1) Consider an algebraic system (G, *), where G is the set of all non-zero real numbers and

* is a binary operation defined by

Show that (G, *) is an abelian group.

Solution:
Closure Property: The set G is closed under the operation *, since a * b = ab/4 is a real
number. Hence, it belongs to G.
Associative Property: The operation * is associative. Let a,b,c∈G, then we have

Identity: To find the identity element, let us assume that e is a +ve real number. Then e * a =
a, where a ∈G.

Thus, the identity element in G is 4.

Inverse: let us assume that a ∈G. If a-1∈Q, is an inverse of a, then a * a-1=4

Thus, the inverse of element a in G is

Commutative: The operation * on G is commutative.

Thus, the algebraic system (G, *) is closed, associative, identity element, inverse and
commutative. Hence, the system (G, *) is an abelian group.

2) Theorem: Prove that if (G1,*1)and (G2,*2) are groups, then G = G1 x G2 i.e., (G, *) is a group
with operation defined by (a1,b1)*( a2,b2 )=(a1,*1,a2, b1 *2 b2).
Proof: To prove that G1 x G2 is a group, we have to show that G1 x G2 has the associativity
operator, has an identity and also exists inverse of every element.
Associativity. Let a, b, c ∈ G1 x G2,then
So,        a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))
                = (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
                = (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
                = ((a1 *1 b1) *1 c1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
                = (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
                = ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
                = (a * b) * c.
Identity: Let e1 and e2 are identities for G1 and G2 respectively. Then, the identity for G1 x G2 is
e=(e1,e2 ).Assume same a ∈ G1 x G2
Then,        a * e = (a1,a2)*( e1,e2)
                = (a1 *1 e1,a2 *2 e2)
                = (a1,a2)=a
Similarly, we have e * a = a.
Inverse: To determine the inverse of an element in G1 x G2, we will determine it component
wise i.e.,
                a-1=(a1,a2)-1=(a1-1,a2-1 )
Now to verify that this is the exact inverse, we will compute a * a-1 and a-1*a.
Now,         a * a-1=(a1,a2 )*(a1-1,a2-1 )
                = (a1 *1 a1-1,a2 *2 a2-1)=( e1,e2)=e
Similarly, we have a-1*a=e.
Thus, (G1 x G2,*) is a group.
In general, if G1,G2,....Gn are groups, then G = G1 x G2 x.....x Gn is also a group.

Example Problems on Additive and Multiplicative modulo

1) Verify whether the following algebraic system is a monoid or not G={1,2,3,4} and the
operation X5, where X5 represents multiplication module 5.
2) Let group G={0,2,4,6,8) and a subset of G, S={0,2,4}. Prove that S is a subgroup of G
under multiplication modulo 4.

Order of an Element
Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈G, then the least positive integer n if it exists such
n
that a = e is called the order of a ∈G.

The order of an element a ∈G is be denoted by O(a).

Example: G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a group with respect to multiplication. 1 is the identity in G.
1 2 3
1 = 1 = 1 = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(1) = 1.
2 4 6
(−1) = (−1) = (−1) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−1) = 2.
4 8 12
i =i =i = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(i) = 4.
4 8
(−i) = (−i) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−i) = 4.

5
Example: In a group G, a is an element of order 30. Find order of a .
Solution: Given O(a) = 30
30 5
⇒a = e, e is the identity element of G. Let O(a ) = n
5 n
⇒ (a ) = e
5n
⇒a = e, where n is the least positive integer. Hence 30 is divisor of 5n.

∴n = 6.
5
Hence O(a ) = 6

Cyclic group 
 A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element. Every element of a cyclic
group is a power of some specific element which is called a generator. A cyclic group can be
generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every other element of the group can be written as a
power of the generator ‘g’.
Example
The set of complex numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under multiplication operation is a cyclic group.
There are two generators: i and –i as i1 = i, i2=−1, i3 = −i, i4 =1 and also 
(–i)1=−i, (–i)2=−1, (–i)3=i, (–i)4=1 which covers all the elements of the group. Hence, it is a
cyclic group.
Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian group but not every abelian group is a cyclic group.
The rational numbers under addition is not cyclic but is abelian.

Permutation Group
Let, X be a non-empty set. A permutation of X is a one-one function from X onto X. A
group (G,*) is called a permutation group on a non-empty set X if the elements of G are
a permutation of X and the operation * is the composition of two functions.
Equality of two permutation
Let, f and g be two permutation on a X. Then f = g if only if f(x) = g(x) for all x in X.
Example: Let, f and g be given by:
f = 1 2 3 4 g = 3 2 1 4
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1
Evidently f(1) = 2 = g(1), f(2) = 3 = g(2)
f(3) = 4 = g(3), f(4) = 1 = g(4)
Thus, f(x) = g(x) for all x E {1, 2, 3, 4} which implies f = g.

Homomorphism:
Let (G,o) and (G1,*) be two groups or two algebraic systems of the same type i.e. both o and *
are binary (n-ary) operations. A mapping f: G→ G1 is called a Homomorphism or simply
morphism , from (G,o) to (G1,*).
If x,y ∈ G, f(x), f(y) ∈ G1 then
f(x*y) = f(x) o f(y)
Example:
Let X:--- R, set of real numbers under addition (X,+)
Y: ---- R+, set of +ve real numbers under multiplication (Y,*)
Then f: X→Ygiven by f(a)= 2a is a group homomorphism
Such that f(a+b) = 2a+b = 2a . 2b = f(a) . f(b)
For any algebraic structure, a homomorphism preserves the structure, and some types of
homomorphisms are:
 Epimorphism: a homomorphism that is surjective (onto)
 Monomorphism: a homomorphism that is injective (one-to-one, 1-1, or univalent)
 Isomorphism: a homomorphism that is bijective (1-1 and onto); isomorphic objects are
equivalent, but perhaps defined in different ways
 Endomorphism: a homomorphism from an object to itself
 Automorphism: a bijective endomorphism (an isomorphism from an object onto itself,
essentially just a re-labeling of elements)
Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only the
binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra.

A complemented distributive lattice is known as a Boolean Algebra. It is denoted by (B,

∧,∨,',0,1), where B is a set on which two binary operations ∧ (*) and ∨(+) and a unary operation
(complement) are defined. Here 0 and 1 are two distinct elements of B.
Rule in Boolean Algebra
Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.
 Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0 for LOW.
 Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus, complement of variable
B is represented as  . Thus if B = 0 then   = 1 and B = 1 then   = 0.
 Logical OR of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between them. For example
Logical OR of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
 Logical AND of the two or more variable is represented by writing a dot between them
such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may be omitted like ABC.

Boolean Laws / Identities of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Ring
2
In mathematics, a Boolean ring R is a ring for which x  = x for all x in R, that is, a ring that consists only of idempotent
elements.
Boolean Expressions
A Boolean expression always produces a Boolean value. A Boolean expression is composed of
a combination of the Boolean constants (True or False), Boolean variables and logical
connectives. Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.
Example − AB′C is a Boolean expression.
Canonical Forms
For a Boolean expression there are two kinds of canonical forms −
 The sum of minterms (SOM) form
 The product of maxterms (POM) form

The Sum of Minterms (SOM) or Sum of Products (SOP) form

A minterm is a product of all variables taken either in their direct or complemented form. Any
Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of its 1-minterms and the inverse of the function
can be expressed as a sum of its 0-minterms. Hence,
F (list of variables) = ∑ (list of 1-minterm indices)
and
F' (list of variables) = ∑ (list of 0-minterm indices)
A B C Term Minterm
0 0 0 x’y’z’ m0
0 0 1 x’y’z m1
0 1 0 x’yz’ m2
 0 1 1 x’yz m3
1 0 0 xy’z’ m4
1 0 1 xy’z m5
1 1 0 xyz’ m6
1 1 1 xyz m7
Example
Let, F(x,y,z) = x′y′z′+xy′z+xyz′+xyz
Or, 
F(x,y,z) = m0+m5+m6+m7
Hence,
F(x,y,z)=∑(0,5,6,7)
Now we will find the complement of F(x,y,z)
F′(x,y,z)=x′yz+x′y′z+x′yz′+xy′z′
Or, 
F′(x,y,z)=m3+m1+m2+m4
Hence,
F′(x,y,z) = ∑(3,1,2,4) = ∑(1,2,3,4)

The Product of Maxterms (POM) or Product of Sums (POS) form

A maxterm is addition of all variables taken either in their direct or complemented form. Any
Boolean function can be expressed as a product of its 0-maxterms and the inverse of the
function can be expressed as a product of its 1-maxterms. Hence,
F(list of variables) = π (list of 0-maxterm indices).
and
F'(list of variables) = π (list of 1-maxterm indices).
A B C Term Maxterm
0 0 0 x+y+z M0
0 0 1 x + y + z’ M1
0 1 0 x + y’ + z M2
0 1 1 x + y’ + z’ M3
1 0 0 x’ + y + z M4
1 0 1 x’ + y + z’ M5
1 1 0 x’ + y’ + z M6
1 1 1 x’ + y’ + z’ M7
Example
Let F(x,y,z)=(x+y+z).(x+y+z′).(x+y′+z).(x′+y+z)
Or, 
 F(x,y,z)=M0.M1.M2.M4
Hence,
F(x,y,z)=π(0,1,2,4)
F″(x,y,z)=(x+y′+z′).(x′+y+z′).(x′+y′+z).(x′+y′+z′)
Or, 
F″ (x,y,z)=M3.M5.M6.M7
Hence,
F″ (x,y,z)=π(3,5,6,7)

Principle of Duality:
The dual of any expression E is obtained by interchanging the operation + and * and also
interchanging the corresponding identity elements 0 and 1, in original expression E.
Example: Write the dual of following Boolean expressions:
1. (x1*x2) + (x1*x3')         2. (1+x2)*( x1+1)
3. (a ∧(b∧c))
Solution:
1. (x1+x2)*(x1+x3')         2. (0*x2)+(x1*0)
3. (a ∨(b∧c))