DM Unit 3

TUSHIKA RAWAT
GROUP
ISOMORPHISM
THEORY AND
HOMOMORPHISM
DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
SUBGR MONOID
OPS
Let's get visual with our processes!
UNIT - 3
Semi-group, Monoid, Groups, Group identity and
uniqueness, inverse and its uniqueness,
isomorphism and homomorphism, subgroups,
Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem, Permutation
group and Cayley’s theorem (without proof),
Normal subgroup and quotient groups. Groups
and Coding
That moment when you
understand everything in
MATHS from FFT NOTES
GROUP THEORY
Group theory is a branch of abstract algebra
that studies the algebraic structures known as
groups. A group is a set equipped with a
single binary operation that satisfies certain
axioms. Group theory has profound
applications in various fields, including
physics, chemistry, computer science, and
cryptography.
PROPERTIES OF GROUP THEORY
SEMIGROUP O
An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if

. * is closed operation on A.
* is an associative operation, for all a, b, c
in A
EXAMPLE :
(Set of integers, +), and (Matrix ,*) are examples of semigroup.
(N, +) is a semi group
(N, .) is a semi group
(N, – ) is not a semi group.
MONOID O
An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the following conditions are satisfied.
* is a closed operation in A.
* is an associative operation in A.
There is an identity in A.
EXAMPLE : Show that the set N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

N = {1,2,3,4,……}
Closure property:We know that product of two natural numbers is again a natural
number. i.e., a.b=b.a for all a,b∈ N ∴ Multiplication is a closed operation.
Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative. i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for
all a,b,c ∈ N
Identity : We have, 1 ∈ N such that a.1 = 1.a = a for all a ∈ N. ∴ Identity element
exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication
GROUPS O
An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the following conditions are

satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation. WEBSITE
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.
Abelian group (Commutative group)
A group (G, *) said to be abelian (or commutative)

if a * b = b * a for all a, b ∈ G.
WEBSITE
GROUPS PROPERTIES O
In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good

1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c => b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c => a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 *a-1
Order of a group The number of elements in a group is called order of the

group
Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a finite group.
Show that, the set of Let Z = set of all integers. Let a, b, c are any
three elements of Z.
. Closure property: We know that ,Sum of two
all integers is an integers is again an integer. i.e., a + b ∈ Z for
all a,b ∈ Z
abelian group with Associativity: We know that addition of
integers is associative. i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
respect to addition. for all a,b,c ∈ Z.
Identity : We have 0 ∈ Z and a + 0 = a for all a
∈ Z . ∴ Identity element exists, and ‗0‘ is the
Solution: identity element
Inverse: To each a ∈ Z , we have – a ∈ Z
such that a + ( – a ) = 0 Each element in Z has
an inverse.
Commutativity: We know that addition of
integers is commutative. i.e., a + b = b +a for all
a,b ∈ Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.

Show that G = {1, -1} is 1. Closure property: Since all the entries of
the composition table are the elements of
an abelian group the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication
under multiplication.. . 2. Associativity: The elements of G are real
numbers, and we know that multiplication of
Solution: real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element
and 1∈ G.
The composition table 4. Inverse: From the composition table, we
of G is see that the inverse elements of 1 and – 1 are
1 and – 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows
and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is
commutative.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.

MODULO SYSTEMS
Addition modulo m ( +m )
Multiplication modulo p ( *m)

subgroup
Identity Element: A subgroup must contain the identity element of the original
group.
Closure: For any two elements in the subgroup, their product (under the group
operation) must also be in the subgroup.
Inverses: For every element in the subgroup, its inverse (under the group operation)
must also be in the subgroup.
Consider the group of integers Z under addition. A common subgroup is the
Example: Subgroup of Integers set of even integers, denoted by 2Z. Let's check the conditions:
Identity: The identity element in Z is 0, which is an even integer.

Closure: The sum of any two even integers is also an even integer. For example, 2+4=6.
Inverses: The inverse of an even integer is also an even integer. For example, the inverse
of 2 is -2.
Thus, 2Z is a subgroup of Z.
Cosets
Cost is a subset of the mathematical group consisting of all the products
obtained by multiplying a fixed element of the group by each of the elements
of a given subgroup, either on the right or on the left Cosets are basic tools in
the study of group
Left Cosets Right Cosets
Consider the group ( G = S_3 ) (the
symmetric group on 3 elements) and
the subgroup ( H = { (), (1\ 2) } ). Find all
left cosets of ( H ) in ( G ).
Solution:
Lagrange's Theorem
Statement In group theory, Lagrange's theorem states that for any finite group G, the
order (number of elements) of every subgroup H of G divides the order of
G. Mathematically, if ∣G∣ is the order of G and ∣H∣ is the order of H,
then ∣H∣ divides ∣G∣.
Example Consider the group G=Z6 (integers modulo 6) under addition

The elements of Z6 are {0,1,2,3,4,5}. Let's take the subgroup H={0,3}, which consists of
the multiples of 3.
Order of G: The order of G is 6, since there are 6 elements in Z6.
Order of H: The order of H is 2, since there are 2 elements in {0,3}.
According to Lagrange's theorem, the order of H (which is 2) divides the order of
G (which is 6). Indeed, 6/2=3, so the theorem holds.
Permutation group
Let G be a non-empty set, then a one-one onto mapping to itself that is as
shown below is called a permutation.
The number of elements in finite set G is called the degree of Permutation.

Let G have n elements then Pn is called a set of all permutations of degree n.
Pn is also called the Symmetric group of degree n.
Pn is also denoted by Sn.
The number of elements in Pn or Sn is n!
Permutation group
CAYLEY’S THEOREM
Statement For any group G with order n, there exists a
subgroup of the symmetric group Sn (the group
of all permutations of n elements) that is
isomorphic to G.
Example Consider the group G=Z2, the integers modulo 2

under addition
The elements of Z2 are {0,1}. The symmetric group S2 consists of all

permutations of two elements, which are {e,(12)}, where e is the identity
permutation and (12) is the permutation that swaps 1 and 2.
This mapping preserves the group operation, showing that Z2 is isomorphic to a subgroup of S2
EXAMPLE :
Normal Subgroups Consider the group G=Z6 (integers
A subgroup N of a group G is called a modulo 6) under addition
normal subgroup if it is invariant under The subgroup N={0,3} is a normal
conjugation by elements of G. This subgroup because Z6 is abelian (all
means that for every element n∈N and subgroups of abelian groups are
every element g∈G, the element normal).
gng^−1 is also in N. In symbols, N is
normal in G if gNg^−1=N for all g∈G.
Quotien EXAMPLE :
Subgroups Consider the group G=Z6 (integers
modulo 6) under addition
Given a group G and a normal subgroup
N, the quotient group G/N is the set of Using the same group G=Z6 and
cosets of N in G with the operation of normal subgroup N={0,3}, the
coset multiplication. The elements of quotient group Z6/{0,3} consists of
G/N are the cosets gN for g∈G, and the the cosets {0,3} and {1,4}. The
group operation is defined by (gN)(hN)= operation in the quotient group is
(gh)N. addition modulo 2, making it
isomorphic to Z2.
ISOMORPHISM
Let (G,o) & (G’,o’) be 2 groups, a mapping “f ” from a group (G,o) to a group (G’,o’) is
said to be an isomorphism if
If ‘f’ is an isomorphic mapping, (G,o) will be isomorphic to the group (G’,o’) & we
write
HOMOMORPHISM
Let (G,o) & (G’,o’) be 2 groups, a mapping “f ” from a group (G,o) to a group (G’,o’) is
said to be a homomorphism if
The essential point here is : The mapping f : G –> G’ may neither be a

one-one nor onto mapping, i.e, ‘f’ needs not to be bijective.
Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and
R+ be a group of all positive real number sunder
multiplication. Show that the mapping f : R → R+ defined
by f(x) = 2x for all x ∈ R is an isomorphism.
Practice Problems – Group Isomorphisms and
Automorphisms
1. Prove that the groups (Z4,+4) and (Z2×Z2,+) are isomorphic.
2. Show that (R+,⋅) and (R,+) are isomorphic via f(x)=ex.
3. Verify that the groups (Z6,+6) and (Z2×Z3,+) are isomorphic.
4. Determine if the mapping f(x)=2x from (R,+) to (R,+) is an automorphism.
5. Check if the function f(x) = x2 defines an isomorphism between the groups (R,+)
and (R+,⋅).
6. Show that (Z,+) and (3Z,+) are isomorphic.
7. Prove that the function f(x)=−x is an automorphism of the group (Z,+).
8. Verify that the function f(z)=zˉf(z)=zˉ is an automorphism for the group of complex
numbers under addition.
9. Determine if the function f(x)=x−1 is an automorphism for the group (R∗,⋅).
10. Show that (Zn,+n) and (Z,+) are isomorphic when n is a prime number.
PYQ’S
Define groups, subgroups and normal sub groups with example .
PYQ’S
PYQ’S
PYQ’S
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TUSHIKA RAWAT

An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if

EXAMPLE : Show that the set N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the following conditions are

Abelian group (Commutative group)

A group (G, *) said to be abelian (or commutative)

In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good

Order of a group The number of elements in a group is called order of the

Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.

Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.

Multiplication modulo p ( *m)

Identity: The identity element in Z is 0, which is an even integer.

Example Consider the group G=Z6 (integers modulo 6) under addition

The number of elements in finite set G is called the degree of Permutation.

Example Consider the group G=Z2, the integers modulo 2

The elements of Z2 are {0,1}. The symmetric group S2 consists of all

The essential point here is : The mapping f : G –> G’ may neither be a

INSTAGRAM YOUTUBE WHATSAPP WEBSITE LinkedIn

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