Industrial Process Control

Dr Jawad Arif
Objective of Course

To Learn the Operations of the Industrial Process

rather than
Mathematical Design and Concepts
Course Outlines
Industrial Electronics
Circuits, Instruments, and Control
Techniques
By Terry Bartelt

Part 1: Industrial Control Overview

Part 2: The Controller
Part 3: Electric Motors
Part 4: Variable Speed Drives
Part 5: Process Control and Instrumentation
Part 6: Detection Sensors
Enrolment Code
Rxftp4Zw6
Ch1 Introduction
Classifications of Industrial Control
 Motion Control
 Process Control
 Batch Process
 Continuous Process
Motion Control
• An automatic control system that controls the physical motion or
position of an object
• Characteristics of Motion Control System
• Controls the position, speed, acceleration of the object
• Motion or speed of object being controlled is measured
• Response time of motion control systems is in milliseconds

Example: Industrial robot arm which

performs welding
or assembly operations
Process Control
• In process control one or more variables are regulated during the
manufacturing of a product

• These variable may include temperature, pressure, flow rate, level,

pH, humidity etc.

• Response time of process control systems is usually slow ranging from

few seconds to hours

• Further two types: Batch and Continuous

Batch Process
• Batch processing is a sequence of timed operations executed on the
product being manufactured.

• Batch process is also known as a sequential process

Batch Process Example:
Cookie manufacturing
Powdered Chocolate
Water Milk Eggs Flour Sugar Margarine Nuts chips Vanilla Shortening

Compressor

Mixer

To packaging machine
Outlet jets

Conveyer belt Oven

Batch Process Example:
Cookie manufacturing
Powdered Chocolate
Water Milk Eggs Flour Sugar Margarine Nuts chips Vanilla Shortening

Compressor

Mixer

Outlet jets To packaging machine

Conveyer belt Oven

Continuous Process
• In a continuous process one or more operations are being performed
as the product is being passed through a process

• Examples: paper production, wastewater treatment, oil refining etc.

Continuous Process
Example: Oil and Gas
Continuous Process Example: Cement
Classification by type of control
• Open-loop systems (manual control)

• Closed-loop systems (automatic control)

Open loop example: water reservoir
Manual Valve
Water from source Inlet pipe

Desired water level

Storage tank
Outlet pipe

• Objective is to keep water at desired level

• Human operator periodically inspects the tank
Open-loop systems
• Simplest way of control

• Variables kept at set point/ desired value manually

• No feedback is employed
Open loop example: water reservoir
• Water level may change if
• Substantial rainfall
• Excessive evaporation
Manual Valve
Water from source Inlet pipe

Desired water level

Storage tank
Outlet pipe
Open loop example: Heat exchanger

• Hot steam flows into the heat exchanger through pipes

• The steam heats the cold water entering the heat exchanger
• Hot water is pumped out
• Objective is to maintain hot water’s temperature
Open loop example: Heat exchanger
• Temperature may vary if
• Temperature of entering cold water drop
• Hot water demand increases
• Inlet steam flow rate changes
Issues in open loop control
• Desired value of a variable / Set point cannot be maintained in
presence of disturbances

• Requires Human operator

• Cannot be used in critical systems

Closed loop control
• Based on feedback

• Automatic (do not require human operator)

• Maintains set point / desired value in presence of disturbances

Example of Closed loop system

Water from Pivot Point

A
Source

Desire water level

Control
Valve Float
Outlet pipe to
irrigation system
Closed loop example: Heat exchanger
• Thermal sensor used for feedback

Resistance Temperature Detector

1.2 Elements of a closed loop control system
Error Detector
(Comparator)
Fuel or energy

Controller
Set Point Error Signal Output Signal
+ Controller Actuator
-
Manipulated variable

Feedback Manufacturing Disturbance

Signal
Process

Measurement
Devices Measured
variable Output or
controlled variable
 1.2.1 Controlled Variable
• The controlled variable is the actual variable being monitored and
maintained at a desired value in the manufacturing process.

• Examples in a process control system may include temperature,

pressure, and flow rate. Examples in a motion control system may be
position or velocity.

• In the water reservoir system, the water level is the controlled variable.

• Another term used is process variable.

 1.2.2 Measured Variable
• To monitor the status of the controlled variable, it must be measured.
Therefore, the condition of the controlled variable at a specific point in
time is referred to as the measured variable.

• The controlled variable may not be measured directly e.g. one way of
determining the level of water is to measure the pressure at the
bottom of a tank.

• Different from the controlled variable since measurement can be

indirect
 1.2.3 Measurement Device
• It senses the measured variable and produces an output signal that
represents the status of the controlled variable.

• Examples in a process control system may include a thermocouple to measure

temperature or a humidity detector to measure moisture. Examples in a
motion control system may be an optical device to measure position or a
tachometer to measure rotational speed.

• In the water reservoir system, the float is the measurement device.

• Other terms used are detector, transducer, and sensor.

1.2.4 Feedback Signal
• The feedback signal is the output of the measurement device.

• In the water reservoir system, the feedback signal is the vertical

position of the linkage mechanism ‘A’.
B

Water from Pivot Point

A
Source

Desire water level

Control
Valve Float
Outlet pipe to
irrigation system
 1.2.5 Set Point
• The set point is the prescribed input value applied to the loop that
indicates the desired condition of the controlled variable.

• The set point may be manually set by a human operator, automatically

set by an electronic device, or programmed into a computer.

• In the water reservoir system, the set point is determined by the

position at which the float is placed.

• Other terms used are command, or reference.

1.2.6 Error Detector
• The error detector compares the set point to the feedback signal. It
then produces an output signal that is proportional to the difference
between them.

• In the water reservoir system, the error detector is the entire linkage
mechanism. .
B

Water from Pivot Point

A
Source

Desire water level

Control
Valve Float
Outlet pipe to
irrigation system
 1.2.7 Error Signal
• The error signal is the output of the error detector.

• If the set point and the feedback signal are not equal, an error signal
proportional to their difference develops.

• When the feedback and set point signals are equal, the error signal goes to
zero.

• In the reservoir system, the error signal is the angular position of linkage
mechanism.

• Other terms used are difference signal and deviation.

1.2.8 Controller
• The controller receives the error signal (for closed-loop control) as
its input, and develops an output signal that causes the
controlled variable to become the value specified by the set point.

• Most controllers are operated electronically.

• The operation of an electronic controller is performed by hardwired

circuitry or computer software or PLCs.
 1.2.9 Actuator
• It is a device that physically alters some type of energy or fuel supply,
causing the controlled variable to match the desired set point.

• Examples of energy or fuel are the flow of steam, water, air, gas, or
electrical current.

• In the reservoir system, the actuator is flow control valve, connected

to inlet pipe.
1.2.9 Actuator (contd…)
• A practical application is a commercial bakery where the objective is
to keep the temperature in an oven at 375 degrees. The temperature
is the controlled variable. The temperature is determined by how
much gas is fed to the oven burner. A valve in the gas line controls
the flow by the amount it opens or closes. The valve is the actuator
in the system.

• Common types of actuators are, hydraulic cylinders, pumps, and

motors.
1.2.10 Manipulated Variable
• The amount of fuel or energy that is physically altered by the
actuator is referred to as the manipulated variable.

• The amount at which the manipulated variable is changed by

the actuator affects the condition of the controlled variable.
1.2.10 Manipulated Variable (contd…)
• In the commercial oven example, the gas is the manipulated
variable, and the temperature is the controlled variable.

• In the reservoir system, the flow is the manipulated variable.

The flow rate is altered by the control valve (actuator), which
affects the condition of the controlled variable (level).
 1.2.11 Manufacturing Process
• The manufacturing process utilizes the manipulated variable in
some way to give the control variable.

• In the case of water reservoir, it is the tank. The characteristics

of the tank i.e. its shape and dimensions determine how the
flow of water is related to its level
1.2.12 Disturbance
• A disturbance is any factor that upsets the manufacturing process
being performed, causing a change in the controlled variable.

• In the reservoir system, the disturbances are the rainfall and

evaporation that alter the water level.
1.2 Elements of a open loop control system
Energy or
Fuel
Controller
output signal
Set Controller Actuator
Point

Manipulated
Variable

Manufacturing Disturbance
Process

Controlled
Variable
1.2 Elements of a open loop control system
• It is possible for open-loop system to perform automated operations.
• For example, the washing machine that launders clothes in your
home uses a timer to control the wash cycles.
1.2 Elements of a open loop control system
• An industrial laundry machine also uses timing devices to perform the
same functions but on a larger scale.
• However, there is no feedback loop that monitors and takes
corrective action if the timer becomes inaccurate, the temperature of
the water changes, or a major problem arises that requires the
machine to shut down.
1.3 Feedback control
1. Objective is to keep the controlled variable equal to the desired set point.
2. A measurement device monitors the controlled variable and sends a
measurement signal to the error detector that represents its condition
along the feedback loop.
3. An error detector compares the feedback signal to the set point and
produces an error signal that is proportional to the difference between
them.
4. The error signal is fed to a controller, which determines which kind of action
should occur to make the controlled variable equal to the set point.
5. The output of the controller causes the actuator to physically adjust the
manipulated variable.
6. Altering the manipulated variable causes the condition of the controlled
variable to change to the desired value.
 1.3 Feedback control
The basic concept of feedback control is that an error must exist before
some corrective action can be made. An error can develop in one of
three ways:

1. The set point is changed.

2. A disturbance appears.
3. The load demand varies.
 1.3 Feedback control
• In the reservoir system, the set point is changed by adjusting the position of the float.

• A disturbance is caused when rain supplies additional water to the tank, or

evaporation lowers the level.

• The water flowing out of the tank to the irrigation system is referred to as the load.

• If the level of the water in the irrigation system suddenly lowers, the back pressure on
the outlet pipe will decrease and cause the fluid to drain faster. This downstream
condition is referred to as a load change.

• The set point and load demand are changes that normally occur in a system. The
disturbance is an unwanted condition.
 1.3 Feedback control
• Feedback signals may be either positive or negative. If the feedback
signal’s polarity aids a command input signal, it is said to be positive or
regenerative feedback.

• In industrial control we usually use negative feedback.

• Positive feedback is used in some other application areas such as radios. If

the radio signal is weak, an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) circuit is
activated. Its output is a feedback signal that boosts the radio signal’s
overall strength.
1.3 Feedback control
An example of closed-loop control that uses negative feedback
is the central heating system in a house.
 1.3 Feedback control
1. The thermostat monitors the temperature in the house and compares
it to the desired reference setting. Suppose the room temperature
drops to 66 degrees from the reference setting of 72 degrees.

2. The measured feedback value is subtracted from the set point

command and causes a six degree discrepancy.

3. The thermostat contacts will close and cause the furnace to turn on.
 1.3 Feedback control
4. The furnace supplies heat until the temperature is back to the reference
setting.

5. When the negative feedback is sufficient to cancel the command, the

error no longer exists.

6. The thermostat then opens and switches the furnace off until the house
cools down below the reference.

7. As this cycle repeats, the temperature in the house is automatically

maintained without human intervention.
1.4 Practical Feedback Application
• An actual practical application o a feedback system used in a manufacturing process
is a heat exchanger.
1.4 Practical Feedback Application
• Its function is to supply water at a precise elevated temperature to a mixing vat
that produces a chemical reaction.

• Cold water enters the bottom of the tank.

• The water is heated as it passes through steam-filled coils and leaves the tank
through a port located at the top.

• The elements of the control system consist of a thermal sensor, controller, and
actuator. Together, they keep the temperature of the water that leaves the tank
as close as possible to the set point when process conditions change.
 1.4 Practical Feedback Application
• There are three factors that can cause the condition of the controlled
variable to become different from the set point.

• Two of the three factors are intentional.

• One intentional factor is changing the set point to a new desired

temperature level.
1.4 Practical Feedback Application
• Another intentional factor is a load change. An example of a load
change in the heat exchanger is an increase in the pump’s flow rate so
that the water leaves the top port of the tank much faster than usual.

• This condition would cause the water to flow through the tank more
quickly. As a result, the water will not be heated as much as it flows
through the coils causing the outgoing temperature to be lower.
1.4 Practical Feedback Application
• An unintentional factor is a disturbance.

• One example of a disturbance in the heat exchanger is a decrease in the

temperature of the water entering the tank.

• When this condition exists, the temperature of the water in the tank will
drop below set point.

• This situation occurs because the water entering the tank is colder.

• Since the temperature of the heating (steam) coils remains unchanged,

the temperature of the water leaving the tank will be lower.
 1.4 Practical Feedback Application
1. Whenever there is a difference between the set point and the condition of the
controlled variable, the control system with feedback compensates for any error.

2. For example, suppose that the temperature of the water leaving the heat
exchanger falls below the set point.

3. Thermal energy, which is the measured variable, is detected by the sensor.

4. The sensor produces an electrical signal, which is the feedback signal to the
controller.

5. The controller compares the measured value to the set point.

1.4 Practical Feedback Application
6. The size of the deviation determines the value of the controller
output signal.

7. This output signal goes to the final control element, which is a steam
control valve.

8. To return the water temperature back to the set point, the valve is
opened farther by the actuator, allowing more steam, which is the
manipulated variable, to enter the coils.

9. As the coils become hotter, the temperature of the water, which

passes through them, also rises.
1.4 Practical Feedback Application
11. As the water temperature returns to the set point, the deviation
becomes smaller.

12. The controller responds by changing its output signal to the valve.

13. The new output signal causes the valve to reduce the flow of steam
through the coils and causes the water to be heated at the proper
rate.
 1.5 Dynamic Response
• The objective of a closed-loop system is to return the controlled variable
back to the condition specified by the command signal when a set point
change, a disturbance, or a load change occurs.

• However, there is not an immediate response. Instead, it takes a certain

amount of time delay for the system to correct itself and re-establish a
balanced condition.

• A measure of the loop’s corrective action, as a function of time, is

referred to as its dynamic response.
1.5.1 Dynamic Response
• There are several factors that contribute to the response delay:

1. The response time of the instruments in the control loop. The

instruments include the sensor, controller, and final control element.
All instruments have a time lag. This is the time beginning when a
change is received at its input ending at the time it produces an
output.
1.5.3 Dynamic Response
2. The time duration as a signal passes from one instrument in the loop
to the next.

3. The static inertia of the controlled variable. When energy is applied,

the variable opposes being changed and creates a delay. Eventually
the energy overcomes the resistance and causes the variable to
reach its desired state. This delayed action is referred to as pure
lag.
 1.5.3 Dynamic Response (Pure Lag contd…)
• The amount of lag is determined by the capacity (physical size) of the
material; the lag is proportional to the amount of its mass.

• The type of material also affects the lag. For example, the temperature
of a gas will change more quickly than that of a liquid when exposed to
thermal energy.

• The chemical properties of the controlled variable can also affect the
amount of delay.
1.5.4 Dynamic Response
4. The elapsed time between the instant a deviation of the controlled
variable occurs and the corrective action begins. This factor is referred
to as dead time.
1.5.4 Dynamic Response (dead time contd…)
• A pipeline which passes fluid can be used to illustrate an example of dead
time.

• The control function of the closed-loop system is to regulate the

temperature of the fluid flowing through the pipe.

• If the temperature of the fluid entering the pipe suddenly drops, there is a
brief time period that passes before the fluid reaches a sensor
downstream.

• The time from when the fluid enters the pipe until the sensor begins to
initiate the closed-loop response is the dead time.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• Two conditions can minimize the effectiveness of feedback control.

• The first is the occurrence of large magnitude disturbances.

• The second is long delays in the dynamic response of the control loop.

• To compensate for these limitations of feedback control, feed-forward

control can be used.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• The operation of feed-forward control is very different from feedback
control.

• Feedback control takes corrective action after an error develops. The

objective of feed-forward control is to prevent errors from occurring.

• Typically, feed-forward cannot prevent errors. Instead, it minimizes

them.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• Instead of placing the thermal sensor inside the tank of the heat exchanger
system, a thermal sensor is placed in the inlet pipe.

• As soon as there is a change in the temperature of the incoming cold water,

it is detected before entering the tank.

• The controller responds by adjusting the position of the steam valve.

• By varying the steam through the coil at this time, corrective action occurs
before the controlled variable leaving the outlet pipe can deviate from the
set point temperature.
 1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• The feed-forward control system does not operate perfectly.
There are always unmeasurable disturbances that cannot be
detected, such as:
• a worn flow valve,
• a sensor out of tolerance,
• or inexact mathematical calculations processed by the controller.
 1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• Over a period of time, these unmeasurable disturbances affect the
operation and eventually the water temperature in the tank, finally
causing the water to reach an unacceptable temperature level. Due to the
inaccuracy of feed-forward control, it is seldom used by itself.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• By adding feedback control to the system, corrections to the
controller can be made if the controlled variable deviates from the
set point due to unmeasurable disturbances.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
 1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• Figure shows a heat exchanger system that uses both feed-forward and
feedback control.

• The controller receives input signals from two sensors.

• The sensor in the inlet line provides the feed-forward signal, and the
sensor near the outlet provides the feedback signal.
1.6 Feed-Forward Control
• In summary, feed-forward control adjusts the operation of the
actuator to prevent changes in the controlled variable.

• Feed-forward controllers must make very sophisticated calculations

to compute the changes of the actuator needed to compensate for
variations in disturbances.

• Since they require highly skilled engineers, they typically are used
only in critical applications within the plant.