STATISTICS ANALYSIS W/ SOFTWARE APP 3.

Data - characteristics or information, usually

REVIEWER – WEEK 1 numerical, that are collected through
observation.
Introduction to Statistics - set of values of qualitative or
Statistics – branch of Mathematics that deals quantitative variables about one or more
with the collection, organization, presentation, persons or objects.
analysis and interpretation of numerical data for - datum is a single value of a single
the purpose of making a meaningful decision. variable
- a basic tool of measurement, evaluation, 4. Constant - characteristic of objects, people, or
and research. events that does not vary. (doesn’t change)
- astronomy, business, education, science 5. Variable - characteristic of objects, people, or
events that can take of different values.
Branches of Statistics - It can vary in quantity (e.g. weight of
1. Descriptive Statistics – gathering, people), or in quality (e.g. hair color of people).
classification, summary, calculations, graphs,
charts, and tables. Classification of Variables
- purpose is to tell something about the 1. Qualitative Variables – non-measurable
particular group of observation. characteristics that cannot assume a numerical
- focuses on the data and does not value but can be classified into two or more
interpret the meaning behind it. categories.
- e.g., religion, gender, and marital
2. Inferential Statistics – logical process from status.
sample analysis to a generalization or conclusion 2. Quantitative Variables - exist in some degree
about a population. along a continuum form, less to more and
- also called as statistical inference or numbers can be assigned to a different
inductive statistic. individuals or object to indicate how much of the
- demands a higher critical judgment and variable they possess.
mathematical methods. a. Discrete – variables than can take a
- aims to give information about large specific value.
groups of data without dealing with each - e.g., counting numbers of
element of these groups. OFWs.
- uses only a small portion of the total set b. Continuous – variables that are
of data to draw conclusions and judgments obtained by measurement, usually with units
regarding the entire set. and can be computed using a formula.
- e.g., height, weight, grades and
Main Difference: temperature.
Descriptive – Done na (Past)
Inferential – Not yet done (Future) Methods of Collecting Data
Types of Data According to Source
Division of Statistics 1. Primary Data - data that are gathered directly
1. Population - all members of the group about from the respondents of the study through
which you want to draw a conclusion. observation, interview, questionnaire,
2. Sample - portion, or part, of the population of experiment, or measurement.
interest selected for analysis.
2. Secondary Data - data that have been 4. Observation Method - used to data that are
previously gathered, complied, and are made pertaining to behaviors of an individual or a
available to the researcher for analysis. group of individuals at a time of occurrence of a
- e.g., data from books, journals, records, given situation are best obtained by observation.
reports, and other publication. - one limitation of this method is that
observation is made only one at a time or
Methods of Collecting Data occurrence of the appropriate events.
1. Interview - method of personal
communication between the researcher and the Types of Observation Method
respondents. 1. Participant Observation - done by actual
- provides consistent and precise participation, which allows the
information to the researcher because the researcher to gain detailed and comprehensive
respondent may classify the information. picture of the respondents.
- most effective way of enlisting the 2. Non-Participant Observation - done where the
cooperation of the respondents. participants are not aware that they are
being observed. It is advantageous for any kind
Types of Interviews of study since the participant will behave
1. Structured Interview - uses a research naturally.
instrument called interview schedule.
- made up of carefully prepared and 5. Experiment Methods - used to determine the
logically ordered questions. cause-and-effect relationship of certain
2. Unstructured Interview - open and flexible phenomena under controlled conditions.
method of interview. - method usually employed by scientific
- sequence and wordings of the researcher.
questions depends upon the researcher who
makes use of an interview guide. Level of Measurement (Scale of Measure)
- a classification that describes the nature
2. Questionnaire - method where the subjects of information within the values assigned to
respond to the questions by writing or marking variables.
an answer sheet.
- can be mailed or given to many people 1. Nominal Scale - simplest and the most limited
at the same time. form of measurement researchers can use.
- disadvantage: unclear or seemingly - used to differentiate classes or
ambiguous questions, which cannot be clarified, categories for purely classification or
and the respondents having no chance to expand identification purpose.
or react verbally to a question of particular - weakest form of measurement
interest or importance. because no attempt can be made to account for
differences within the particular category or to
3. Registration Method - method or gathering specify any ordering or direction across the
information is governed by laws. various categories.
- e.g., birth certificates, death -e.g., gender (male, female)
certificates, and licenses - none of the response will tell you that
one is more superior or above the others.
2. Ordinal Scale - data are not only classified but 1. Probability Sampling - process whose
also ordered in some way high to low or least to members had an equal chance of being selected
most. from the population
- used in ranking a. Simple Random Sampling - one in which each
- stronger form of measurement, member of the population has an equal and
because an observe value classified into one independent chance of being chosen.
category is said to possess more of a property -e.g., lottery technique
being scaled than does an observed value
classified into another category. b. Systematic Sampling - modified form of simple
- e.g., year level (1st year, 2nd year, 3rd random sampling.
year), military rank (general, colonel, private) - involves selecting every nth element in
- answer will tell you which is more one population until the desired number of
superior than the others. samples is obtained.

3. Interval Scale - has the attributes of ordinal c. Stratified Random Sampling - process of
scale plus another feature, the distance between subdividing the population into subgroups or
the points on the scale are equal. strata and drawing members at random from
- used to classify order and differentiate each subgroup or stratum in the same
between classes or categories in terms of proportion as they exist in the population.
degrees of differences. (Sample Problem in Yellow Pad)
- either discrete or continuous
- e.g., temperature scale in Celsius and d. Cluster Random Sampling - selection of
Fahrenheit, age, credit score, SAT score, marking groups, or clusters of subjects rather than
grade, IQ test individuals.
- used when the population is very large
4. Ratio Scale - like the interval scale, only it has and widely spread out over a wide geographical
an actual or trues zero point which indicates a area.
total absence of property being measure. - e.g., subdividing the city into district
- either discrete or continuous. then select at random the district to be used as
- e.g., height and weight, temperature sample to know the opinion of Manila regarding
scale in Kelvin. the effectiveness of the city government in their
fight against the covid19.
Difference between Interval and Ratio Scale:
Interval – can’t hold zero but can represent e. Multi-Stage Sampling - an extended version
values below zero. of cluster sampling.
Ratio – never fall below zero - involves several strategies in drawing
the representative sample from the population.
Types of Data (Sampling Designs) - population units are grouped into
Sampling - process of selecting the subjects who hierarchy of elements, and sampling is done
will participate in a research study. successively.

Types of Sampling 2. Non-Probability Sampling (Non-Random

Sampling) - a sampling procedure where samples
selected in a deliberate manner with little or no e. Voluntary Sampling - technique when sample
attention to randomization. are composed of respondents who are self-
select into the study/survey.
a. Convenience Sampling - resorted to when it is - samples have a strong interest in the
extremely difficult to select a random sample. topic of the study.
- e.g., researcher may only include close
friends and clients to be included in the sample f. Judgment Sampling - researcher relies on
population. his/her personal/sound judgment in choosing in
participate in the study or the sample selected is
b. Purposive Sampling - selecting based on based on the opinion of an expert.
judgment to select a sample which the
researcher believed, based on prior information, Presentation of Data
will provide the data they need. 1. Textual Method - writer can emphasize the
-e.g., A human resource director importance of some figures or can call attention
interviews the qualified applicants in a to the relevance of other figures.
supervisory position. (qualified applicants are Ex: The population in the Philippines increase
selected by the HR Director which is based on his from 106,651,394 in 2018 to 108,885,096 in
own judgment.) 2019. the growth rate is 2.09 percent.

c. Quota Sampling - applied when an investigator 2. Graphical Method - data were presented using
survey collects information from an assigned graphs or charts.
number, or quota of individuals from one of
several sample units fulfilling certain prescribed Different Kinds of Graphs/Charts
criteria or belonging to one stratum. a. Line graph - shows relationships between two
- they are cheaper to administer. sets of quantities.
- e.g., respondents are composed of men b. Bar graph - consists of bars or rectangles of
aged over 30 or 20 people who have bought equal widths, either drawn vertically or
cellular phones in the last week. It is in the horizontally.
interviewer's discretion which men or cellular c. Pie chart - represents relationships of the
phone buyers they select. different components of a single total as
revealed in the sectors of a circle.
d. Pictograph - a visual presentation of statistical
d. Snowball Sampling - requires identification of quantities by means of drawing pictures or
a few persons whose qualifications meet the symbols related to the subject under study.
purposes of the study. e. Map graph - one of the best ways to present
- technique in which one or more geographical data.
members of population are located and use to
lead the researchers to other members of the 3. Tabular Presentation - provides numerical
population. facts in a more concise and systematic manner.
- e.g., researcher will interview - constructed to facilitate the analysis of
individuals on the street or at homeless shelter. relationships.
- each class/subclass is assigned to a
particular row or column and figures for various
classifications are noted in appropriate cells.
a. Tabulation - process of condensing classified 7. To get the class boundaries, subtract 0.5 to
data and arranging them in a table. the lower limit, then add 0.5 to the upper limit
- through this process, data can more for each class.
readily be understood, and comparisons may
more easily be made. 8. To get the relative frequency, divide each
frequency to the total frequency then multiply
b. Classification - putting together similar items by 100.
from the mass of data collected based on such
characteristics as occupation, sex, height, 9. To get < cumulative frequency, get the partial
income, weight, nationality, etc. summation of the frequency for each class
interval from the top.
c. Frequency Distribution Table - tabular
arrangement of data by classes or categories 10. To get > cumulative frequency, write first the
together with their corresponding class total frequency, then subtract the frequency for
frequencies. the first class into the total frequency to the > CF
of the second class.
Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution
1. Determine the range (R) by getting the (Sample Problem Solution in Yellow Pad)
difference between the highest and the lowest
values in the set of data. Sample Table:

2. Determine the number of class intervals or

categories desired (k). The ideal number of class
intervals is somewhere between 5 and 15.
(Sturge’s Formula: K = 1 + 3.3 log n)

3. Determine the approximate size of the class

interval by dividing the range by the desired
number of class intervals.
(class size = r/number of class intervals) or (R/k)

4. Write the class intervals starting with the

lowest value for the lower limit of the first class.
The upper limit is determined by adding the class
size minus one to the lower limit
{(Upper limit of the first class = lowest value +
(class size-1)}

5. Determine the class frequencies for each class

interval by getting the tally for each column.

6. Compute for the class mark by adding the

lower and upper limits of the class interval, then
divide the sum by 2.