiry
y Make a conclusion zinc 1.1
10
Asking a scientific question 5
Tuqa knows that Which heat sink is aluminium copper The data show that copper conducts thermal energy quickest. Tuqa
0
better? is not a scientific question. predicts that the pin on the copper strip will drop off first. aluminium copper iron zinc
metal
She makes up a question that can Tuqa’s graph.
Carrying out the investigation
be answered using evidence. Her iron
scientific question is:
wooden Tuqa wants to make accurate measurements. She uses the timer on her
wax support
drawing
phone. She starts the timer when she lights the candle. She notes the time
Which conducts thermal energy pin zinc when each pin falls on the desk.
quickest – aluminium, copper, iron, candle
Tuqa wants to her measurements to be reliable. She does the whole
or zinc?
Tuqa’s apparatus Key points
experiment three times, and calculates mean values for each reading.
Planning the investigation Analysing the evidence y A scientific question is
one that is answered
Tuqa has the apparatus in the diagram. Tuqa carries out her investigation. She analyses her results and plots a bar using evidence.
She plans to light the candle. Thermal energy from the candle will travel chart. Then Tuqa uses her bar chart to make a conclusion:
along the metal strips. The wax will melt and the pins will drop off. She will y In a fair test, you change
The bar chart shows that the pin drops off the copper first. This shows that the independent
measure the times from lighting the candle to the pins falling off.
copper conducts thermal energy best. My prediction was correct. variable, measure the
Tuqa knows that changing one variable will affect another variable. This means dependent variable,
that she can answer her question by doing a fair test. She lists the variables: The experiment shows why heat sinks are made from aluminium or copper, and keep the control
not iron or zinc. variables the same.
Type of variable Meaning Variable in this investigation
independent variable the quantity she changes type of metal
Questions y Accurate data is data
that is close to the true
dependent variable the quantity that changes when the time for pin to fall off 1. Write definitions for scientific question, independent variable, value.
independent variable changes dependent variable, control variable.
control variables variables to keep the same y size of metal strip 2. Name the type of variable that must not change in a fair test.
y You can obtain reliable
data by making enough
y amount of wax
3. List the metals in the bar chart in order of how quickly they conduct measurements.
y amount of heat
thermal energy. Start with the slowest.

64 65

The Thinking and working scientifically units and features will help you learn:

y how to understand and apply models and representations

y the importance of asking scientific questions and planning how to answer them
y how to carry out enquiries such as fair test investigations and field work
y how to analyse data, draw conclusions, and evaluate your enquiry.

Questions which test your Thinking and working scientifically skills and knowledge are
TWS
marked with this icon.
On pages 8-19 you will find a dedicated Thinking and working scientifically chapter which
introduces essential skills which will be useful throughout every stage of the curriculum
framework.

Science in context
Science
Elements, compounds, and mixtures
Science in context units will also
in context Discovering the elements The 1700s – elements from the air, and more metals

6.1
2.2 Early ideas about elements
More than 2000 years ago, a Greek thinker suggested that there were four
Scientists discovered 17 new elements in the 1700s. They isolated nickel from
rocks and magnesium from pond water. They separated oxygen from the air.
Henry Cavendish and Joseph Priestley knew that air contains oxygen.
help you learn:
elements – air, water, fire, and earth. This idea was popular for hundreds of They did an experiment to find out about the other gases in air. First, they
years. Scientists in India used the explanation to help develop their ideas removed oxygen from the air. Then they put a mouse in the remaining air. It

y how scientists throughout history and

about atoms. died. Another scientist, Daniel Rutherford, explained the evidence. He said
Objective that air is mainly nitrogen.
From about 1700, scientists realised that the idea of four elements was
� Describe some factors that wrong. They looked for substances that did not break down into simpler
The 1800s – technology drives discoveries
influenced when elements substances. They already knew about some of them…

from around the globe developed

were discovered The 1880s saw the discovery of more than 50 elements. A new piece of
The first discoveries equipment, the spectroscope, helped scientists to discover caesium and
Some elements exist naturally on their own. Early humans saw sulfur rubidium.

theories, carried out research, and drew

near volcanoes. They made charcoal by burning wood. They found gold in Scientists discovered aluminium in the 1800s. It was not found earlier
stream beds. because it is strongly joined to oxygen in its rock.

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries

conclusions about the world around them

The last gaps in the periodic table were filled in the 1920s. Ida Tacke and her
colleagues discovered the elements rhenium and technetium. The colours in this periodic
table show when the
Scientists made more than 25 artificial elements in the twentieth century.
elements were discovered.

Sulfur on Ijen volcano in East Charcoal is a type of carbon. It forms elements discovered before 1200
H He
This gold headdress was Java, Indonesia. when wood burns. hydrogen
elements discovered between 1200 and 1700 helium

y
elements discovered in the 1700s

how science is applied in everyday life

made over 4000 years ago. Li Be elements discovered in the 1800s B C N O F Ne
It was found in a grave in Ur, lithium beryllium elements discovered in the 1900s boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
Copper can also exist on its own, but most
modern Iraq.
copper is found joined to other elements in Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
rocks. People started extracting copper from
its rock 7000 years ago. They used copper to K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
make weapons, tools, and jewellery.

y
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

how issues involving chemistry are

Later, people mixed copper with tin to make rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

bronze. The properties of bronze mean that Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

it is suitable for making knives. caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
Most early copper was The people of the Indus
extracted from malachite. People first extracted iron from rock about Valley started using bronze Fr Ra

evaluated
francium radium
3500 years ago. They made tools and about 5000 years ago. Key points
Note: This periodic table does not include all the elements.
weapons from the iron.

Questions
� Elements that are found
1200–1700 – zinc and phosphorus on their own were
discovered first.
It is not easy to get zinc from its rock. However, 800 years ago, scientists in 1. Explain why people have known of sulfur, gold, and carbon for
India worked out how to obtain zinc by heating zinc-containing rock with hundreds of years. � Other elements

y the global impact of the use of chemistry.

other substances, including soot and nuts. They made tens of thousands of were discovered as
TWS 2. List five elements discovered between 1200 and 1700.
tonnes of zinc. technology developed.
These iron tools are from TWS 3. Name the two elements that were discovered in the 1900s.
different parts of Europe. Hennig Brandt made the first phosphorus. He evaporated water from urine.
He heated the solid that remained until it was red hot. He then collected the
phosphorus vapour that evaporated.
38 39

5
Extension
Throughout this book there are lots of opportunities to learn even more about chemistry, beyond
the curriculum framework. These units are called Extension because they extend and develop
your science skills further.
You can tell when a question or part of a unit is Extension because it is marked with a
dashed line, like the one on the left.

Chemical reactions 3
Extension
Writing symbol equations
12.2
2. Balance the amounts of oxygen. There are two oxygen atoms on the
left, and one on the right. Write a big number 2 to the left of MgO.
Do not change or add any little numbers.
Darpan mixes two colourless solutions, silver nitrate and potassium iodide.
There is a chemical reaction. The reaction makes two products – silver Mg + O2 2MgO
iodide (a yellow precipitate) and potassium nitrate (a colourless solution). The big 2 applies to every atom in the formula that follows it. Here it
Objective Here is the word equation for the reaction: means that there are two magnesium atoms and two oxygen atoms.
silver nitrate + potassium iodide potassium nitrate + silver iodide The equation now shows two oxygen atoms on each side of the arrow.
� Write balanced symbol
equations for chemical How do you write a symbol equation for the reaction? 3. Balance the amounts of magnesium. Write a big 2 on the left of the Mg.
reactions The equation now shows two magnesium atoms on each side of the
Symbol equations arrow. The equation is balanced.
As you know, symbol equations show the reactants and products in a 2Mg + O2 2MgO
chemical reaction. They also show: 4. Add state symbols: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
� the chemical formulae of the reactants and products
� the relative numbers of particles of reactants and products Zinc and hydrochloric acid
� the states of the reactants and products. Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to make zinc chloride solution and
hydrogen gas. Follow these steps to write a balanced symbol equation for
The symbol equation for the precipitation reaction in the photo is:
the reaction:
potassium + silver nitrate silver iodide + potassium
1. Write the word equation, with the chemical formula under each
iodide nitrate
substance.
KI(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgI(s) + KNO3(aq)
A precipitate of silver iodide zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen
There are no balancing numbers because there are the same numbers of Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
atoms of each element in the reactants and products.
2. Balance the amounts of hydrogen. There is one hydrogen atom on the
left of the arrow, and there are two hydrogen atoms on the right. Write a
State symbols
big number 2 to the left of HCl. The reaction of zinc with
The letters in brackets are state symbols. State symbols show the state of
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 hydrochloric acid.
the substances in a reaction. They are given below. Write one state symbol
to the right of each formula. Do not use capital letters. 3. The equation is now balanced. It shows:

� (s) for solid � one Zn on each side of the arrow

Key points
� (l) for liquid � two H on each side of the arrow
� (g) for gas � two Cl on each side of the arrow. To write a balanced symbol
� (aq) for a substance dissolved in water.
4. Add state symbols: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) equation:

Writing symbol equations � Write a word equation

Questions for the reaction, with the
Magnesium and oxygen chemical formula below
Write balanced symbol equations for these chemical reactions: each name.
Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen. The product is magnesium oxide.
1. The reaction of solid lithium (Li) with oxygen gas (O2) to make solid
Follow the steps below to write a balanced symbol equation for the
lithium oxide (Li2O).
� Balance the equation
reaction. by writing balancing
2. The reaction of solid magnesium (Mg) with dilute hydrochloric acid numbers where needed.
1. Write a word equation, with the chemical formula under each substance. (HCl) to make magnesium chloride solution (MgCl2) and hydrogen
Do not guess the chemical formulae – look them up, or ask your teacher. gas (H2).
� Add state symbols.
Burning magnesium magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide 3. The reaction of nitrogen gas (N2) with oxygen gas (O2) to make
Mg + O2 MgO nitrogen monoxide gas (NO).

204 205

Extension units will not be part of your assessment, but they will help you prepare for moving
onto the next stage of the curriculum and eventually for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry.

Review
At the end of every chapter and every stage there are review questions.
Chemical reactions 3
Review
12.13
3. Name the salts made when the following pairs of c. Lia makes zinc chloride solution. She pours ii. Rashid records the mass of the reactant
substances react. the solution into an evaporating dish. She mixture every minute. He plots a graph of
does not heat the solution directly. Instead, his results.
a. Magnesium and sulfuric acid [1]
she heats the solution over a water bath. Predict which of the graphs below best
b. Zinc and hydrochloric acid [1] Suggest why. [1] represents Rashid’s results. [1]
1. This question is about displacement reactions. graph A graph B graph C
c. Magnesium and nitric acid [1] zinc chloride
The list below shows part of the reactivity series. solution
Use it to help you answer the question. d. Copper carbonate and hydrochloric acid [1] boiling
zinc water
e. Zinc and sulfuric acid [1]
iron
lead 4. Lia plans to make zinc chloride crystals.
copper She decides to react zinc metal with
hydrochloric acid. c. Rashid wants to investigate how the size of the
a. Predict which of the pairs of
a. The products of the reaction are zinc pieces of calcium carbonate affect the reaction
substances below will react. [2]
chloride solution and hydrogen gas. Write 5. Rashid investigates the reaction of hydrochloric rate.
i. Copper and zinc oxide a word equation for the reaction. [2] acid with calcium carbonate. He has three sizes of calcium carbonate
pieces – big lumps, small lumps, and powder.
ii. Lead and copper oxide b. Lia uses a secondary source to list The equation for the reaction is:
He decides to measure the time taken for 1.0 g
iii. Zinc and lead oxide the hazards of the reactants and products. calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid of gas to be made with each size of calcium
calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water carbonate pieces.
iv. Lead and iron oxide Substance Hazard
zinc metal Low hazard a. Predict which product of the reaction i. Name the variable he changes. [1]
b. Write word equations for the pairs is formed as a gas. [1]
dilute hydrochloric acid Low hazard. May cause ii. Name the variable he measures. [1]
of substances in part a that react. [4]
harm in eyes or in a b. Rashid sets up the apparatus
2. Caz puts a piece of zinc in some copper sulfate cut. below. iii. Name two variables Rashid must
solution. A reaction takes place. hydrogen gas Extremely flammable. calcium cotton wool keep constant. [1]
The word equation for the reaction is: Forms explosive carbonate
conical flask iv. Rashid finds that the powder reacts
zinc + copper sulfate copper + zinc sulfate mixture with air.
hydrochloric most quickly.
a. Name the products of the reaction. [1] zinc chloride solution Low hazard acid Which of the reasons below best
(dilute) explains why? [1]
b. Explain why the reaction is a zinc chloride crystals Corrosive. Burn skin.
balance
displacement reaction. [1] and concentrated Harmful if swallowed. A For a certain mass of calcium
solutions carbonate, the powder has the
c. Caz places a piece of zinc in some nickel i. Rashid predicts that, as smallest surface area.
nitrate solution. A displacement reaction the reaction progresses, the mass of the
Lia takes the precautions below to reduce risks
takes place. reaction mixture in the flask will decrease. B For a certain mass of calcium
from the hazards. Give one reason for each
Which of the reasons below best carbonate, the powder has the
i. Explain whether nickel or zinc precaution.
explains why the mass decreases? [1] biggest surface area.
is the more reactive metal. [2]
i. Be careful not to spill the acid. [1]
A The product that is formed as a gas C For a certain mass of calcium
ii. Write a word equation for the reaction. [2]
ii. Wear eye protection at all stages of dissolves in the reaction mixture. carbonate, the powder has the
iii. Predict what would happen if Caz the experiment. [1] highest concentration.
B The product that is formed as a gas
placed a piece of nickel in zinc
iii. Do not touch the zinc chloride crystals. [1] escapes into the air.
chloride solution. Give a reason for
your prediction. [2] C The product that is formed as a gas is
made up of atoms of two elements.

226 227

These questions are written in the style of the Cambridge Checkpoint test. They are there to
help you review what you have learned in that chapter or stage. Answers to these questions are
available in the Teacher Handbook. The Teacher Handbook is available in print or digitally via
Kerboodle.

6
 Introduction

Reference
At the back of this book, on pages 238-241, there are reference pages providing further
information that will help you while you study.
Reference
Reference
1.1
2
Working accurately and safely
You need to make accurate measurements in science practicals. You will
need to choose the correct measuring instrument, and use it properly.
Working safely
Hazard symbols
Hazards are the possible dangers linked to using substances or doing
experiments. Hazardous substances display hazard symbols. The table shows
some hazard symbols. It also shows how to reduce risks from each hazard.
cm3
Measuring cylinder
100

Measuring cylinders measure volumes of liquids or solutions. A measuring Hazard symbol What it means Reduce risks from this hazard by…
y
90

80 cylinder is better for this job than a beaker because it measures smaller Corrosive – the substance attacks and wearing eye protection
70
60 differences in volume. destroys living tissue, such as skin and eyes. y avoiding contact with the skin
60

50 To measure volume:
50
40

1. Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.

Irritant – the substance is not corrosive, but y wearing eye protection
y
30

20
will make the skin go red or form blisters. avoiding contact with the skin
10
2. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the surface of liquid.
3. Use the scale to read the volume. You need to look at the bottom of the
curved surface of the liquid. The curved surface is called the meniscus.
Toxic – can cause death, for example, if it is y wearing eye protection
swallowed or breathed in. y wearing gloves
Measuring cylinders measure volume in cubic centimetres, cm , or 3
y wearing a mask, or using the substance
column millilitres, ml. One cm3 is the same as one ml. in a fume cupboard
of liquid
Flammable – catches fire easily. y wearing eye protection
Thermometer
bulb y keeping away from flames and sparks
The diagram to the left shows an alcohol thermometer. The liquid expands
The different parts of a when the bulb is in a hot liquid and moves up the column. The liquid
thermometer.
contracts when the bulb is in a cold liquid. Explosive – the substance may explode if it y wearing eye protection

To measure temperature:
comes into contact with a flame or heat. y keeping away from flames and sparks

1. Look at the scale on the thermometer. Work out the temperature

difference represented by each small division.
Dangerous to the environment – the y taking care with disposal
substance may pollute the environment.
2. Place the bulb of the thermometer in the liquid.
3. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the liquid in the
thermometer. Other hazards

4. Use the scale to read the temperature. The table does not list all the hazards of doing practical work in science.
You need to follow the guidance below to work safely. Always follow your
The temperature of the Most thermometers measure temperature in degrees Celsius, °C. teacher’s safety advice, too.
liquid is 95 °C.
Balance y Take care not to touch hot apparatus, even if it does not look hot.
A balance is used to measure mass. Sometimes you need to find the mass of y Take care not to break glass apparatus – leave it in a safe place on the
something that you can only measure in a container, like liquid in a beaker. table, where it cannot roll off.
To use a balance to find the mass of liquid in a beaker: y Support apparatus safely. For example, you might need to weigh down a
clamp stand if you are hanging heavy loads from the clamp.
1. Place the empty beaker on the pan. Read its mass. y If you are using an electrical circuit, switch it off before making any
2. Pour the liquid into the beaker. Read the new mass. change to the circuit.

3. Calculate the mass of the liquid like this:

y Remember that wires may get hot, even with a low voltage.
y Never connect wires across the terminals of a battery.
The balance measures mass. (mass of liquid) = (mass of beaker + liquid) – (mass of beaker) y Do not look directly at the Sun, or at a laser beam.

Balances normally measure mass in grams, g, or kilograms, kg.

y Wear eye protection – whatever you are doing in the laboratory!

240 241

They include information on:

y how to choose suitable apparatus
y how to work accurately and safely.

There is also a periodic table of the elements at the end of this book, which you can quickly
refer to whenever you need to.

7
 1.1 The particle model
The picture shows a lake
in Sikkim, India. Imagine
visiting the lake and the
Objectives mountains. What are
they made from?
y Define the terms material,
substance, particle model,
What is matter
property
made from?
y Describe the particle model The different types
of matter (stuff) that
y List the factors that give a
things are made from
substance its properties
are materials. There are
millions of materials. The water of the lake is a material. The rock of the
mountains is a material. The gases of the air are materials, too.
All materials are made up of tiny particles. Particles are too small to see.
One grain of sugar is made up of about 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles.

Substance or material?
Most materials are mixtures. Wood is a mixture. So is soil and most rock.
But some materials are not mixtures. They have just one type of matter.
A material that has one type of matter is called a substance. Substances
include silver, sugar, and pure water.
All the particles in a substance are the same as each other. One water
particle is the same as all other water particles. One silver particle is the
same as all other silver particles.
But the particles of different substances are different. Water particles are
different to silver particles. Silver particles are different to sugar particles.
Every substance has its own type of particle.

What are properties?

Every substance has its own properties. The properties of a substance
describe what it is like and what it does. The pictures show some of the
properties of three substances at room temperature (20 ᵒC).

<201847_ph1.1.3>

FPO

Silver is shiny. Its shape stays the Water has no colour. It flows. Sugar is white. It has a sweet taste.
same unless you apply a force.

20
 The particle model

How does the particle model explain properties?

The particle model describes the arrangement and movement of the particles
in a substance. You can use the particle model to explain properties. The
properties of a substance depend on five factors:

y what its particles are like

y how its particles are arranged
y how its particles move
y how far apart the particles are (their separation)
y how strongly its particles hold together (their attraction for each other).
The pictures and captions show how the particle model explains some
properties.

A gold particle is Liquid water and steam The particles in liquid The particles in silver
a similar size to a have the same particles. water move around. hold together less
copper particle. But a But the particles in steam The particles in solid strongly than the
gold particle is heavier are further apart than rock are held in one particles in diamond.
than a copper particle. the particles in liquid place. This explains why This explains why silver
This explains why a water. So, one gram of liquid water flows but is easier to scratch
gold coin is heavier steam takes up more solid rock does not flow. than diamond.
than a copper coin of space than one gram of
the same size. liquid water.

Key points
Questions y Matter is made up of
particles.
1. Write definitions for substance, material, property, particle model.
y A substance has one
2. Describe three properties of silver at room temperature. type of particle.
3. Choose the one factor from the list that explains why ice is easier to y The properties of a
scratch than silver. substance describe
List of factors: what the particles are like, how the particles are what it is like and what
arranged, how strongly the particles hold together. it does.
4. A gold particle is the same size as a silver particle. Suggest why a y The particle model
gold ring is heavier than a silver ring of the same size. explains properties.

21
 1.2 The states of matter
What do the pictures have in common?

Objectives
y Define the term physical
property

y List the three states of

matter

y Describe differences in the

physical properties of a The pictures show water in its three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Most
substance in its three states substances can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas. These are the three states
of matter.
y Describe the arrangement,
movement, separation,
and attraction of the What are the properties of a substance in its three states?
particles in the three states Ritula has a jug of liquid water. She pours some water into a glass. The
shape of the water changes.
Ritula also has some ice shapes. Ice is water in the solid state. If Ritula keeps
the ice cold, the shapes do not change.
Shape – and whether or not it can change – is one property that depends
on the state of a substance. The table shows some other properties that
depend on state.
State In this In this state, can In this state, can the shape
state, does you compress change?
Liquid water changes shape. a substance (squash) a
flow? substance?
shape stays the same unless
solid no only a tiny bit
you apply a force
takes the shape of the bottom
liquid yes only a tiny bit
of its container
takes the shape of the whole
gas yes yes, a lot
container
Solid water (ice) shapes do
not change shape. The properties in the table are physical properties. Physical properties are
properties that you can observe or measure without changing a material.

What do the particles do in the three states?

The particle model explains the physical properties of a substance in its three
states. The particles themselves are the same in all three states. For example,
a particle in ice is the same as a particle in liquid water and in steam.

22
 The particle model

But some factors are different for a substance in the three states:

y how its particles are arranged

y how its particles move
y how far apart the particles are (their separation)
y how strongly the particles hold together.

The solid state Some particles of a

In the solid state, the particles touch each other. The particles are in substance in the solid state.
fixed positions in a regular pattern. The particles vibrate on the spot. The
particles hold together strongly.

The liquid state

In the liquid state, the particles touch each other. They are not in a pattern.
The particles move around randomly, sliding over each other. The particles
hold together strongly.
Some particles of a
The gas state
substance in the liquid state.
In the gas state, the particles are far apart. They are not in a pattern. The
particles move around very fast, in all directions. The particles do not hold
together strongly.
The table summarises the arrangement and behaviour of the particles in the
three states.
State How close How How do the How strongly
are the are the particle move? do the particles Some particles of a
particles? particles hold together? substance in the gas state.
arranged?
solid touching in a pattern vibrate on the spot strongly
Key points
move around
liquid touching randomly randomly, sliding strongly y There are three states of
over each other matter: solid, liquid, and
move around gas.
gas far apart randomly randomly, in all very weakly
y Physical properties are
directions those you can observe
or measure without
Questions changing a material.

1. List the three states of matter. y A substance has different

physical properties in its
2. Describe two differences and one similarity between the physical three states.
properties of a substance in the solid and liquid states.
3. Describe the arrangement, movement, and separation of the
y The particles have
different arrangements
particles in the liquid state. in the three states, and
4. Compare how strongly the particles hold together in the liquid and gas they move and are held
state. together differently.

23
 1.3 Using the particle model
The picture shows carbon dioxide in the solid state. The shape and size of
each lump does not change, if it is kept cold. But in the gas state, carbon
dioxide spreads out and mixes with the air, all around the Earth. Why is this
Objectives property so different in the two states?

y Use the particle model

to explain the physical
properties of substances in
their three states

y Define the term vacuum

y Describe one application of

science

Science in context
Keeping vaccines cold How does the particle model explain shape?
Solid carbon dioxide is also In solid carbon dioxide, the particles are arranged in fixed positions. They
called dry ice. Dry ice can hold together strongly. This explains why the shape and size of each lump
keep vaccines very cold. does not change.
It is packed into boxes In the gas state, the particles move around. They do not hold together
around the vaccine bottles. strongly. This explains why carbon dioxide gas spreads out. It takes the
shape of its container.

Dry ice keeps one

COVID-19 vaccine colder Pouring water
than −70 ᵒC. This boy is playing with liquid water. He pours it from one jar to another.
The shape of the water changes, because the particles move around.
How does the particle model explain other
physical properties?
Different parts of the particle model explain different properties.

Flow
A substance can flow in its liquid and gas states. This is because the
particles move around. But in the solid state, the particles are in fixed
positions. They cannot move. This explains why, in the solid state, a
substance cannot flow.

24
 The particle model

Liquid mercury flows, but solid mercury cannot flow. Carbon dioxide flows in the gas state. Solid carbon
dioxide cannot flow.
Compression
There is enough oxygen squashed into the firefighter’s cylinder to support
her for several hours. Normally, this amount of oxygen fills 1000 soda
bottles.
You can compress (squash) all substances in the gas state. This is because the
particles are far apart. They get closer together when the gas is compressed.
The particles themselves stay the same – they do not change size.
In the solid and liquid states, a substance can be compressed only a very
tiny bit. This is because the particles are already touching.

What is a vacuum?
A space that has no particles (and so no matter) is called a vacuum. Most of
outer space is close to being a vacuum. But there are a few particles in outer
space. They are very, very, very far apart. The firefighter’s cylinder is
full of oxygen.

Questions
1. Write the definition for a vacuum. Key points
2. Choose the one factor from the list that can be used to explain why a y The particle model
gas can be compressed. explains properties
List of factors: how the particles move, how the particles are such as whether a
separated, what the particles are like. substance flows or can
3. Use the particle model to explain why a lump of a solid does not be compressed.
change its shape. y Different parts of the
4. Use the particle model to explain why the shape of liquid water particle model explain
can change. different properties.

5. Describe how a substance flows, or does not flow, in the solid, liquid, y A vacuum is a space that
and gas states. Use the particle model to explain your answer. has no matter in it.

25
 1.4 Changes of state – evaporating,
boiling, and condensing
Chahaya lights a candle. Some of the solid wax melts,
forming liquid wax. Some of the liquid wax evaporates,
Objectives
forming wax in the gas state. The wax gas burns.
y Define the terms boiling,
evaporating, and What are changes of state?
condensing Melting and evaporating are changes of state. The
diagram gives the names for six changes of state. You
y Describe how the
may already know the names.
arrangement, movement,
and separation of the
particles change when melts boils / evaporates

a substance boils,
evaporates, or condenses ice water steam
(solid) (liquid) (gas)
y Make conclusions
from data
freezes condenses

Most substances change state, not just water.

How does the particle model explain changes of state?

When a substance changes from one state to another, its particles stay the
same. They do not change. The things that change are:

y how the particles are arranged

y how the particles move
y the separation of the particles.
Evaporating or evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas that
can happen at any temperature.
In the liquid state, particles touch each other. They move around, sliding
over each other. Some particles move faster than others. The faster-moving
Clothes dry when water particles leave the surface of liquid. They separate from each other, forming
evaporates from them.
gas. This is evaporation.

During evaporation,
The eggs are cooking in particles leave the liquid
boiling water. surface. Not to scale.

26
 The particle model

liquid gas bubble

Boiling is the change of state from liquid to gas. It only happens if the liquid
is hot enough.
When you heat liquid water, bubbles of steam form everywhere in the liquid.
In liquid water, the particles are touching each other. Inside the bubbles,
the particles are spread out. The bubbles rise to the surface and escape. The
water is boiling.
When a liquid is boiling,
The temperature that a substance boils at is its boiling point. Different bubbles of gas form
substances have different boiling points. A substance has a high boiling throughout. Not to scale.
point if its particles hold together strongly. A substance has a low boiling
point if its particles hold together weakly.

Process Change of state Temperature How particles leave the liquid

evaporating from liquid to gas happens at any temperature particles leave the liquid surface
boiling from liquid to gas happens at the boiling point bubbles of the substance in the gas
state form everywhere in the liquid; the
bubbles rise to the surface and escape
Table 1: A comparison of evaporating and boiling.

Thinking and working scientifically Substance Boiling

point (ᵒC)
Making conclusions from data nitrogen −196
Table 2 shows the boiling points of six substances.
chlorine −102
You can interpret the data in the table to make conclusions. ethanol 78
y First conclusion: Diamond has the highest boiling point. Its particles water 100
are held together most strongly. mercury 357
y Second conclusion: The boiling point of nitrogen is lower than room
copper 2595
temperature (20 ᵒC). This means that nitrogen is in the gas state at
diamond 5100
room temperature.
Table 2

Condensing or condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid.

A gas condenses at any temperature below its boiling point. Key points
When a substance changes from the gas state to the liquid state, the y A substance changes
particles in the gas move more slowly. They get closer until they are from liquid to gas by
touching, forming liquid. The substance has condensed. evaporating or boiling.

y A substance changes
Questions from gas to liquid by
1. Name the change of state from gas to liquid. condensing.

2. Describe the movement and separation of the particles before y Every substance has its
and after a substance evaporates. own boiling point.

3. Compare evaporating and boiling. Use Table 1 to help you.

TWS 4. Look at the data in Table 2. Name one substance, other than
nitrogen, that is in the gas state at 20 ᵒC.

27
 Thinking
and working Investigating boiling points
scientifically Rabia is a school student. She lives in Mumbai, a city by the sea. She visits

1.5
Leh, high in the mountains. She discovers that water boils at different
temperatures in the two places. Rabia asks a scientific question:

Why does water boil at different temperatures in different places?

Objectives
y Describe how to collect
evidence to test a
hypothesis

y Draw a graph to present

data

y Describe patterns in results

and make conclusions Planning the investigation
Making a hypothesis
Rabia makes a hypothesis. As you know, a hypothesis is a possible
explanation that is based on evidence, and can be tested further.

My hypothesis – The boiling point of water depends on altitude (height above

sea level). The higher the altitude, the lower the boiling point.
Rabia can collect evidence to find out if her hypothesis is correct. This
means that the hypothesis is testable.

Carrying out the investigation

Rabia uses a thermometer to measure the boiling point of water in Mumbai.
This is not enough evidence to test her hypothesis. She needs to collect
more evidence. She asks her relatives to measure the boiling temperature of
water in other places.
Some of her relatives send photos of the thermometers they use.

Different thermometers

Rabia then uses the Internet to find the altitude of each place, and the
boiling temperatures on two mountain summits. Rabia writes all the results
in a table. This makes it easy to see all the data.

28
 The particle model

Place Altitude (metres above sea level) Boiling temperature of water (ᵒC)
Chennai, India 0 100
Jos, Nigeria 1200 96
Leh, India 3524 88
Mumbai, India 0 100
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 610 40
Srinagar, India 1585 95
Summit of Mount Everest, Nepal 8550 69
Summit of Puncak Jaya, Indonesia 4884 83

Analysing the evidence

Making a conclusion 120

temperature at which water boils (°C)

Rabia uses the data in her table to draw a line 100
graph. This will make it easier to spot a pattern.
80
Rabia notices that the boiling point for Riyadh does
not fit the pattern. It is anomalous. She messages 60
her relative there. He said that he made a mistake,
and measured the air temperature, not the boiling 40
temperature of water. Rabia decides to ignore this
20
result.
Rabia writes a conclusion: 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
altitude (height above sea level) (m)
My conclusion - My results show that as altitude
increases, boiling temperature decreases. This
supports my hypothesis. A limitation of my investigation is that it does not
explain why boiling temperatures are different at different altitudes.
Suggesting improvements
Rabia knows that her uncle in Srinagar boiled water in three different pots.
He measured the boiling temperature in each pot. It was the same each
time. Rabia knows that his data is precise. If she did the investigation again,
she would ask everyone to repeat the experiment three times.
Key points
Questions y A hypothesis is a
1. Write the definition for hypothesis. possible explanation
that is based on
2. Use the table to write down the boiling temperature of water at the evidence and can be
summit of Mount Everest. Include units in your answer. tested further.
3. Describe the pattern shown by the graph.
y An anomalous result
4. The city of Addis Ababa, in Ethiopia, is at altitude 2400 m. Use the is one that does not fit
graph to predict the boiling temperature of water in Addis Ababa. the pattern.
5. Look at the pictures of the thermometers. Suggest and explain an y In a conclusion, describe
improvement that Rabia could make to the investigation, other than any patterns and explain
asking everyone to repeat the experiment three times. any limitations.

29
 1.6 Changes of state – melting
and freezing

Objectives
y Define the terms melting
and freezing

y Describe how the

arrangement, movement,
and separation of the
particles change when a Arin puts some butter in a pan. He heats the pan. As he heats, the butter
substance melts or freezes starts to become runny. It is changing from the solid state to the liquid state.

y Make conclusions How does the particle model explain melting?

from data
The change of state from solid to liquid is melting. When a solid begins
to melt, its particles vibrate faster. The particles move out of their fixed
positions. They move around, sliding over each other. Some of the
substance is now in the liquid state.
If the substance continues to be heated, more of its particles start to move
around. Eventually, all the substance has melted. In the liquid, the particle
arrangement changes all the time.
But melting does not change the separation of the particles. The particles
touch each other in both the solid and liquid states.
solid liquid

On melting, particles leave

their fixed positions.

Melting point
Gallium melts on your hand.
The temperature that a substance melts at is its melting point. Every
Its melting point is 30 ᵒC.
substance has its own melting point. A substance has a high melting point if
06.03.02
its Science
particles areWorks
held Bk1
together strongly.
Barking Dog Art

Substance Melting point (ᵒC)

nitrogen −210
water 0
gallium 30
paracetamol 169
gold 1063
This photo shows ice forming
from liquid water. copper 1083

30
 The particle model

Science in context
Identifying substances
Scientists use melting points to help identify substances. In a university
laboratory, Gladys and Jamil follow instructions to make a painkiller,
paracetamol. They end up with white crystals.
The students want to check that the crystals are definitely paracetamol. They
put some crystals in a thin glass tube. They place the tube in the melting point
apparatus. The substance melts at 169 ᵒC. The melting point confirms that they Using melting point
have made paracetamol. apparatus.

How does the particle model explain freezing?

The change of state from liquid to solid is freezing. A substance freezes at,
or below, its melting point.
When a liquid freezes, its particles stop moving around from place to place.
Over time, they arrange themselves in a pattern. Eventually, all the particles are
in fixed positions. They vibrate on the spot. All of the substance is now frozen.
In melting and freezing, the particles themselves do not change. No
particles are added or removed. This is true for all changes of state.

Thinking and working scientifically

Making conclusions from data: solid, liquid, or gas?
If you know the melting point and boiling point of a substance, you can predict its state at different
temperatures:

y Below the melting point, it is in the solid state.

y Between its melting and boiling points, it is in the liquid state.

y Above its boiling point, it is in the gas state.

melting point of silver (961 °C) boiling point of silver (2210 °C) The diagram shows the
melting point and boiling
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400
point of silver.
temperature (°C)

Key points
Questions
1. Name the change of state from:
y Melting is the change
of state from solid to
a. solid to liquid b. liquid to solid c. liquid to gas. liquid.
2. Describe the movement, arrangement, and separation of y Freezing is the change
particles before and after freezing. of state from liquid to
solid.
TWS 3. Look at the diagram of the melting point and boiling point of

TWS
silver. Give the state of silver at these temperatures: y Every substance has its
a. 700 ᵒC b. 1400 ᵒC c. 2400 ᵒC d. 20 ᵒC. own melting point.

31
 Thinking
and working Models in science
scientifically Yana makes a model truck. How is the truck like a real truck?

1.7
How is it different?

Objectives
y Define the term model
in science

y Consider strengths
and limitations of the
particle model

A model truck A real truck

The model truck is the same colour as the real truck. It is a similar shape.
But there are differences between the real truck and the model truck. The
model truck is smaller. It cannot move by itself, or carry heavy loads.

What are models in science?

In science, a model is an idea that explains observations and helps in
making predictions. The particle model is one model. You can imagine it in
your head. You can draw it. Or you can use something else to represent the
particles, like peas.

Two ways of representing the particle model – as a drawing, and with

dried peas.

There are many other models in science. Some models represent things that
are very small, such as particles and cells. Some models represent things
that are very big, such as the Solar System. You can read about other models
later in the book.

32
 The particle model

What are the strengths and limitations of the particle model?

Strengths
Models help to explain things. The particle model explains why liquid water
takes the shape of a cup, and why solid water does not. The particle model
also explains changes of state, such as melting and freezing.
Models help in making predictions. If you know that the particles hold
together strongly in solid gold, you can predict that gold has a high
melting point. Gold has a high melting point.

Limitations
Models are simpler than reality. This is what makes them useful. But
because they are simpler, they are not exactly the same. A model can never
be perfect. Every model has limitations.
In the particle model, every particle is a solid sphere. In reality, different
particles are different shapes. And in reality, particles are not solid. As you
will see in Chapter 7, particles are mostly empty space.

In the particle model, we imagine that all particles are spheres. But the
shape of a water molecule is more like the shape on the right.

The differences between the particle model and reality give the model some
limitations, or weaknesses:

y The particle model does not explain all observations perfectly.

y Predictions made with the particle model are sometimes not accurate.
Even though the particle model has limitations, it is still useful.
Key points
Questions y In science, a model is
1. Write the definition for a model in science. an idea that explains
observations and helps
2. Use the particle model to explain why you can pour a substance in making predictions.
when it is liquid, but not solid.
3. Describe two ways that the particle model is different from reality.
y Every model has
strengths and
4. Describe two limitations of the particle model. limitations.

33
 Review
1.8
a. Give the letter of the arrow that shows
freezing. [1]

b. Give the letter of the arrow that shows

condensing. [1]

1. c. Give the name of the change of state

represented by arrow A. [1]

d. Give the name of the change of state

represented by arrow B. [1]
4. Use the words and phrases to copy and complete
the sentences below. You may use each word or
phrase once, more than once, or not at all.
The picture shows water in two states.
a. Name the two states shown in the picture. [2] a little close together
far apart gas
b. Give the name of the state in which water takes liquid much
the shape of the bottom of its container. [1] solid vibrate on the spot
move around from place to place
c. Give the names of two states in which water
move around and slide over each other
can flow. [1]
2. Choose one word from the list below to answer Copper exists in three states – solid, liquid, and
each question part. . In the solid state, its particles .
The particles are . When copper melts,
properties particle model it changes state from to . Its
substance physical properties particles start to . They get
vacuum evaporation further apart. If copper is heated to 1084 ᵒC, it
changes from the liquid to the state.
a. These are properties that you can observe or Its particles get further apart and
measure without changing a material. [1] they start to . [10]
b. A space with no particles in it. [1] 5. The table gives the melting points and boiling
TWS points for five substances.
c. A material that has one type of matter. [1]
Substance Melting Boiling
d. These describe what a substance is like and point (ᵒC) point (ᵒC)
what it does. [1] bromine −7 59
e. This describes the arrangement, separation, chlorine −102 −34
and movement of the particles in a iodine 114 184
substance. [1] osmium 3000 5000
tungsten 3422 5555
f. The change of state from liquid to gas that
can happen at any temperature. [1] a. Name the substance in the table with the
3. In the diagram below, each arrow represents a highest melting point. [1]
change of state. b. Name the substance in the table with the
A B lowest boiling point. [1]
solid liquid gas c. Name one substance in the table that is in the
C D gas state at 20 ᵒC. [1]

34
 The particle model

d. Name two substances in the table that are in a. Write the letter of the one statement above
the solid state at 20 ᵒC. [1] that best explains why you can pour liquid
e. Give the state of bromine at 20 ᵒC. [1] water. [1]

f. Copy and complete the sentence using words b. Write the letter of the one statement above
from the list. You may use them once, more that best helps to explain why the volume
than once, or not at all. of 1 g liquid water is similar to the volume
solid liquid gas of 1 g of solid water (ice). [1]
When bromine is heated from 20 ᵒC to 100 ᵒC it c. Write the letter of the one statement above
changes from the _____ to the _____ state. [2] that best explains why a liquid takes the
shape of the bottom of its container. [1]
g. Name the change of state that occurs when
TWS 9. Oxygen is a gas at 20 ᵒC.
osmium is heated from 4000 ᵒC to 6000 ᵒC. [1]
a. Describe the arrangement, separation, and
6. Write the letter of each label next to the correct
movement of particles in the gas state. [3]
line on the diagram. [3]
b. Use the particle model to explain why oxygen
gas can be compressed. [1]
10. The diagram shows the particles of a substance
in its liquid state.
a. Describe what you could do to make the
particles in the liquid move more quickly. [1]
A Water in the liquid state.
b. Draw a diagram to show the same particles
B Water in the gas state (steam or vapour).
after some of the liquid has evaporated. [1]
C Mixture of air and steam.
7. Complete the sentences using words and phrases
from the list. You may use each once, more than
once, or not at all.
increases decreases stays the same
a. When liquid water boils, the separation of the
particles _________ [1] 11. Copy these and draw lines to match each
property with the best explanation. [3]
b. When steam condenses, the speed of
movement of the particles __________ [1] Property Explanation
You cannot compress The particles move
c. When steam condenses, the distance between a solid. around, sliding over
the particles _______ [1] each other.
8. Read the statements below about the particles in If a gas is in a There is no empty
liquid water. All the statements are true. container with no lid, space between the
X The particles are close together in the solid and it escapes from the particles.
liquid states. container.
Y The particles are not arranged in a regular pattern. A liquid takes the Its particles are in
Z The particles move around, sliding over each shape of the bottom fixed positions.
other.
of its container.
You cannot pour a The particles
solid. move around in all
directions.

35
Cambridge Lower Secondary
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