sustainability

Article
The Use of Ethanol as an Alternative Fuel for Small
Turbojet Engines
Rudolf Andoga 1, * , Ladislav Főző 2 , Martin Schrötter 1 and Stanislav Szabo 3

1 Department of Avionics, Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University of Košice, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia;
martin.schrotter@tuke.sk
2 Department of Aviation Engineering, Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University of Košice,
040 01 Košice, Slovakia; ladislav.fozo@tuke.sk
3 Department of Air Traffic Management, Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University of Košice,
040 01 Košice, Slovakia; stanislav.szabo@tuke.sk
* Correspondence: rudolf.andoga@tuke.sk

Abstract: The use of alternative fuels to traditional kerosene-based ones in turbo-jet engines is
currently being widely explored and researched. However, the application of alternative fuels in the
area of small turbojet engines with thrust ratings up to 2 kilo-newtons, which are used as auxiliary
power units or to propel small aircraft or drones, is not as well researched. This paper explores the
use of ethanol as a sustainable fuel and its effects on the operation of a small turbojet engine under
laboratory conditions. Several concentrations of ethanol and JET A-1 mixtures are explored to study
the effects of this fuel on the basic parameters of a small turbojet engine. The influence of the different
concentrations of the mixture on the start-up process, speed of the engine, exhaust gas temperature,
and compressor pressure are evaluated. The measurements shown in the article represent a pilot
study, the results of which show that ethanol can be reliably used as an alternative fuel only when its





 concentration in a mixture with traditional fuel is lower than 40%, yielding positive effects on the
Citation: Andoga, R.; Főző, L.;
operating temperatures and small negative effects on the speed or thrust of the engine.
Schrötter, M.; Szabo, S. The Use of
Ethanol as an Alternative Fuel for Keywords: ethanol; alternative fuel; small turbojet engine; turbojet engines
Small Turbojet Engines. Sustainability
2021, 13, 2541. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su13052541
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Talal Yusaf In 2017, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transportation sector (including
international aviation) in the EU-28 represented 25% of the total, whereas in 1990, they
Received: 29 January 2021
represented only 15% [1]. Aircraft produce around 2% to 3% of the carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Accepted: 20 February 2021
emissions worldwide [2]. This value will probably grow or stagnate after the corona crisis
Published: 26 February 2021
is over, as the number of passenger and cargo transport aircraft was expected to increase to
48,000 by 2038 [3].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Traditional aviation fuels are produced by the distillation of crude oil. There are
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
also some alternative fuels potentially suitable for aviation, including methanol, ethanol,
published maps and institutional affil-
butanol, liquid natural gas, liquid hydrogen, and synthetic fuels made from coal, natural
iations.
gas, or other hydrocarbon (HC) feedstock [4]. Presently, much research is currently focused
on aviation biofuels.
Alternative alcohol-based fuels were first proposed in 1907 for possible use in the
automotive industry [5]. Today, the most common alcohol-based fuel for piston combustion
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
engines in automobiles is ethanol [6–8]. This fuel is used in advanced countries as an
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
additive to normal petrol fuels, usually at a concentration of 10% (E10) but also at 20% (E20),
This article is an open access article
85% (E85), and even 100% (E100) [9–11]. Using such a concentration demands thorough
distributed under the terms and
testing of these engines. The small content of ethanol in fuel does not significantly affect
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the mechanical and energy characteristics of an engine [12]. However, it increases thermal
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
efficiency and improves the anti-detonation properties of the fuel [5]. CO2 and unburned
4.0/). HC emissions increase with ethanol content in the fuel [13], which produces lower tailpipe

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052541 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 2 of 21

emissions in terms of total HCs and carbon monoxide (CO); however, ethanol also causes
a significant increase in the emissions of acetaldehyde [13]. E10 was observed to cause
higher emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOx ) than E0 [14]. The use of E20 fuel had an impact
on decreasing damage to human health by 1.3% and decreasing damage to the ecosystem
by 1.4% and natural resources by 12.9% [13].
The influence of ethanol was also tested in diesel engines, where a significant decrease
in performance was observed using a mixture of diesel and ethanol. On the other hand, the
smoke values and NOx values were reduced [15]. Mixing ethanol and aviation JET A fuel
was done in a four-stroke direct injection diesel engine, thereby obtaining higher efficiency
and ecological benefits [16].
The influence of biofuels and alcohol-based mixtures on gas turbines has also been
tested in power engineering. More ethanol content caused greater CO emissions. NOx was
reduced for biofuels by up to 70%, and particulate matter (PM) was also reduced [17].
The first tests and certifications of ethanol and aviation fuel mixtures were performed
on piston engines with carburettors. It was found that an aviation piston engine can operate
with any mixture of aviation gas (AVGAS) and ethanol [18]. However, a recent review
emphasised the advantages of the fuel properties of butanol over methanol and ethanol for
use in internal combustion engines [19,20].
Testing and comparison of clean JET A fuel with ethanol was also performed on
aviation gas turbine engines, where it was found that the engine had a slower dynamic
response when using ethanol in the fuel mixture. This was remedied by a redesign of the
controller gains [21].
Other tests were aimed at mixtures of butanol and JET A fuel. The results showed
that butanol has several advantages over ethanol, including higher energy content, lower
vapour pressure, lower water absorptivity, and fewer corrosive effects. The results show
that the performance parameters such as thrust and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) for
Jet A-1/butane blend are comparable to or smaller than those for pure JET A-1. The fuel
consumption and specific fuel consumption were slightly higher, up to 5% for full thrust
and 2% for normal operation, for the blend with butanol than for JET A-1. On the other
hand, the values of CO, CO2 , and NOx concentrations for the JET A-1/butanol blend were
slightly lower—3%, 2%, and 2%, respectively—than those of JET A-1 [22,23].
The use of biofuels has also considerably increased in recent years. Different gen-
erations of biofuels, methods of production, and ecological and economic benefits have
been thoroughly researched [3,4,24]. Bio-jet fuels have good thermal stability, excellent
combustion properties, and good low-temperature fluidity but relatively poor oxidative
stability and are not compatible with current fuelling systems due to a swell of the sealing
materials and lubricity [25]. Alternative aviation fuels have lower energy content per unit
weight and volume than traditional fuels. The specific energy of pure ethanol is 58% and
its energy density is 60% compared to JET A-1.
Small turbojet engines can provide a good testing platform for alternative fuels and
various fuel blends. A test of JET fuel using a small turbojet engine with synthesised
paraffinic kerosene (SPK) from hydro-processed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) showed a
decrease in fuel consumption, as well as a decrease in CO, HC, PM, and NOx emissions [24].
Test of blends containing Jet A-1 and 10–50% d-limonene, 10–25% butyl butyrate, 25%
n-butanol, and 25% ethanol were also used on small turbojet engines. Each tested blend
resulted in minimal performance changes at most operating throttle settings [26].
In a test of 2-Ethylhexanol (2-EH) and Jet A-1 fuel, it was found that the thrust, fuel
consumption, and CO emissions between the tested fuels were negligible, not exceeding
3%. In case of NOx emissions, higher values were obtained for the 2-EH fuel than for clean
Jet A-1 [27]. A 20% palm oil biodiesel fatty acid methyl ester (PME) blend with JET A-1
was also tested, where slight performance penalties were observed due to the lower energy
content of the biodiesel blend [28]. A small-scale gas turbine engine with a power output of
30 kW fuelled with JET A-1/ethanol blends was also researched using concentrations from
25% to 100% for the ethanol mixture in the fuel/ethanol blend [29]. Researchers found that
 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 3 of 21

output of 30 kW fuelled with JET A-1/ethanol blends was also researched using concen-
trations from 25% to 100% for the ethanol mixture in the fuel/ethanol blend [29]. Research-
ersCO
the found
andthat
NOthe CO and NOx emissions were comparable between the blended and clean
x emissions were comparable between the blended and clean JET A-1 fuel,
JET A-1 fuel, and
and the NOx emissions the were
NOx emissions
lower for the were loweroffor
mixture JETthe mixture ofbecause
A-1/ethanol JET A-1/ethanol
of the lower be-
cause of the lower temperature
temperature at the turbine inlet [29,30]. at the turbine inlet [29,30].
Basedon
Based onthese
thesedifferent
differentandandsometimes
sometimescontroversial
controversialeffects
effectsofofburning
burningalcohol
alcoholandand
JET A-1 mixtures with similar combustion characteristics, but with
JET A-1 mixtures with similar combustion characteristics, but with much lower soothing much lower soothing
propensitythan
propensity thanpurepure kerosene,
kerosene, ethanol
ethanol was was selected
selectedfor forthe
theexperiments
experimentstotoapplyapplyit it
asas an
alternative fuel in small-scale turbojet engines, which is an area that
an alternative fuel in small-scale turbojet engines, which is an area that remains poorly remains poorly ex-
plored. The
explored. Theaim
aimofofthis
thisstudy
studyisistotosummarise
summariseand andexplore
explorethe theeffects
effectsof
ofusing
usingethanol
ethanolin ina
a small-scale turbojet engine and to explore whether a mixture of JET A-1 and ethanol is aa
small-scale turbojet engine and to explore whether a mixture of JET A-1 and ethanol is
viablefuel
viable fuelfor
foruse
useininsmall
smallturbojet
turbojetengines,
engines,asasindicated
indicatedby byprevious
previousstudies.
studies.TheTheother
other
aimisisto
aim toexplore
explore thethe concentrations
concentrations that that are
are viable
viableto tobebeused
usedforforsmall
smallturbojet
turbojetengine,
engine, as
well
as wellasas
thethe
effects
effectsof of
alcohol-based
alcohol-based fuel on on
fuel thethe
operational
operational parameters
parameters of jet
of engines. The
jet engines.
results
The could
results helphelp
could broaden the knowledgebase
broaden the knowledgebase for using alternative
for using fuels infuels
alternative smallinturbojet
small
turbojet engines, and some knowledge from the described experiment can also betoused
engines, and some knowledge from the described experiment can also be used supple-
to
ment knowledge
supplement knowledgeabout about
the usethe
of use
alternative fuels infuels
of alternative largeinturbojet enginesengines
large turbojet or gas turbine
or gas
enginesengines
turbine in general.
in general.

2.2.Materials
Materialsand andMethods
Methods
ToTo evaluate thehypothesis
evaluate the hypothesisofofthe theapplication
applicationandandeffects
effectsofofdifferent
differentJET
JETA-1/ethanol
A-1/ethanol
fuel
fuelblends
blendsononaasmall
smallturbojet
turbojetengine,
engine,we weused
usedan anengine
enginetest
teststand
standwith
withaadigital
digitaldatadata
acquisition
acquisitionsystem
systemininaalaboratory.
laboratory.The Theengine
engineused
usedininthe theexperiments
experimentsisisaasmallsmallturbojet
turbojet
engine,
engine,MPM-20,
MPM-20,with withaaradial
radialcompressor
compressorand andaahydromechanical
hydromechanicalcontrol controlunit.
unit.This
Thisisisaa
small turbojet engine with a thrust of up to 500 Newtons, an annular combustion
small turbojet engine with a thrust of up to 500 Newtons, an annular combustion chamber, chamber,
and
andaaradial
radialsingle
singlesided
sidedcompressor.
compressor.The Theengine
engineisisaaone-shaft
one-shaftengine
enginewith
withdirect
directairairflow
flow
and
and a single disc uncooled turbine featuring a fixed exhaust nozzle [31,32]. This is asimple
a single disc uncooled turbine featuring a fixed exhaust nozzle [31,32]. This is a simple
and
andtraditional
traditionalturbojet
turbojetengine
engineconstruction;
construction;thus,
thus,ititisisexpected
expectedthat thatthe
theresults
resultsofofthe
thetests
tests
will be valid for similar class of engines, as well as for engines with small
will be valid for similar class of engines, as well as for engines with small power outputs power outputs
and
andairflows.
airflows.TheTheengine
engineandandits
itsinstallation
installationare
areshown
shownininFigure
Figure1.1.

Figure 1. MPM-20 Engine,Figure 1. MPM-20

test bench Engine, test bench installation.
installation.

The
Thealternative
alternativefuel
fuelininour
ourexperiment
experimentisisaablend
blendofofJET
JETA-1
A-1fuel
fueland
andethanol.
ethanol.Ethanol
Ethanol
isisaacolourless flammable liquid that can be easily produced from different
colourless flammable liquid that can be easily produced from different renewable renewable
sources.
sources.Ethanol
Ethanolisisalso
alsoless
lesstoxic
toxicthan
thanother
otheralcohol-based
alcohol-basedfuels.
fuels.Its
Itsmain
maindeficiency
deficiencyisisits
its
water
water binding properties, which can cause corrosion in engines. This shortcomingcan
binding properties, which can cause corrosion in engines. This shortcoming canbe be
remedied via additives [33,34]. The basic chemical properties of pure ethanol (less than
0.1% of water) are listed in Table 1.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 4 of 21

Table 1. Basic chemical properties of ethanol [35,36].

Systematic Name Ethanol—Hydroxyethane

Rational name Ethanol (99.9%)
CAS Registry No. 64-17-5
Summary formula C2 H6 O
Molecular weight 46.07 g/mol
Melting point −114.4 ◦ C
Freezing temperature −130.5 ◦ C
Boiling point 78.3 ◦ C (1013 hPa)
Density (at 20 ◦ C) 0.789 g/cm3
◦
12.7 C (<0.1% of water)
Flash point 13.57 ◦ C (10% of water)
19.33 ◦ C (50% water)
Burning temperature 30 ◦ C
Ignition temperature 366 ◦ C
Explosion limits 3.4–15% of volume
Kinematic viscosity 1.5 mm2 /s (at 20 ◦ C, 1 atm)
Dynamic viscosity 1.184 mPa·s (at 20 ◦ C, 1 atm)
Specific heat 2 460 J/(kg·K)
Higher heating value 29.7 MJ/kg

2.1. The Experimental Engine and Measurement System

A small turbojet engine, MPM-20, was used as a test engine to evaluate the effects of
using ethanol and JET A-1 fuel blends. In the tests, this engine was only partly digitally
controlled with a real-time data acquisition system [37]. To test the effects of alcohol-
based fuels, a hydro-mechanical fuel pump with a partial digital control was used so the
parameters of fuel flow (FF) would not be optimised, and the fuel flow could be constant
and start-up fuel flows could have the same curve in each experiment without specific
optimisations of a fully digital control system.
The parameters and sensors that were used to measure them are shown in Table 2.
They were dynamically measured with a constant sampling frequency of 10 Hertz. The
scheme of the data acquisition system and the arrangement of the sensors from Table 2 are
shown in Figure 2. This figure shows precisely the placement of each sensor on the engine
using the engine’s 3D model. The figure also shows connection of the sensors through a
bus into NI CDAQ 9717 data acquisition system.

Table 2. Sensors used in experiments.

Parameter—Abbreviation Sensor Unit Basic Calibrated Error

Badger-meter MN-2
Fuel Flow—FF (l.min−1 ) ±1%
flow meter
Rotational speed of the
Optical speed meter (min−1 ) ±0.2%
engine—n
Total exhaust gas Calibrated K
(◦ C) ±0.75%
temperature—EGT thermocouple
Total compressor
QBE2002-P10 (atm) ±0.4%
pressure—p2

To sample and digitise data, we used a calibrated National instruments data acqui-
sition system NI CDAQ 9172 with the following installed modules for real-time data
acquisition:
• NI 9263—100 kHz Voltage Output Module, used for the control of analogue engine
systems;
• NI 9472—8-Channel, Digital I/O Module, used for the control of digital engine sys-
tems;
• NI 9205—±10 V, 250 kHz, 16-Bit, 32-Channel C Series Voltage Input Module, used for
the measurement of analogue sensors, in this case, QBE2002-P10;
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 5 of 21

• NI 9423—8 Channel Sinking Input, C Series Digital Module, used for the measurement
of frequency signals, in this case, optical speed sensor;
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER • NI 9213—NI-9213, 16-channel, Thermocouple Input Module, used for the measure-
REVIEW 5 of 23
ment of thermocouples, in this case, K-thermocouple EGT sensors.

Figure
Figure 2. Scheme 2.measurement
of the Scheme of thesystem
measurement system and
and placement placement of sensors.
of sensors.

Figures
To sample3 andand
4 show how
digitise the we
data, engine
useddynamically
a calibratedoperates
Nationalduring a singledata
instruments runacquisi-
using
clean JET A-1 fuel with a depiction of its basic parameters, which are evaluated
tion system NI CDAQ 9172 with the following installed modules for real-time data acqui- for the
effects
sition:of alternative fuels. As shown in Figure 3, the engine was run for approximately 25 s.
Figure
 NI3 shows the course
9263—100 of the engine
kHz Voltage Outputspeed andused
Module, the Exhaust Gas Temperature
for the control of analogue(EGT),
engine
while systems;
Figure 4 shows the total compressor pressure and the fuel flow during standard
operations of the engine at 46,000 −1 . The EGT temperature reaches a peak of 800 ◦ C.

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW NI 9472—8-Channel, Digitalmin
I/O Module, used for the control of digital engine
6 of sys-
23
This is an important parameter, present in many turbojet engines, that needs to be analysed
tems;
when using ethanol fuel blends or alternative fuels in general.
 NI 9205—±10 V, 250 kHz, 16-Bit, 32-Channel C Series Voltage Input Module, used for
the measurement of analogue sensors, in this case, QBE2002-P10;
 NI 9423—8 Channel Sinking Input, C Series Digital Module, used for the measure-
ment of frequency signals, in this case, optical speed sensor;
 NI 9213—NI-9213, 16-channel, Thermocouple Input Module, used for the measure-
ment of thermocouples, in this case, K-thermocouple EGT sensors.
Figures 3 and 4 show how the engine dynamically operates during a single run using
clean JET A-1 fuel with a depiction of its basic parameters, which are evaluated for the
effects of alternative fuels. As shown in Figure 3, the engine was run for approximately 25
s. Figure 3 shows the course of the engine speed and the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT),
while Figure 4 shows the total compressor pressure and the fuel flow during standard
operations of the engine at 46,000 min−1. The EGT temperature reaches a peak of 800 °C.
This is an important parameter, present in many turbojet engines, that needs to be ana-
lysed when using ethanol fuel blends or alternative fuels in general.
Figures 3 and 4 also illustrate the three phases of operation of the engine—the start-
up phase, the stable operation phase, and the shutdown phase—for which the engine’s
parameters were evaluated. The engine’s hydromechanical fuel/oil pump was run at a
constant speed, thus producing a constant fuel flow to secure the stable operation of the
engine. Start-up of the engine was controlled hydromechanically based on compressor
Figure 3. Exhaust gasExhaust
temperature and speed and
of the engine during a single engine run.engine run.
Figure 3.
pressure in the gas temperature
feedback to controlspeed of the
the fuel engine
flow during
during a single
start-up producing the same fuel
flow curve in each run.
tm)
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 6 of 21

Figure 3. Exhaust gas temperature and speed of the engine during a single engine run.

Figure
Figure 4. Fuel 4. Fuel
flow and flow and pressure
compressor compressor pressure
during during
a single a single
engine run. engine run.

Figures
2.2. The 3 and 4 also
Experimental Fuelillustrate the three phases of operation of the engine—the start-
up phase, the stable operation phase,and
To evaluate the effects of ethanol andclean
the shutdown phase—for
JET A-1 (E0) fuel blendswhich
on thethe engine’s
operation
parameters were evaluated. The engine’s hydromechanical fuel/oil
of a small turbojet engine, concentrations of 10% (E10), 20% (E20), 30% (E30), andpump was run
40%at a
constant speed, thus producing a constant fuel flow to secure the stable operation
(E40) ethanol in the JET fuel were analysed by the certified research facility, The Centre of the
engine. Start-up of the engine was controlled hydromechanically based on
Of Metrology and Testing in Žilina. The results for the individual blends are presented in compressor
pressure
Table in the
3. Tests forfeedback to control
density were the fuel flow
done according during
to STN start-up
EN ISO 12185producing theviscosity
[38], tests for same fuel
flow curve in each run.
were done according to STN EN ISO 3104+AC [39], and distillation tests were done
according to STN EN ISO 3405 [40].
2.2. The Experimental Fuel
To evaluate the effects of ethanol and clean JET A-1 (E0) fuel blends on the operation
of a small turbojet engine, concentrations of 10% (E10), 20% (E20), 30% (E30), and 40%
(E40) ethanol in the JET fuel were analysed by the certified research facility, The Centre
Of Metrology and Testing in Žilina. The results for the individual blends are presented
in Table 3. Tests for density were done according to STN EN ISO 12185 [38], tests for
viscosity were done according to STN EN ISO 3104+AC [39], and distillation tests were
done according to STN EN ISO 3405 [40].

Table 3. Basic chemical properties of the studied JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blends.

Concentration
Test Units E0 E10 E20 E30 E40
Density (at 15 ◦ C) (kg/m3 ) 814.1 810.6 808.2 805.8 803.6
Viscosity (at 20 ◦ C) (mm2 /s) 2.052 1.885 1.863 1.820 1.774
Flashpoint in a closed container (◦ C) 61 <16 <16 <16 <16
Water PR * 1 1 1 1 1
Degree
reaction PL ** 2 3 3 3 3
Crystallisation (◦ C) −56.3 <−105 <−105 <−105 <−105
Acidity (mg KOH/100 mL) 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.08
* Phase range (PR); ** Phase level (PL).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 7 of 21

The results presented in Table 3 show that the inclusion of even 10% ethanol in the
fuel blend yields a distinct decrease in the flashpoint because ethanol is highly flammable.
Ethanol is also highly hygroscopic, resulting in a very low point of crystallisation below
−105 ◦ C, as ethanol will bind all available water in the JET A-1 fuel. Viscosity also
decreased; this means that some additives will be needed to improve this factor.

2.3. Calculation of the Gross Heat of the Combustion of Alternative Fuel Blends
Combustion is defined as an exothermic reaction in which a compound reacts com-
pletely with an oxidant. In the ideal complete combustion of organic compounds reacting
with oxygen, every carbon atom in the original compound ends up in the CO2 , every hy-
drogen atom ends up in the H2 O, and every nitrogen compound ends up in N2 . However,
in practice, combustion is usually not complete. The water produced in a combustion
process ends up as a vapour or liquid, and the enthalpy of combustion is larger when the
produced water is in a liquid state, rather than in a gas state.
The gross heat of combustion (or the higher heating value (HHV)) for a fuel is defined
as the amount of heat released by a specified quantity (initially at 25 ◦ C) once the fuel
is combusted and the products have returned to a temperature of 25 ◦ C [41]. The HHV
includes the latent heat of condensation of the water, which is in a liquid state under these
conditions. The HHV can be measured by a calorimetric bomb. The exact procedure is
specified by the standard EN ISO 1716:2018 [42]. As the combustion of any substance is an
exothermic reaction, the HHV will be a positive value.
The gross heat of combustion can be determined by Equation (1):

E( Tm − Ti + c) − b
Q PCS = (1)
m
where
QPCS is the gross heat of combustion (MJ/kg);
E is the water equivalent of the calorimeter, the bomb, accessories, and the water
introduced into the bomb (MJ/kg);
Ti is the initial temperature (K);
Tm is the maximum temperature (K);
b is the correction required for the combustion heat of the “fuels” used during the
test, i.e., the firing wire, cotton thread, cigarette-making paper, and benzoic acid or
combustion aid (MJ/kg);
c is the temperature correction factor required for the exchange of heat with the outside,
which is nil if an adiabatic jacket is used (K);
m is the mass of the test specimen in kilograms (kg).
The QPCS of the tested fuel blends of JET A-1 and ethanol, under various concentra-
tions, were determined according to the standard EN ISO 1716:2018 [42] and are presented
in Table 4 and depicted in Figure 5.

Table 4. The gross heat of combustion for blends of JET A-1 with ethanol.

Ethanol Percentage in JET A-1 (%) HHV (MJ/dm3 ) HHV (MJ/kg)

0 37.61 46.2
10 36.26 44.55
20 34.92 42.9
30 33.58 41.25
35 32.9 40.42
40 32.23 39.6
 0 37.61 46.2
10 36.26 44.55
20 34.92 42.9
30 33.58 41.25
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 35 32.9 40.42 8 of 21
40 32.23 39.6

Figure 5. Gross
Figure 5. Gross heat of combustion heat of combustion
for different for differentinethanol
ethanol concentrations concentrations in JET A-1.
JET A-1.

2.4. Experimental Design

2.4. Experimental Design
According to the computed
According to gross heat of combustion
the computed gross heat of and the defined
combustion and hypothesis
the definedin hypothe
the introductionthe of introduction
this paper, the experimental design was created as follows. We initially
of this paper, the experimental design was created as follows. We ini
proposed to test concentrations
proposed with fuel blends
to test concentrations withdesignated as E0, E10, as
fuel blends designated E20,
E0, E30, and E30, and
E10, E20,
E40. Since preliminary tests showed that an E40 blend will be problematic for the
Since preliminary tests showed that an E40 blend will be problematic for the engineengine
during start-up,ingthestart-up,
E35 blend was
the E35added
blendtowas
the added
experiment.
to the All blends were
experiment. Allmixed
blendsusing
wereamixed us
certified facilitycertified
for creating fuel blends. The clean fuel was compliant with the standards
facility for creating fuel blends. The clean fuel was compliant with of the stand
SN_0501_01/ASTM D 1665/AFQRJOS 23 [43]. Moreover, the ethanol used in
of SN_0501_01/ASTM D 1665/AFQRJOS 23 [43]. Moreover, the ethanol used in ex experiments
was compliant withmentsthe wasconditions
compliantset in the
with thetest for waterless
conditions ethanol
set in the of 99.9%.
test for waterless ethanol of 99.9
The experimental design was developed as a pilot experiment,
The experimental design was developed as a pilot experiment, and the following
and the followin
set-up was proposed with the following number of experimental runs:
up was proposed with the following number of experimental runs:
• E0: Five experimental
 E0: Fiveruns and a single
experimental run
runs between
and a singleeach
run blend
between each blend
• E10, E20, E30,
 E35,
E10, E20, E30, E35, E40: Three experimentalconcentration
E40: Three experimental runs for each runs for each concentration
Each fuel blendEach
E{i} fuel
test was
blendoperated
E{i} test with the fuel flow
was operated withfixed at 1.1
the fuel L/min,
flow fixed which
at 1.1 L/min, w
resulted in an engine speed of around 45,000 min −1 . This means that the whole experiment
resulted in an engine speed of around 45,000 min . This means that the whole experi
−1

consisted of fifteen engine

consisted ofruns that
fifteen couldruns
engine be analysed
that couldas be
a pilot study.
analysed as a pilot study.
The start-up ofThe
the engine was controlled hydromechanically using the compressor
start-up of the engine was controlled hydromechanically using the compr
pressure p2 output in a proportional
pressure p2 output infuel flow feedback
a proportional loop
fuel flowduring start-up.
feedback loop After
duringstart-up,
start-up. After
the fuel flow was kept at a constant level using the fuel pump. The effects of the fuels upon
start-up of the engine and during stable operation were investigated separately, as shown
in the results. After each run, the engine’s fuel system was purged with clean JET A-1 fuel,
and the engine was operated once using only clean fuel to purge any remnants of the fuel
blend from the engine. The engine in the laboratory was maintained at 18 ◦ C and 60%
humidity during all experimental runs.
The basic results and courses of all executed experiments are shown in Table 5. The
rows outlined in red show the experiments that were not successful, indicating that the
general operation of the engine using the JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blends was problematic.
The general rule is to first explore the results when starting the engine after a pause, which
seemed to be more problematic using the ethanol blends than when starting with pure
kerosene fuel. This was observed in the first start-ups of the engine with the E20 and E30
fuels. Table 5 also shows that the E40 blend was problematic and that the fuel did not have
enough power to accelerate the engine above 22,000 min−1 .
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 9 of 21

Table 5. Experimental logbook *.

Operational
Time (s)
Runs

Test Day EGT max (◦ C) nmax (min−1 ) Tested Blend Note

1 3 30 812 45,500 E0 3 consecutive runs with E0

1 1 30 690 45,000 E10 —
1 1 10 753 45,000 E10 Run for only 10 s—discarded
1 1 30 735 45,000 E10 —
Total 6 The end of the testing day
2 1 30 731 44,700 E10
Engine achieved only 20,000
2 1 30 602 21,000 E10/E20
(min−1 )—discarded
2 1 30 710 44,000 E20 —
2 1 30 690 44,000 E20 —
Total 10 The end of the testing day
Engine achieved only 20,000
3 1 15 570 19,000 E20
(min−1 )—discarded
3 1 30 716 44,000 E20 —
Remnants of the fuel blend
3 1 30 703 45,000 E0/E20 caused the speed to
rise—discarded
Total 13 The end of the testing day
Double spike in EGT, difficult
4 1 30 626 43,500 E30
startup—discarded
4 1 30 687 43,000 E30 —
4 1 30 687 42,700 E30 —
4 1 30 687 43,000 E30 —
Remnants of the fuel blend
4 1 50 680 45,000 E0/E30 caused the speed to rise from
43k to 45k—discarded
Total 18 The end of the testing day
5 1 20 610 17,000 E40 Stabilised only at 17,000 (min−1 )
5 1 20 617 22,000 E40 Stabilised only at 22,000 (min−1 )
5 1 30 617 22,000 E40 Stabilised only at 22,000 (min−1 )
Remnants of the fuel blend
5 1 60 680 45,200 E0/E40 caused the speed to rise from
21k to 45k—discarded
5 1 30 674 42,500 E35 —
5 1 30 660 42,500 E35 —
5 1 30 660 42,500 E35 —
Remnants of the fuel blend
5 1 60 655 45,200 E0/E35 caused the speed to rise from
21k to 45k—discarded
Total 26 The end of the testing day
* Red rows indicate measurements which were problematic and not included in the analysis.

3. Results
To evaluate the effects of different fuel blends, it was necessary to perform an analysis
of the engine’s operation separately during its start-up and during a stable operational run.
Thus, situational frames for the three engine operational phases were proposed (Figure 6).
The start-up phase is defined as Condition (2). The stable operational phase is given
 given as Condition (3). The shutdown phase is initiated both when Condition (4) is met
and Condition (2) is false:
𝑑𝑛(𝑡) 𝑑𝐸𝐺𝑇(𝑡)
𝑛(𝑡) 6000 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑨𝑵𝑫 50 𝑨𝑵𝑫
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (2)
20 °𝐶𝑠 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑡 2 𝑠
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 10 of 21
𝑑𝑛(𝑡) 𝑑𝐸𝐺𝑇(𝑡)
∈ −200; 200 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑨𝑵𝑫 ∈ −5; 5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (3)
°𝐶𝑠 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑛(𝑡) 35 000 𝑚𝑖𝑛
as Condition (3). The shutdown phase is initiated
𝑑𝐸𝐺𝑇(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛(𝑡) both when Condition (4) is met and
Condition (2) is false: 𝑑𝑡 −40 °𝐶𝑠 𝑨𝑵𝑫 −2000 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠 (4)
𝑑𝑡
Thedn (t) in Figure 6−1shows
graph dEGT (t) run of
a representative the engine using E0 fuel, with
n(t) ≥ 6000 min−1 AND ≥ 50 min s−1 AND ≥ 20 ◦ Cs−1 AND t ≥ 2 s (2)
EGT peakingdt at around 800 °C, and the engine
dt running at a constant speed of 45,000 min−1
dn(t) without a speed controller;
dEGT (t) only the fuel flow is kept at a constant level. Fuel flow was
i min−1to
∈ h−200; 200selected s−be1
AND
constant to run the∈ engine i◦the
h−5; 5 in Cs−middle
1
ANDofnits ≥ 35 curve
(t)power 000 min −1
and the fuel flow (3)
dt dt
was fixed at flow of 1.1 L/min in all experiments during its stable operational phase. This
means that thedEGThydromechanical
(t) fuel pump was dn(tset
) to always maintain this fuel level
during the stable operation 40 ◦engine
≤of−the Cs−1 AND ≤ −2000
and environmental min−1 sFuel
conditions.
−1
flow is thus (4)
dt dt
an independent parameter.

Figure 6. An example
Figure of the division
6. An example of the engine’s
of the division of theoperation
engine’sinto situational
operation intoframes.
situational frames.

TheDuring
graphstable operation
in Figure of theaengine,
6 shows the following
representative run basic
of thestatistical indicators
engine using were with
E0 fuel,
EGTcomputed
peaking for 800 ◦ C,engine
each evaluated
at around and the engine running at a constant speed of 45,000 min−1
parameter:
without a speed controller; only the fuel flow is kept at a constant level. Fuel flow was
selected to be constant to run the engine in the middle of its power curve and the fuel
flow was fixed at flow of 1.1 L/min in all experiments during its stable operational phase.
This means that the hydromechanical fuel pump was set to always maintain this fuel level
during the stable operation of the engine and environmental conditions. Fuel flow is thus
an independent parameter.
During stable operation of the engine, the following basic statistical indicators were
computed for each evaluated engine parameter:
m
1
Mean x=
m ∑ xi (5)
i =1

m
1
Variance s2 = ∑ ( x − x )2
m − 1 i =1 i
(6)

!1
m 2
1
Standarddeviation s= ∑ ( x − x )2
m − 1 i =1 i
(7)

 1
− x )2
2
1
m −1 ∑im=1 ( xi
Standarderrorofthemean sE = √ (8)
m
where m is the number of samples.
For the start-up situational frame, the following additional indicators were computed:
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 11 of 21

• Peak time (tP ): the time for which the maximum value of variables (peak values) was
measured.
• Peak value: the measured value at the peak time.
• Settling time (tS ): the time required for the measured (response) curve to reach and
stay within a range of ±2% of the steady state (final) value. The settling time is, in our
case, defined by Condition (3).
• Integral of value (A): In our case, the areas under the curves were computed using the
midpoint rule of the numerical integral:

l
A = ∆x ∑ f ( xi ) (9)
i =1

where ∆x is the length of the subinterval (step size), l represents the number of samples,
and xi is the midpoint of the ith subinterval.
• Overshoot value (percentage overshoot PO):

Tp − Ts
PO = . 100% (10)
Ts
where Tp is the peak value, and Ts is the settled value.
The basic statistical parameters presented in Tables 6–9 were calculated as follows.
Each parameter—mean (5), variance (6), standard deviation (7), and standard error (8)—was
computed across three engine runs for the particular JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blend in a stable
situational frame. The following sections analyse and present the results of the observed
effects during the individual situational frames for all the main investigated parameters of
the engine.

Table 6. Fuel flow during experiments.

Indicator Maximum FF Standard

Mean(L/min) Variance Standard Error
Fuel Blend (L/min) Deviation
E0 1.166 1.130 0.0003278 0.0181 8.5337 × 10−4
E10 1.164 1.124 0.0002135 0.0146 6.8883 × 10−4
E20 1.145 1.116 0.0002354 0.0153 7.2324 × 10−4
E30 1.136 1.117 0.0000852 0.0092 4.3531 × 10−4
E35 1.145 1.126 0.0000477 0.0069 3.2588 × 10−4
E40 0.638 0.618 0.0001162 0.0107 6.2240 × 10−4

Table 7. The effect of ethanol/Jet A-1 fuel on stable speed.

Indicator Maximum Standard

Mean (min−1 ) Variance Standard Error
Fuel Blend Speed (min−1 ) Deviation
E0 45556.7 45280.9 38054.0 195.0 9.1
E10 44873.2 44684.6 5963.2 77.2 3.6
E20 43780.4 43514.1 22511.4 150.0 7.0
E30 43299.8 42944.4 36454.7 190.9 9.0
E35 43008.0 42480.9 25084.5 158.3 7.4
E40 22446.6 20251.0 3737437.9 1933.2 111.6
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 12 of 21

Table 8. The effect of the alternative fuel on the stable exhaust gas temperature (EGT).

Indicator Maximum Standard

Mean (◦ C) Variance Standard Error
Fuel Blend EGT (◦ C) Deviation
E0 506.7 501.4 9.4 3.0 0.17
E10 501.5 494.9 15.5 3.9 0.22
E20 489.6 487.8 1.3 1.1 0.06
E30 477.7 474.4 2.2 1.4 0.08
E35 478.8 473.4 14.0 3.7 0.21
E40 510.4 487.9 69.6 8.3 0.54

Table 9. The effect of ethanol/Jet A-1 fuel on stable speed.

Indicator Maximum Standard

Mean (atm) Variance Standard Error
Fuel Blend Pressure (atm) Deviation
E0 3.434 3.366 0.001761 0.041 0.0019
E10 3.280 3.243 0.000198 0.014 0.0006
E20 3.118 3.071 0.000766 0.027 0.0013
E30 3.052 3.007 0.000618 0.024 0.0011
E35 3.033 2.947 0.000676 0.026 0.0012
E40
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1.418 1.334 0.005004 0.070 0.004013 of 23

3.1. The Independent Variable—Fuel Flow

Fuel flow is an independentTable 6.parameter
Fuel flow during
of theexperiments.
engine. This parameter was set to a
constant level
Indicatorduring stable operation of the engine, fixed at 1.1 L/min, and maintained
hydro-mechanically. Some small variations in the fuel flow canStandard
Maximum Mean be observed; Standard
however,
Variance
these variations are at theFFlevel
(L/min) (L/min)
of statistical errors, which means that Deviation Errorwell-
the fuel flow was
Fuel Blend
stabilised and did not have any effect on performance and state parameters of the engine.
E0
Statistical indicators 1.166 standard1.130
of variance, deviation0.0003278 0.0181
and standard error 8.5337×10
have very low and
-4

E10 Because the1.164

similar values. engine failed1.124
to stabilise0.0002135 0.0146
at a standard idle 6.8883×10
speed with
-4
the E40
fuel, fuel E20 1.145
blend was1.116 0.0002354 0.0153 7.2324×10 -4
flow with this fuel considerably lower and the statistical indicator
show some E30 1.136with E401.117
difference, this state 0.0000852
fuel is analysed 0.0092chapters.
in the following 4.3531×10
Table-46
and Figure E35
7 prove that the1.145
fuel flow was 1.126 0.0000477
kept constant during all 0.0069
experiments 3.2588×10 -4
with very
E40 during stable
small variations 0.638
operation of 0.618
the engine0.0001162 0.0107
where the effects 6.2240×10
of fuel are analysed.
-4

Figure experimental
Figure 7. Fuel flow during 7. Fuel flow during
runs ofexperimental
the engine. runs of the engine.

3.2. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on the Stable Speed of the Engine
The effect of all defined JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blends on the engine’s stable speed was
evaluated. The stable regime of operation was selected according to the rules defined in
Condition (3).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 13 of 21
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

3.2. The Effect of Alternative

Table 7. TheFuel
effecton
ofthe Stable Speed
ethanol/Jet ofon
A-1 fuel thestable
Engine
speed.
The effect of all defined
Indicator Maximum JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blends on the engine’s stable speed was
evaluated. The stable regime Mean was selected according Standardto Standard
the rulesEr-
Speed of operation Variance defined in
Condition (3). (min −1) Deviation ror
Fuel Blend (min )
−1

The results
E0 of various JET A-1/Ethanol
45556.7 45280.9 fuel38054.0
blends on stable
195.0engine speed9.1 are shown
in Table 7.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW The
E10 computed means
44873.2 together
44684.6 with the error
5963.2 bars of
77.2 the standard14 ofdeviations
3.6 23
are visualised
E20 in Figure 8. The
43780.4 main effect
43514.1 observable
22511.4 in the data
150.0 is that the
7.0stable engine
speed decreased
E30 with an43299.8
increasing concentration
42944.4 of ethanol in190.9
36454.7 the fuel blend.9.0 The variance
and standard
E35 deviation remained
Table 7.43008.0
The stable,
42480.9which
effect of ethanol/Jet shows
A-1 fuel that
on stable
25084.5 the
158.3engine was
speed. 7.4 running in a
stabilisedE40
mode and that the ethanol20251.0
22446.6 concentration did not affect
3737437.9 1933.2this stability.
111.6
Indicator Maximum
Mean Standard Standard Er-
Speed Variance
(min−1) Deviation ror
Fuel Blend (min−1)
E0 45556.7 45280.9 38054.0 195.0 9.1
E10 44873.2 44684.6 5963.2 77.2 3.6
E20 43780.4 43514.1 22511.4 150.0 7.0
E30 43299.8 42944.4 36454.7 190.9 9.0
E35 43008.0 42480.9 25084.5 158.3 7.4
E40 22446.6 20251.0 3737437.9 1933.2 111.6

Figure8.8.Average
Figure Averagespeed
speedatatdifferent
differentfuel
fuelblend
blendconcentrations
concentrationsduring
duringaastable
stableregime
regimeofofoperation.
operation.
Some positive effects can be seen with the E10 fuel blend, for which the variance and
standard deviation are considerably lower than those for other concentrations. On the
other hand, the E40 fuel blend concentration did not allow the engine to run successfully.
The engine ran in a regime outside of the envelope regime for this type of engine with
a speed much lower than standard idle speed 35,000 min−1 . Here, the engine ran in an
unstable mode, as can be seen from the high levels of variance and standard deviation.
Figure 9 shows the effects of different fuel blends in a single run on speed. Thus, only one
Figure
run 8. Average from
is presented speedthe
at different fuel blend
three executed concentrations
runs during
at each given a stable regime of
concentration.
operation.

Figure 9. Average speed at different fuel blend concentrations during a stable regime of operation.

Figure Averagespeed
9.Average
Figure 9. speedat at different
different fuelfuel blend
blend concentrations
concentrations duringduring
a stablearegime
stable of
regime of operation.
operation.
 be observed because, at this concentration, the engine ran outside of its operational
envelope in an unstable manner. Moreover, there was an increase in the standard
deviation and standard error at a concentration of 35% because a longer time was required
for the engine to stabilise, as shown in Figure 11. It can be concluded that increasing the
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 ethanol concentration in the fuel blend up to a concentration of 35% does not have 14 ofan
21
adverse effect on the exhaust gas temperature.

Table 8. The effect of the alternative fuel on the stable exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
3.3. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on Stable Exhaust Gas Temperature of the Engine
Indicator
TheMaximum Mean
results of various Standard
JET A-1/Ethanol fuel blends on the Standard
maximum EGT are shown
Variance
in Table 8. The(°
EGT computed
C) (°means
C) together with error bars of the Error
Deviation standard deviations are
Fuel Blend
visualised in Figure 10, and a single run for each concentration is shown in Figure 11.
E0 Figure 11 shows
506.7 the effects
501.4
on speed of9.4
different fuel3.0 0.17 run, which means
blends in a single
E10 that only one 501.5 494.9 from three
run is presented 15.5executed runs3.9 at each given
0.22 concentration. The
E20 main effect489.6
observable in487.8 1.3frame is similar
this situational 1.1 to the effect
0.06 of Jet A-1/Ethanol
E30 on speed. It477.7 474.4 2.2 1.4
can again be seen that the average exhaust gas temperature 0.08 decreased with
E35 an increase478.8
of the ethanol 473.4 14.0in the fuel. 3.7
concentration 0.21however, stopped at
This decrease,
E40 concentrations510.4higher than 35%.
487.9 69.6 8.3 0.54

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

Figure
Figure10.
10.Average
Average EGT
EGT at
at different
different fuel blend concentrations
concentrations during
during the
the stable
stableregime
regimeof
ofoperation.
operation.

Figure 11. EGT during single engine runs at different ethanol concentrations.
Figure 11. EGT during single engine runs at different ethanol concentrations.

3.4. The
At Effect of Alternative
a concentration Fuelan
of 40%, on increase
the Stable
in Compressor
the maximumPressure of the Engine
and average temperature
Theobserved
can be total pressure measured
because, behind the compressor
at this concentration, shows
the engine similar of
ran outside behaviour to the
its operational
speed of the
envelope in engine because
an unstable both parameters
manner. are connected
Moreover, there underin
was an increase constant environmental
the standard deviation
(laboratory)
and standard conditions. The total pressure
error at a concentration of 35%decreased
because awith
longerantime
increase of the ethanol
was required for the
concentration in the fuel; this can be observed in Table 9 and is graphically illustrated in
Figure 12. The variance, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean are low,
which means that the effects are valid. A decrease in the total pressure during operation
of the engine can be also seen in the time plot shown in Figure 13 for single concentrations.
For E40 concentrations, again, the engine clearly ran in an unstable regime of operation.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 15 of 21

engine to stabilise, as shown in Figure 11. It can be concluded that increasing the ethanol
concentration in the fuel blend up to a concentration of 35% does not have an adverse effect
on the exhaust gas temperature.

3.4. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on the Stable Compressor Pressure of the Engine
The total pressure measured behind the compressor shows similar behaviour to the
speed of the engine because both parameters are connected under constant environmental
(laboratory) conditions. The total pressure decreased with an increase of the ethanol
concentration in the fuel; this can be observed in Table 9 and is graphically illustrated in
Figure 12. The variance, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean are low, which
means that the effects are valid. A decrease in the total pressure during operation of the
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
engine can be also seen in the time plot shown in Figure 13 for single concentrations.17 of
For23
E40 concentrations, again, the engine clearly ran in an unstable regime of operation.

Figure 12.
12. Average
Averagecompressor
compressorpressure
pressureatatdifferent
differentfuel blend
fuel concentrations
blend during
concentrations thethe
during stable
stable
Figure 12. Average compressor pressure at different fuel blend concentrations during the stable
regime
regime of
of operation.
operation.
regime of operation.

Figure 13. Compressor pressure during single engine runs at different ethanol concentrations.
Figure
Figure 13.13. Compressor
Compressor pressure
pressure during
during single
single engine
engine runs
runs at different
at different ethanol
ethanol concentrations.
concentrations.

3.5. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on The Start-Up of the Engine

3.5. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on The Start-Up of the Engine
The start-up phase of any jet engine plays a critical role in its technical life and
The start-up phase of any jet engine plays a critical role in its technical life and
performance. This phase places a high strain on the components of the engine. This strain
performance. This phase places a high strain on the components of the engine. This strain
is defined mainly by the temperature and rotational speed. The effects of alternative fuel
is defined mainly by the temperature and rotational speed. The effects of alternative fuel
on these parameters were, therefore, investigated. The temperature strain on a jet engine
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 16 of 21

3.5. The Effect of Alternative Fuel on the Start-Up of the Engine

The start-up phase of any jet engine plays a critical role in its technical life and
performance. This phase places a high strain on the components of the engine. This strain
is defined mainly by the temperature and rotational speed. The effects of alternative fuel
on these parameters were, therefore, investigated. The temperature strain on a jet engine
during its start-up is mostly characterised by the engine’s peak temperature, which is
obtained during start-up (Peak EGT). It is also important to evaluate how much total heat
the components of the engine absorb during this phase. This can be done by computing the
integral value of the EGT during the phase according to Equation (9). The other parameters
tied to the absorbed heat are the times at which the temperature reaches its maximum and
the settling time.
The settling time defines how long it takes the temperature to stabilise. The last
parameter tied to the peak value of EGT is the overshoot value, which defines how far
the peak was from the stabilised temperature value. In terms of temperature strain, these
parameters can give a good picture of thermal strain during start-up. The results from
three runs for each fuel blend concentration are shown in Table 10. The mean value from
all three runs was also computed, and the results for the integral and peak values of EGT
are visualised in Figures 14 and 15.
With an increase of the ethanol concentration in the fuel blend, the peak value of EGT
decreased, as seen in Figure 15. This decrease was around 130 ◦ C, which is a significant
value. This can be evaluated as a positive effect of ethanol on the operation of a small
turbojet engine. On the other hand, the integral value of EGT increased during start-up,
as shown in Figure 14. This means that the engine experienced high temperatures during
start-up for a longer time. The positive effect of lowering the temperature peak was,
therefore, somewhat negated by the higher integral value and total heat energy absorbed
by the engine during start-up.

Table 10. Exhaust gas temperature during the start-up phase.

Parameter No. of Integral Value Peak EGT Mean EGT Peak Time Settling Overshoot
Fuel Blend Measurement (◦ C.sec) (◦ C) (◦ C) (sec) Time (sec) Value (%)
1. 7074.2 790.4 504.2 2.70 10.09 56.7
E0 2. 7455.0 813.0 500.9 2.90 10.26 62.3
3. 6133.6 769.8 498.3 3 9.07 54.4
Mean 6887.6 791.1 501.1 2.86 9.81 57.8
1. 7198.5 677.7 492.6 2.30 10.69 37.5
E10 2. 7529.3 741.5 490.7 2.70 10.87 51.1
3. 7159.0 731.5 499.7 2.40 10.06 46.3
Mean 7295.6 716.9 494.3 2.46 10.54 45.0
1. 7662.4 710.9 487.9 2.50 11.16 45.6
E20 2. 7559.2 691.8 486.0 2.50 11.72 42.3
3. 8145.7 718.0 488.0 2.80 11.71 47.1
Mean 7789.1 706.9 487.3 2.6 11.53 45.0
1. 7900.9 688.0 477.1 2.50 11.91 44.2
E30 2. 8163.8 687.6 473.8 2.50 12.67 45.1
3. 7964.6 681.8 473.7 2.60 12.72 43.9
Mean 8009.7 685.8 474.8 2.53 12.43 44.4
1. 7905.6 674.7 478.3 2.60 12.66 41.0
E35 2. 9503.8 660.9 472.7 2.40 15.91 39.8
3. 9974.9 661.2 469.3 2.40 16.53 40.8
Mean 9128.1 665.6 473.4 2.46 15.03 40.5
1. 3753.5 610.6 496.9 2.20 5.79 22.8
E40 2. 5306.4 614.1 480.3 2.80 8.52 27.8
3. 4645.2 616.8 486.5 2.50 7.52 26.7
Mean 4568.3 613.8 487.9 2.5 7.28 25.8
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 17 of 21
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure 14.
14. Integral value
Integralvalue
value of the exhaust gas temperature during start-up.
Figure
Figure 14. Integral ofof
thethe exhaust
exhaust gasgas temperature
temperature during
during start-up.
start-up.
Peak EGT (°C)

Figure 15. Peak value of the exhaust gas temperature during start-up.
Figure
Figure 15. Peak 15.ofPeak
value value of gas
the exhaust the exhaust gas temperature
temperature during start-up.
during start-up.
The effects of ethanol in jet fuel on performance were investigated by analysing the
The
Theeffects
effectsofofethanol
ethanolinin jetjet
fuel onon
fuel performance
performance were investigated
were investigated by analysing
by analysing the the
rotational speed of the engine during the start-up phase. One of the most important pa-
rotational
rotational speed
speed ofofthetheengine
engine during
during thethe
start-up
start-upphase.
phase.OneOne of the
of mostmost
the important
important
rameters in jet engines is their starting time. This settling time is shown in Figure 16. When
parameters
parameters in jetjetengines is is
their starting time. ThisThis
settling timetime is shown in Figure 16. 16.
using clean in JET A-1 engines
fuel, the their
engine starting time.
was able to start settling is shown
in 6 s. By increasing theinethanol
Figure
When
When using
using clean
clean JET
JET A-1 fuel,
A-1 fuel, thetheengine was
engine wasable to start
able to in 6in
start s. By
6 s.increasing
By the ethanol
increasing the ethanol
concentration in the fuel blend, the starting time increased considerably, being the worst
concentration
concentration ininthe fuel blend, the starting time increased considerably, being thetheworst
at a concentration of 35%. With the concentration of ethanol at the level of 40%, the starting at
the fuel blend, the starting time increased considerably, being worst
at aconcentration
atimeconcentrationof of 35%.
35%. With
Withthe the
the concentration
concentration ofof
ethanol
ethanolat thethe
level of 40%, the starting
was shorter. However, engine’s speed reached onlyatthe level
sub-idle oflevel.
40%, Itthe
canstarting
be
time
time was shorter.
was shorter. However, the engine’s speed reached only the sub-idle level.
level.onItbe
It can
concluded that an However,
increase inthe theengine’s speed reached
ethanol concentration hasonly the sub-idle
a detrimental impact can be
en-
concluded
concluded that
that an increase in
an increase in the
theethanol
ethanolconcentration
concentrationhas hasa detrimental
a detrimental impact
impact ononengine
gine starting times.
engine starting
starting times. times.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 18 of 21
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23

Figure
Figure 16. 16. Starting
Starting timeofofa asmall
time smallturbojet
turbojet engine
enginewith
withdifferent
differentethanol concentrations.
ethanol concentrations.

InIn
general, it can
general, be concluded
it can that the
be concluded thateffects of ethanol
the effects in JET A-1
of ethanol fuel A-1
in JET are generally
fuel are generally
adverse during the start-up phase of the engine. Ethanol prolongs the initialisation of the
adverse during the start-up phase of the engine. Ethanol prolongs the initialisation of the
engine up to the point that the speed of the engine hangs below its idle speed. The positive
engine up to the point that the speed of the engine hangs below its idle speed. The positive
effect of ethanol is its ability to decrease the peak temperature during start-up, which
effectbeofbeneficial
could ethanol is foritsthe
ability to decrease
materials of turbinetheblades.
peak temperature during start-up, which could
be beneficial for the materials of turbine blades.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The present study explored some effects of the application of JET A-1/ethanol blends
in smallThe present
turbojet studyThese
engines. explored some effects
fuel blends provideoflessthegross
application of JET
heat energy thanA-1/ethanol
clean JET blends
in small
A-1 fuel, soturbojet engines. These
some performance dropsfuelwereblends
expected.provide
Theseless gross
results areheat
validenergy than
for a class of clean JET
A-1 fuel,
single streamso turbojet
some performance
engines, but drops were expected.
our conclusion will likely These
also results
be validareforvalid
largerfor a class
turbojet
of single engines.
stream turbojet engines, but our conclusion will likely also be valid for larger
We found
turbojet engines. that this type of engine with a hydromechanical fuel control system is not
able run with concentrations
We found that this type of ethanol higher
of engine thana 40%
with in the fuel blend.fuel
hydromechanical All control
other effects
system is not
were analysed in two basic situational frames: the start-up
able run with concentrations of ethanol higher than 40% in the fuel blend.and stable regime of operation.
All other effects
It was found that during the stable operation of the engine, the ethanol in the fuel caused
were analysed in two basic situational frames: the start-up and stable regime of operation.
a drop in the stable operating speed of the engine, a drop in the exhaust gas temperature,
It was found that during the stable operation of the engine, the ethanol in the fuel caused a
and, consequently, a decrease in the pressure behind the compressor. With a
drop in the of
concentration stable operating
35% percent speedinofthe
of ethanol thefuel
engine,
blend, athe drop
speedindropped
the exhaust
by 7500gasmin
temperature,
−1
and, consequently, a decrease in the pressure behind the compressor.
at a constant fuel flow. This means that ethanol, as expected, has a negative impact on the With a concentration
of 35% percent of ethanol in the −1 at a constant
performance of a turbojet engine butfuel
thatblend, the speed
the engine dropped
is still able to runbyin 7500 min
a stable manner
atfuel
suchflow. This means that ethanol, as expected, has a negative impact on the performance
a concentration.
of aTheturbojet
effectsengine
of ethanolbutonthat
the the engine
start-up is still
of the engineable to run
were also in a stable
negative, manner
causing the at such a
start-up to last longer and increasing the total temperature load on the components of the
concentration.
engine.TheTheeffects
positiveofeffect of ethanol
ethanol on thewas that the
start-up ofengine
the enginepeaked at a also
were lowernegative,
exhaust gas causing the
temperature
start-up to during start-up,
last longer andwhich could the
increasing havetotal
a positive effect onload
temperature the lifetime
on the durability
components of the
ofengine.
the turbine
Theblades.
positive effect of ethanol was that the engine peaked at a lower exhaust gas
Most of these effects could likely be offset via the implementation of digital fuel
temperature during start-up, which could have a positive effect on the lifetime durability
control systems and speed control algorithms. In this way, the thrust output of the engine
of the turbine blades.
could be increased and maintained at a desired level, albeit at the cost of increased fuel
Most of these effects could likely be offset via the implementation of digital fuel control
consumption. The results show that ethanol is a viable additive to JET A-1 fuel; however,
systems
this additionand decreases
speed controlthe algorithms.
performance In ofthis
theway, the thrust
turbojet engineoutput of the engine
and increases fuel could be
increased and maintained at a desired level,
consumption, if the performance remains a constant level. albeit at the cost of increased fuel consumption.
The results show that ethanol is a viable additive to JET A-1 fuel; however, this addition
decreases the performance of the turbojet engine and increases fuel consumption, if the
performance remains a constant level.
Given this result, the hypothesis for emissions of the engine is not clear and should be
explored in follow-up experiments for the concentrations of ethanol in JET A-1 investigated
in this study for this class of engines. Ethanol as fuel additive might also negatively impact
seals in fuel and lubrication systems of turbojet engines [44], which is another area that
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 19 of 21

needs to be further tested specifically for every engine where JET A-1 fuel with ethanol is
applied. On the other hand, some additives might solve these problems like investigated
in [45].
We can thus conclude that it is operationally possible to use ethanol JET A-1 fuel
blend with ethanol concentrations up to 35% for small single stream turbojet engines with
radial compressors, but the effects on emissions, seals, and other components need to be
researched further in long term testing.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.A., L.F., M.S., and S.S.; data curation, R.A. and L.F.;
formal analysis, R.A., L.F., M.S., and S.S.; funding acquisition, R.A., L.F., and S.S.; investigation, R.A.,
L.F., and M.S.; methodology, R.A., L.F., and M.S.; supervision, R.A. and S.S.; validation, R.A., L.F.,
and M.S.; visualization, L.F. and M.S.; writing—original draft, R.A., L.F., and M.S.; writing—review
and editing, R.A., L.F., M.S., and S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by KEGA agency, grant number KEGA 044TUKE-4/2019—a
small, unmanned airplane—the platform for education in the area of intelligent avionics.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by project no. 019/2019/1.1.3/OPVaI/DP with ITMS
code 313011T557 under the title Support of the Research and Development Potential in the Area of
Transportation Vehicles.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
2-EH 2-Ethylhexanol
AVGAS Aviation Gas
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
E Ethanol
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
FF Fuel Flow
GHG Greenhouse Gas
H2O Water
HC Hydrocarbon
HEFA Hydro-processed Esters and Fatty Acids
HHV Higher Heating Value
JET A Jet Fuel
MPM-20 Small Turbojet Engine
n Rotational Speed of the Engine
N2 Nitrogen
NI National Instruments
NOx Nitrogen Oxide
p2 Total Compressor Pressure
PL Phase Level
PM Particulate Matter
PME Palm Methyl Ester
PR Phase Range
SPK Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene
Sustainability 2021, 13, 2541 20 of 21

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