Module

2
 Mathematical Language and Symbols
The Language of Mathematics
Four Basic Concepts
Elementary Logic

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Learning
Outcome
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, the students will be able to:

1. discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;

2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and
4. acknowledge mathematics as a useful language.
 GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Lesson 1. The Language of Mathematics

In the Philippines, there are over 120 languages spoken like Bisaya, Iloko,
Kapampangan, Kankanaey, Pangasinan and Tagalog. Filipino, which was the
standardized form of Tagalog, serves as the national language of the Philippines.
Like any other language in the world, mathematics has its own language, much
of which we are familiar with like the digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
and the symbols
+, −, ×, ������ ÷.

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

1. Precise
Being precise is being able to make very fine distinctions. In Mathematics,
just a little alteration in a symbol can make a big difference in its meaning. For
example,
�� > 1
is different from
�� ≥ 1.

That is why Mathematics is considered to be an exact Science.

Mathematical Contexts and Convention

There are a lot of symbols being used in Mathematics, and sometimes they are
used in different ways. To understand these symbols, you need to know the
context where it is being used. For example, when you see the symbol 5: 12,
it could mean differently depending on the context. It can refer to a time, a
ratio, or a verse in the bible. Thus, it is very important to know the context first
so that you will understand the real meaning of the symbol.
Another thing that you need to consider is the mathematical conventions.
Conventions are rules, names, notations, facts, etc. which are generally agreed
upon and widely used by mathematicians. An example is the PEMDAS.

P – stands for PARENTHESIS. This means you start first by simplifying

those inside a set of parentheses.
E – stands for EXPONENTS. Evaluate expressions or parts of the equations
with exponents.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
MD – stands for MULTIPLICATION and DIVISION. Apply the multiplication
and division operations whichever comes first from left to right.
AS – stand for ADDITION and SUBTRACTION. Lastly, apply the
 multiplication and division operations whichever comes first from left to right.
Most of the symbols and names used a conventional long period by
mathematicians. Some of these symbols are +, − , ×, and ÷ represents the 4
basic operations in mathematics. Other symbols and names will be discussed as
we go on with the lesson.

2. Concise
Concise means being able to say things briefly. Being brief does not only
mean short, but it also needs to be complete. It means giving a lot of
information in the least number of words possible. In mathematics, words and
sentences can be translated into mathematical symbols. To understand it
better, you need first to know the difference between the English language and
the mathematical language.

English Language versus Mathematical Language

In the English language, nouns are words used to name people, places,
and things. Whereas, a sentence is a group of words expressing a complete
thought, typically containing a subject and a predicate. For example, consider
the sentence
Ivan loves mathematics.
In the sentence, ‘Ivan’ and ‘mathematics’ are nouns and ‘loves’ is a verb.
In mathematical language, analogous to “noun” is an expression. An
expression is a name given to a mathematical object of interest such as numbers
and variables. Whereas, “sentence” in mathematics is also called a sentence.
The mathematical sentence must also express a complete thought like an
equation and inequality.
Here are examples of mathematical sentences:
12 + 13 = 25
2�� > 7
In the first example, the verb is ‘=’. If you read the sentence as ‘Twelve
plus thirteen is equal to 25’, then it is easy to recognize that the verb is ‘is
equal to’. Whereas, ‘12 + 23’ and 25 are expressions.
Similarly, the verb in the second example is ‘>’ and ‘2��’ and 7 are
expressions.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
The following table summarizes the difference between mathematical and
English languages.
English Mathematics
 Symbols English alphabet and English alphabet, numerals,
punctuation operations, Greek letters,
grouping symbols, special
Example:
symbols
a, b, c, d, !,which ?,.
Example:
��, ��, ��, +, −,×,÷, ��,
��, ��, (),[ ], <, >

The name Noun Expression

was given
Example: Example:
to the
object of Mary, John, Alex, 1, 4, 6+2, 2x, 4x-1
interest Baguio, Bag, Table

Action Verbs Equalities, inequalities, and

other actions
Example:
Example:
Run, et, fly
=, <, >, ≅, ∝

Expresses Sentence Sentence

complete
Example: Example:
thought
San Fernando City is 5+3=8
the capital of La
Union. 2�� − 3�� < 8��

The sum of five and �� ≠ 1

three is eight.

Synonyms, just like in the English language are present in mathematical

language. In English, synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same
meaning. In mathematics, synonyms have the same values.
For example:
8 is the same as 5 + 3, 16 ÷ 2 or 12 − 4
A mathematical sentence also is either true or false and it can be
sometimes true or sometimes false.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Example:
1. 7 + 11 = 18 TRUE

2. 9 + 3 > 19 FALSE
3. �� + 1 = 8 �� is a variable representing a number. If �� is 7 then the
equation is true, but if its value is any number
other than 7, then the equation is false. Thus, the
given sentence is sometimes true/sometimes false.

4. �� + 0 = �� This sentence is always true because no matter what value is

substituted to ��, both sides of the
equation will always be equal.

Translating English sentences/phrases to Mathematical

Sentences/expressions Here are some examples of phrases translated to
expressions:

Phrases Expressions

the sum of 5 and a number 5 + ��

the product of two numbers ���� ���� �� ⋅ ��

a number decreased by 10 �� − 10

seven times a number 7�� ���� 7 ⋅ ��

The quotient when a number ��

is divided by 6 6

When it comes to equations, the keywords that translate to the equal sign
are:
Symbol Equivalent phrase

= equals
is
is equal to
is the same as
amounts to

Not only equation but also inequalities can be translated using the
following keywords:
Symbol Equivalent phrase

< Is less than

Lesser than
Fewer than
Below
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

> Greater than

More than
Exceeding
Above

≤ No more than
At most
Does not exceed

≥ At least
No fewer than
Minimum
No less than

Here are some examples of English sentences translated to Mathematical

sentences.
English sentences Mathematical sentences

The sum of 5 and a number is 25. 5 + �� = 25

The product of two numbers does ���� ≤ 100

not exceed 100.

A number decreased by 10 is �� − 10 > 20

more than 20.

Seven times a number is at least 49. 7�� ≥ 49

The quotient when a number ��

is divided by 6 is below 12.
6< 12

3. Powerful
A powerful language can express complex thoughts with relative ease. The
best examples for these are some of the various equations that have brought
change into the world. In the book of Ian Stewart entitled “17 Equations that
Changed the World”, he listed 17 of the most influential equations that had a
great impact on Mathematics even up to this date. Some of the equations are
listed in the following table:
Name Equation Author/ Purpose/Description
con
tributor
(Year)

Pythagore ��2 + ��2 = ��2 Pythagor The sum of the squares of

an as (530 the two legs �� and
Theorem BC) �� of a right triangle is
equal to the square of
 the hypotenuse ��.

Logarithms log ���� = log John The logarithm of the

�� + log �� Napier product of two quantities
(1610) is equal to the sum of
the logarithm of each
quantity.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Calculus (��(�� + ℎ) − Newton The formula used to find

��(��)) (1668) the derivative of a
���� quantity �� with
���� = lim respect to time ��.
ℎ
ℎ→0

Law of Newton It determines the force

Gravity �� = �� (1687) �� of gravitational
attraction between two
(��1��2
bodies in terms of their
2 masses �� and the
�� )
distance
�����������
��� them.

The ��2 = −1 Euler Led to the introduction

square (1751) of the imaginary number
root of �� and the creation of
negative 1 the complex numbers
�� + ����.

Relativity �� = ����2 Einstein Matter contains energy

(1905) equal to its mass
multiplied by the square
of the speed of light.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Lesson 2. Four Basic Concepts

There are four basic concepts considered in mathematical language. These are
set, relation, function, and binary operations. These basic concepts in mathematical
language are somewhat analogous to the undefined terms in Geometry, the point, line,
and plane. Thus, the following definitions can be thought of as descriptions rather than
formal definitions.
A. Set
A set is a well-defined collection of objects such as numbers and variables. The
objects in the set are called elements of the set.
 The elements of a set may be anything under discussion. It may be numbers, names
of persons, places, or dates. Uppercase letters, such as A, B, C, X, Y, Z, will be used
to name sets. Furthermore, the lowercase Greek letter epsilon (∈) is used to
indicate an element of a set thus 1 ∈ A means that 1 is an element of set A and 5 ∉
means that 5 is not an element of Set A.
Methods in describing sets:
1. The roster method is done by listing down each element, separated by a
comma and fully enclosed by braces. In doing the roster method, consider
the following:
1.1 the order of the elements does not matter
1.2 the elements are only listed once, thus, listing an element more than
once does not alter the set.
Example:
A = {point, line, plane}
point ∈ A; space ∉ A;
B = {Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan}
La Union ∈ B; Baguio ∉ B
2. The rule or description method is done by describing a set in terms of
properties which is satisfied by the elements of the set and by those
elements only. One way of doing the rule method is by the set-builder
notation. It is in the form A = { ��|�� satisfies a certain
property/properties} which is read as “A is the set of all objects x such that
x satisfies a certain property.”

Example:
C = { ��|�� is a natural number less than ten}
D = { ��|�� is a city in Region I}

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
To compare the two methods, look at the following table:
Description Set-builder Roster Method
notation

Set E is the set of E = {��|�� E = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

even numbers is an
between 2 and 15 even number
and 2 < �� <
15}

Set F is the set of F = { ��|�� ∈ F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}

positive integers ��}
 Set G is the set of G = {��|�� ∈ G = {}
integers that are ��
both even and odd which are
both even
and odd}

Classifications of Sets

1. Universal Set and Subset

Universal set contains all the elements in a particular context or
condition. The universal set is usually represented as set ��. For
example, when you are discussing the English alphabet, the universal
set will be the letters of the English alphabet. Other letters or symbols
are not included. On the other hand, a Subset is a set whose elements
are also elements of another set.

2. Finite Set and Infinite set

A finite set is a set whose elements are definite or can be counted.
Set E in the table is an example of a finite set. While an infinite set is
a set that is not finite or its elements are impossible to exhaust. Set F
is an example of an infinite set.

3. A Null set (or empty set) is a set with no elements. It is denoted by {}

or ∅. Set G is given as an example.

Cardinality of a set
The cardinality of set ��, denoted by ��(��) is the number of
elements of set ��.
The Venn Diagram
Before discussing the operations on sets, let us first review what a
Venn diagram is. A Venn diagram is a diagram, usually made up of circles
used to illustrate relationships between sets. Venn diagram typically looks
like these:

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Venn diagram with one set

��

��

Venn diagram with two sets

 ��

�� ��

Venn Diagram with three sets

�� �� ��

��

How to create a Venn diagram of given sets.

Example: Given the following sets, construct the Venn
diagram. �� = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
�� = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
�� = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}

All the elements of set �� should be inside circle A and all

elements of set �� should in the circle B. Furthermore, the
common elements of sets �� and �� should be situated in the
intersection of the two circles.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Operations on Sets 1. Union of 1 2 �� ��

0 7
Sets
9
��
4 35 8
6
 The union of two sets �� and �� denoted by �� ∪ ��, is
the set that contains all the elements from set �� and �� or both.
The number of elements of �� ∪ ��, is given by
��(�� ∪ ��) = ��(��) + ��(��) − ��(�� ∩ ��).
For example, Let
�� = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
�� = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
The union of �� and �� is
�� ∪ �� = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}

The union of two sets, �� ∪ �� is represented by the following

Venn diagram.
��

�� ��

All the elements in the shaded area constitutes the union of the two sets.

2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and ��, denoted by �� ∩ ��,
is the set that contains all the elements which are both from set ��
and �� only. To put it simple, the intersection of sets is the set of
elements common to both. The number of elements of �� ∩ ��, is
given by
��(�� ∩ ��) = ��(��) + ��(��) − ��(�� ∪ ��).
For the same example
�� = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
�� = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
The intersection of �� and �� is
�� ∩ �� = { 3, 4, 5}
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
The intersection of two sets, �� ∩ �� is represented by the
following Venn diagram.
��

�� ��

The shaded area contains all the elements of the intersection of sets
�� and ��.

3. Complement of a Set
 The complement of a set, denoted by ��′, is the set whose
elements are the elements of the universal set but not in set ��.
For example, if
�� = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
�� = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Then the complement of �� is
��′ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
The complement of set �� is represented by the following Venn

diagram. ��

��

All the elements in the shaded area contains the elements of ��′.

4. Difference of Sets
The difference of two sets A and ��, denoted by �� − ��,
lists all the elements which are in set �� but not in ��. That is,
remove all the elements in �� which are also element of ��. Take
note that unlike the Union and intersection of sets, the difference of
sets is not commutative. It means that �� − �� is not the same as
�� − ��. To understand the operation better, study the following
example:

Let
�� = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
�� = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Then,
�� − �� = { 1, 4, 6}
and
�� − �� = {7, 9}

The difference of two sets, �� − �� is represented by the following

Venn diagram.

��
 �� ��

While �� − �� is represented by

��

�� ��

Here are some examples when the operations are combined.

Given the following sets:
�� = {��, ��, ��, ��,��, ��, ��, ℎ, ��,��, ��, ��}
�� = {��, ��, ��, ��,��, ��}
�� = {��,��, ��,��, ��}
�� = {��, ��, ��, ��,��, ��, ��}
Determine the following:
1. (�� ∪ ��) ∩ ��
2. �� − (�� ∩ ��)
3. �� ∪ (��′ ∩ ��)

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Solutions:
1. (�� ∪ ��) ∩ ��
Start with the operations inside the parenthesis, that is the union of
�� and ��.
(�� ∪ ��) = {��, ��, ��, �� ,��, ��,��, ��, ��}
Take the result and determine its intersection with set C to have
the final result.
{��, ��, ��, �� ,��, ��,��, ��, ��} ∩ �� = {��, ��,
��,��, ��, ��}
 2. �� − (�� ∩ ��)
Start with the intersection of �� and �� located inside the
parenthesis.
(�� ∩ ��) = {��, ��}
Take its difference with set ��
�� − {��, ��} = {��, ��, ��, ��, ��}
3. �� ∪ (��′ ∩ ��)
Start by taking the complement of ��, then take its intersection
with ��.
��′ = {��, ��, ��, ��, ℎ, ��}
{��, ��, ��, ��, ℎ, ��} ∩ �� = {��, ��, ��, ��}
Finally, determine its union of the result with set ��.
�� ∪ {��, ��, ��, ��} = {��, ��, ��, ��,��, ��}

B. Relation
A relation is a set or collection of ordered pairs. An ordered pair has two
components, the x- and y-coordinate.
Example of ordered pair:
(��, ��) (5, −2) (������, ������)
��, 5 and ������ are the x-coordinates and ��, −2 and
������ are the y-coordinates. Relations can be presented through
the following methods:

1. Set notation
Example:
{(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8)}

{(teacher, teach), (doctor, heal), (engineer, build)}

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
2. Tabular form Example: 3. Mapping diagram Example:

XY
A Apple XY
B Ball Prime number 2
C Cat Prime number 3
D Dog Composite number 8
Composite number 9
 X Y

Batac
Candon
Dagupan
Laoag
San Carlos San Fernando
Urdaneta
Vigan

Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur La Union

Alaminos Pangasinan

The set of all x-coordinates or the collection of all the first values in the
ordered pair is called the domain. While the set of all y-
coordinates or the collection of all the second values in the
ordered pair is called the range. Examples:
1. {(teacher, teach), (doctor, heal), (engineer, build)}
Domain: {teacher, doctor, engineer}
Range: {teach, heal, build}

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
2.
XY
Prime number 2
Prime number 3
Composite number 8
Composite number 9
Prime number 13

Domain: {Prime number, Composite number}

Range: {2, 3, 8, 9, 13}
C. Function
A function is a relation wherein every x-coordinate is paired to one and
only one y-coordinate.
Take note that all functions are relations but not the other way around.
Functions strictly follow the rule that each member of its domain is mapped to
only one member of its range.
Example:

1. {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8)}

Notice that each of the first value is paired to a unique second value.
This relation is called one-to-one and it is a function.
2.

X
Y

Alaminos
Batac
Candon
Dagupan
Laoag
San Carlos San
Fernando Urdaneta
 Ilocos Norte

Ilocos Sur La

Union

Pangasinan

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
In this example, multiple components of the domain is paired to a
component in the range. To cite one, Alaminos, Dagupan, San Carlos and
Urdaneta is paired with Pangasinan. Though it is the case, it does not
violate the rule for a function saying that each domain is pair to only one
range. Thus, this relation is a function.
3. number 8 Composite number 9 Prime number
XY 13
Prime number 2 Prime number 3 Composite

Here, the elements of its domain are Prime number and Composite
Number. Prime number is paired with 2, 3 and 13, while composite number is
paired with 8 and 9. This violated the rule for function. Thus, the given relation
is not a function.
Functions can also be represented by an equation. A function is usually
dented by ��(��) which is read as ‘�� of ��’ or the function of ��. The
domain of the function are all the possible values of ��.
Example:
Determine the domain of the given functions:
1. ��(��) = �� + 3
The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers (��) since
all real numbers can be substituted to �� and will give a real
number.

2. ��(��) = ��2
The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers (��)
since all real numbers can be substituted to �� and will give a real
number.

5
3. ��(��) =
 2��+6

The domain of the given function is the set of all possible values of
x which will not make 2�� + 6 zero since it will make the function
undefined.
The value which will make 2�� + 6 zero is −3. Thus, the domain
of the function is the set of real numbers except −3.
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
In set-builder notation, the domain is {��|�� ∈ �� ������ �� ≠ −3}.

4. ��(��) = √�� + 2
The domain of the function is the set of all possible values of ��
which will not make �� + 2 a negative number since it will make the
function imaginary or a complex number. The values which will make
�� + 2 negative are all real numbers less than −2. Thus, the domain
of the function is the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to
−2.
In set-builder notation, the domain is {�� ∈ �� ������ �� ≥ −��}.

D. Binary Operation
A binary operation, denoted by ∗, is a mathematical operation applied
to two elements of any set to produce another element.
The four basic operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are examples of binary operations.
Other binary operations ∗ can be defined in any way provided that it
stays consistent on a given set. It means that a binary operation in a
situation may be defined differently in another situation.
Example:
1. Let the binary operation ∗ be defined as the ordinary addition (+) in
��.
a. 32 ∗ −17 = 32 + (−17) = 15
b. (5 ∗ 6) ∗ −2 = (5 + 6) ∗ −2 = 11 + (−2) = 9
Other than addition, the common binary operations used are
subtraction, multiplication and division, the four basic operations
in mathematics.

2. Binary operation can also be defined this way:

Let the binary operation ∗ be defined as �� ∗ �� = �� + 2��.
Solve the following:

a. 3 ∗ 4 = 3 + 2(4) = 3 + 8 = 11
b. 2 ∗ (−2 ∗ 5) = 2 ∗ [−2 + 2(5)] = 2 ∗ 8 = 2 + 2(8) = 18
A binary operation ∗ on a set is commutative if and only if �� ∗ �� =
�� ∗ �� for all the elements of the given set. The ordinary addition
and multiplication are commutative while division and subtraction are
not.
 A binary operation ∗ on a set is associative if (�� ∗ �� ∗ �� = �� ∗
(�� ∗ ��) for all the elements of the given set.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Lesson 3. Elementary Logic

Statement
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true
or false, but not both.
The assigned True or False to a statement is called the truth value of that
statement.
Example of statements:
1. The Hundred Islands National Park in Alaminos, Pangasinan is
composed of 124 islands.
2. The brain is a part of the Central Nervous System.
3. 1 is a prime number.
4. Jose Rizal is born on June 19, 1861.
5. √−1 is a real number.
Statements 1, 2 and 4 are all true while 3 and 4 are false.
Example of not statements:
1. Hooray!
2. How old are you?
3. 2�� > 5
4. Choochoo is an eklavu.
Items 1 and 2 are not statements because they are exclamatory and
interrogative sentence, respectively. Item 3 is not a statement because
its truth value cannot be determined. Lastly, item 4 is not a statement
sine some words used are not really words and is meaningless.
In logic, lowercase letters such as ��, ��, ��, �� are
used to represent statements.
��: The Hundred Islands National Park in Alaminos,
Pangasinan is composed of 124 islands.
��: The brain is a part of the Central Nervous System.
��: 1 is a prime number.
��: Jose Rizal is born on June 19, 1861.
��: √−1 is a real number.

Quantifiers
 The words “all”, “some” and “none” are examples of quantifiers.
Statements with quantifiers are called quantified statements.
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Examples of quantified statements:
Determine whether each of the following statement is true or false.
1. All fish have scales. (False, because there are fish with no scales like
sharks)
2. Some of the previous Philippine presidents are women. (True, since there
were previous presidents who are women)
3. Some books have hard covers. (True, because not all books have hard
covers)
4. All prime numbers are odd numbers. (False, 2 is prime but not odd)
5. Some rectangles are squares. (True, square is a rectangle but not all
rectangle is a square)
Take note that to prove that the statement “All A are B” is false, you must
show at least one counter example. And to prove that the statement “Some A
are B”, just show one example that satisfies the statement.

Given the statements:

��: I read books.
��: I do well in school.
Logical connectives Symbol example

1. Negation ~ ~��: I do not read books.

2. Conjunction ∧ �� ∧ ��: I reed books and I do well in school.

3. Disjunction ∨ �� ∨ ��: I read books or I do well in school.

4. Conditional → �� → ��: If I read books then I do well in school.

5. Biconditional ↔ �� ↔ ��: I read books if and only if I do well in

school.

Negation
If �� is a statement, the negation of �� is the exact opposite of
��. The negation of ��is denoted by ~��, read as “not p”.
Example:
��: The flower is beautiful.
The negation of the statement is no “the flower is ugly”. The correct
negation is “The flower is not beautiful” denoted by ~��.
Here, if �� is true then ~�� is false, and if �� is false then ~��
is true. They can never be both true and false at the same time!
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Negation of Quantified Statements
Take note that the opposite of “none” is “at least one”.
For example, the negation of “Some books have hard covers” is “No
books have hard covers.”
In general, the negation of “Some A are B” is “No A are B” or “All A are
not B”.
Example:
Statement: Some old cars are reliable.
Negation: All old cars are not reliable.
The opposite of “all are” is “some are not”, thus, the negation of “All A
are B” is “Some A are not B”.
Example:
1. Write the negation of “All squares are rectangles.”
Negation: Some squares are not rectangles.
2. Write the negation of “All birds can fly.
Negation: Some birds cannot fly.

The truth value can be summarized using truth tables:

� ~��
�
T F

F T

Compound Statement and Logical Connectives

The words “and”, “or”, “but”, “if then” are examples of logical
connectives. They are used to connect two or more simple statements to form
compound statements.

Example of compound statements:

1. I am going to cook dinner and you are going to wash the dishes. 2. If I am
going to pass my mathematics subject then I am going to Cebu for a
vacation.
3. It is either 4 is even or 10 is odd.
The Conjunction
If �� and �� are statements, their conjunction is the statement
“�� and ��”, in symbols, ��⋀��.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Example:
1. Let ��: The dog barks.
 ��: The cat meows.
Then ��⋀��: The dog barks and the cat meows.
2. Let ��: La Union is in Region I.
��: Vigan City is in La Union.
Then ��⋀��: La Union is in Region I and Vigan City is in La
Union. 3. Let ��: I can sing.
��: I can dance
Then �� ∧∽ ��: I can sing but I can’t dance.
In the first example, �� and �� are both true, thus ��⋀��
is true. While in the second example, �� is true but �� is false thus
��⋀�� is false.
In the third example, the word “but” was used as a conjunction.
“But” is used when one of the statements is negative. So instead of
saying “ I can sing and I can’t dance”, you say “I can sing but I can’t
dance.”
In general, for a conjunction ��⋀�� to be true, both �� and
�� must be both true. Using a truth table, the summary of the truth
value for conjunction is shown below:
� � �� ∧
� � ��
T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

The Disjunction
If �� and �� are statements, their disjunction is the statement “��
or ��”, in symbols, ��⋁��.
Example:
1. Let ��: 2+3=5
��: A square has five sides.
Then, ��⋁��: 2+3=5 or a square has four sides.
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
The disjunction is true since the first statement �� is true, even if
�� is false.
2. Let ��: Turtles are mammals.
��: Cows are herbivores.
 Then, ��⋁ ∼ ��: Turtles are mammals or cows are not
herbivores. The disjunction is false since �� and ∼ �� are
both false.

In general, a disjunction is true if at least one of its components is true.

It is only false when both of the components are false. In truth table:
� � �� ∨
� � ��
T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Conditional Statements
If �� and �� are statements, then “if �� then ��” is a
conditional statement. In symbols, �� → ��. Here, �� is called the
hypothesis and �� is the conclusion.
Example:
1. Let ��: The product of 5 and 4 is 20.
��: The sum of 5 and 10 is 15.
Then, �� → ��: If the product of 5 and 4 is 20, then the sum of 5
and 10 is 15.
The given conditional statement is true since both of the component
statements are true.
2. Let ��: Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.
��: Dagupan is the capital city of Pangasinan.
Then �� → ��: If Manila is the capital city of the Philippines, then
Dagupan is the capital city of Pangasinan.
The conditional statement above is false since the hypothesis is true but
the conclusion is false.
In general, the conditional statement �� → �� is true except
when the hypothesis is true but the conclusion is false.
GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
The conditional statement has several other similar-sounding conditional
statements. These variations are:
1. Converse
2. Inverse
3. Contrapositive
 Statement Symbol

Original statement If ��, then ��. �� ⟶ ��

Converse If ��, then ��. �� ⟶ ��
Inverse If ∼ ��, then ∼ ∼ �� ⟶∼ ��
��.
Contrapositive If ∼ ��, then ∼ ∼ �� ⟶∼ ��
��.

Example:
Original statement: If you eat vegetables, then you are
healthy. Converse: If you are healthy, then you eat vegetables.

Inverse: If you do not eat vegetables, then you are not healthy.
Contrapositive: If you are not healthy, then you do not eat
vegetables.

The summary of truth values for conditional is shown in the table:

� � �� → ��
� �
T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Biconditional Statements
Compare the following sentences:
1. If you studied well, then you will graduate.
2. If you studied well, then you will graduate, and if you will graduate
then you studied well.

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
The first sentence is a conditional statement wherein the hypothesis is
‘you studied well’ and the conclusion is ‘you will graduate’.
The second sentence is a conjunction of two conditional statements. The
second conditional statement ‘if you will graduate then you studied well’ is the
converse of the first conditional statement ‘if you studied well, then you will
graduate.’ It is an example of a biconditional statement.
A biconditional statement is a conjunction of a conditional statement
and its converse. It uses the connective “if and only if”. That is, given two
statements �� and ��, its biconditional statement is “�� if and only if
��”. In symbols, �� ⟷ ��.

Example:
1. You will graduate if and only if you studied well you.
2. All fish can swim if and only if all birds can fly.
A biconditional statement is only true when both of the component
statements have the same truth values.
The biconditional statement “All fish can swim if and only if all birds can
fly.” is FALSE because the first statement ‘all fish can swim’ is true while ‘all
birds can fly’ is false. By truth table,
�� � �� ↔ ��
�
T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

GECC 103a-Mathematics in the Modern World, MODULE II – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS