Algebra Manual 2019

UNIVERSITY ALGEBRA MANUAL
OGUTU KEROBOTO B. ZA’NGOTI

PhD. (Applied Maths, UoN), PhD. (Environ. Sciences, UPMC, Paris 6), PD. (Mathematics of
Macro-economic and Environmental Assessment of Energy Transition, Ecole Normale
Supérieure)
Department of Mathematics and Physical Sciences,

School of Science,
Dedan Kimathi University of Technology
@2019
CONTENTS
L0--Course outline
L1--Quadratic functions and equations
L2--Surds, Indices & Logarithms
L3--Series: finite & infinite, arithmetic & geometric
L4--The Remainder Theorem
L5--Permutations and Combinations
L6--The Principle of Mathematical Induction
L7--Complex numbers, polar coordinates
SMA 1108 ALGEBRA [45 Hours]
Prerequisites: None
Course Purpose
This course is intended to provide students with good grounding in the fundamentals of algebra.
Course Objectives
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Solve quadratic functions, polynomial equations and inequalities.
2. Solve permutations and combinations.
3. Demonstrate the use of series and complex numbers Geospatial engineering.
Course Description
Surds, logarithms and indices.
Determination of linear laws from experimental data.
Quadratic functions, equations and inequalities.
Remainder theorem and its application to solution of factorisable polynomial equations and inequalities.
Permutations and combinations.
Series: Finite, Infinite, arithmetic, geometric and binomial, and their applications such as compound interest,
approximations, growth and decay.
The principle of induction and examples such as formulae for summation of series and properties of divisibility.
Complex numbers: Argand diagrams, arithmetic operations and their geometric representation; Modulus and argument.
De Moivre's and its applications to trigonometric identities and roots of complex numbers.
Teaching Methodologies
The method of instruction will be lectures, interactive tutorials, practical classes, and any other presentations /
demonstrations the lecturer will deem fit towards enhancing understanding of the concepts taught in class. Lectures:
2 Hours per week; Tutorials: 3 hours per week.
Instruction Materials/Equipment
1. Whiteboard
2. LCD/Overhead Projector
3. Handouts
4. Smart board
Course assessment
During the period of study, assessment will be conducted by CATs (Continuous Assessment Tests), regular
assignments and a final Examination at end of the unit. The composition for continuous assessment shall be as
follows: 10% Assignments, 20% Tests, and regular examination at end of semester 70%.
Course Text Books
1. Aufmann, N, (2010). Algebra: Introductory and Intermediate: An Applied Approach. 5th edition. London:
Brooks Cole
2. Blitzer, R. F, (2008). Introductory & Intermediate Algebra for College Students. 3 rd edition. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall
3. Roman, S., (2005). Advanced Linear Algebra. 2nd Edition. New York: Springer.
4. Sullivan, M., (2004). College Algebra. 7th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
5. Sullivan, M., (2007). Student Solutions Manual for College Algebra. 8th Edition. California: Addison Wesley.
Course Journals
1. Journal of Algebra
2. Journal of Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences
Reference Text books

1. Kreyszig, E., (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 7th Edition. Chichester: John Wiley.
2. Larson, R., Boswell, L., Kanold, T.D. and Stiff, L., (2001). Algebra I: Applications, Equations & Graphs. New
York: McDougall Little
3. Stroud, K. A. and Booth, D. J, (2007). Engineering Mathematics. 6th Edition. New York: Industrial Press Inc.
Reference Journals
1. International Journal of Algebra
2. Journal of Mathematical sciences
10.1: Graphing Quadratic Functions [Algebra 1 (X)]
HCPS Ill:
• Standard 10: Patterns, Functions, and Algebra: SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION:
Use symbolic forms to represent, model, and analyze mathematical
situations.
• Benchmark MA.Al.10.7: Solve quadratic equations in one variable
algebraically, graphically, or by using graphing technology.
Goals:
• Graph quadratic functions.
• F i,nd the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex
of a parabola.
Graphing a Quadratic Fu nction
• Quadratic Function: a function that can be written in standard form

y = ax 2 +bx+ c, where a* 0.
• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.
Example:
y = x2 - 2x +1
The minimum or maximum The axis of symmetry
point on a parabola is the vertex. divides the parabola into
mirror images and passes
The vertex of this graph is (1, 0)
through the vertex.
The axis of symmetry in
=
this graph is x 1
I
I
I
l
&.
Example 1: Graph a Quadratic Function Using a Table of Values
Use-a table of values to graph the quadratic function.
a.) y = x 2 -x - 2
z
?\ y =-;<, -?( .:.. 2 y
2
-~ (-:;,) -(-3)-2 '- q + 3-2 " \ 0 \0
""2 (-2)1--(-2)-2:: L\ -1-2-L.::c '1 L\
-I 2
(-\) -(-\)-2 " \ -1- \ -2 .,_ 0 0
0 2
(0) -(0)-2 "' O -2 =- -2 -2
l (1)7.-(1)-2 0 1-\-2: -2 -2
2 (i) '- -(2-J-2 "- L\ -2-2 -= 0 0
~ (3')~ -{:,)-) ~ q-3-2:: y 4
'\/61.A COd\ se,Q... 0../(1S ot .o,,'/""'~+r1

x, Yi.
o..V\d.. ~~r-k,y
vu k;< : ( '/2- -2 y'i)
I
b.) y = -2x 2 + 2x + 4
?( ¥ ... -Z.-x 2- + 27( -t- 4 y
-3 - 2(-:i) 2 ~2(-~ +L\ ;. -\ '6 -(o t L\ .,_ -'-'2-0 -20
-1. -1..(-2) 2 +2 (-2) +L\ :0 - <6 - L-\ + L-\ :;. - '3 - CO
-\ - 2. ( - \) '- -1- 2 (- \) -t l\ .,_ - 2 - t t 1.-1 : . 0 0

0 -2.(D) 2 -1- 2.(0)-1--'--\ ";_ 0 -rL\ "- L\ L\
-2(\J]._ -1-2..L\) .\- L\ = - 2 -\ 2 + L-\ -- 1.-\ '-\
2 -2(i)1.. +2(i}+'-\ ";_ -'.<6 +'-\ -1-L\ ~ 0 0
0 -2l.5J'· .\ 2( 3.) +L\ ~ -\ <(, ..i, (o .Ir l\ =- ("6 -en
Craphin1 Usina the Vertex and Axis of Symmetry
The graph of y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a 0, is a parabola. *
Step 1: Find _the axis of symmetry using x = -b
2a
Step 2: Find the vertex by substituting the axis of symmetry (x)

into the original quadratic function. -t< ( ?( , 'I J
Step 3: Make a table of values and plot each ordered pair.
Example 2: Vertex and Axis of Symmetry

Write the equation of the axis of symmetry, and find the coordinates of the vertex
of the graph of each function. Identify the vertex as a maximum or minimum. Then
graph the function.
°" b (,.
a.) y = -2x 2 - 8x - 2
CD Ay.·,5 o+ ~y ""e.+,y {?( :. -2

\'I'\
?( :: ~ -- - (-<is) ... 3- .. - 1-
2 ~ z. (.-2) - L\
(i) Ve.,r ~e,x {( - 2 , (o) \

'I ... -2-xz-'8''X -'2 I
i
:. -2(-2)2.-~ (-2)-'2 I
' l
~-~ t-\lo-'2 " I .
, I .
'I ~ <o
. '
@ T u-\ale- o.f- v~\v.e.s
?( y:. -Zr.."--cg-x -2 y Axis of Symmetry: 'X-=- -
-I -2C-\J 2-iC-1)-2"'--1-t~-2=-L\ L\ Vertex: (- 2., Co)
0 -2(0)1.-<6(0)-?::c0-£-:.-2.. '2
~rMinimum?
-iC.\) 1 - ~C1)-2 = - 2 -<1<-2 .,-\2- -\'2-
b.) y = 3x 2 - 6x +4
(i) AY.\~ e.~ $ '1 V\'\me.+ry
-- \l
~~ ' '
?( = -\o - - (-<o) - Je_ .,. \
2.a. - 2..l3) - Co
@ \J <-r\- c. x 1(\ 1 \) \
't :: ; ~ '1 - G:,?\ t- "'\

:: ~l\)'2. -lo(\)-\' '-\
• ~-Co +-4
'/ .,. \
@ T '1.\olt.. eA- \J o-.\w.s
X 'f::. ~~Z-Co;xt-l\ y
2. 3("z/-(ot2)_...l\ ~ 1'2.-11z4 ~ '-i 4
~ 3 ( 3.) 'L -<o( 7>) +'-\ "" '2 '+ - I <"6 'r L\-.:. \ ~ \~ Axis of Symmetry: ?\ ~ \
~ ~ ( 4) ':_ (o (I.\) J- t\ ~ L\ 'iS - 2- '-\ +- '1 ~ 2-'6 2 <"is Vertex: ( \ , \)
Maximum or@ inimu!TIJ
"' ~
c.) y = 2x + 4x + 1 2
(D A)'.\~ o.f Sy IM~+.ry f

?( ~ -\
'?( "~ -:. - (~) ~ -_j_ ::. - \
7. CA. 2.. <.. '2-) Lo\
(;) vt-~C- )( ~ ( -\ ) - \ ) \
y-.c 2'X2.+l\;x+\
:. 2 (-\) i ..\- l\ ( -\) T \
~ 2-L\ \-\
'f -:. -\
G) \ CL\c~ "~ v ~lUV!:> l
'( Axis of Symmetry: ~ =- - \

I
Vertex: (-\ ,-\)
I 2-C\)2-,,_'-\ll)~\-=- 2 "L\ q,, 't 1
2. L.(2 )2--t l\ lz)-1-\: CO-\ Cf, + \-= If- I 't Maximum or<M'fn imu!ll!)
10.2: Solving Quadratic Equations by Graphing [Algebra 1 (X)]
HCPS Ill: ,
• Standard 9: Patterns, Functions, and Algebra: PATTERNS AND FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Und erstand various types of patterns and functional relationships.
• Benchmark MA.Al.9.3: Determine the zeros of a linear or quadratic function algebraically and
graphically.
• Standard 10: Patterns, Functions, and Algebra: SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION: Use symbolic forms to
represent, model, and analyze mathematical situations.
• Benchmark MA.Al.10.7: Solve quadratic equations in one variable algebraically, graphically, or by using
graphing technology.
Goals:
• Solve quadratic equations by graphing.
• Estimate solutions of quadratic equations by graphing.
Solve a Qu adratic Equation by Graphing
• Roots: the solutions of a quadratic equation, ax 2 +bx+ c = 0,

where a* 0.
• Zeros: the x-intercepts of the graph of a quadratic function.
* solutions =roots =zeros =x-intercepts·
Three Types of Solutions:
Two Solutions One Solution No Solution

(Two Roots) (Double Root) (No Real Roots)
Example 1: Two Roots
Solve the quadratic equation by graphing.
a.) x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0
CD Ion ~ o .f S '1 W\ VY\t,, +<y. o... :: \ 'a -=- "\
~=-\o ... -(\.\) .... -~.,..-2...

'2o... 2.. (. \) 2-
(f) \J er b
'( ';. (-2) 7. + I.\ (-2) +- ~
"- t..\-'0~'"3.
"' -\ I
@ T o-\olt. o{ '\f ""k.1t..fa t
?( '{ I
- I C> (-1)-z .. \. l-i) •s; \-'-'\4"3 · o I
J
O 5 (o)'!.+l\lo)+s:3. l
Axis of Symmetry: ~ =- -'2-.
3 (\ l..\ l\\ ).1.~ .. \..-4-1-;., 6
Vertex: <.- 2. , - \)
Maximumo~
Solution(s): - ~ - \
b.) c 2 + 6c = -8
0Axr.,, of Sy ..... _,,_fv
?( ~ -=.k!.._ ~ - (Co' • -(,, ~ - 3,
"2-<A.. 2.(. l) 2-
(i) \J cvr.\c..)(
'( " l- ~) 2. ~ (Q (.-3) +<iS
~ '\ -l <'6 +-~
:. -\
2
-2 0 (_- :i.) + (c;(-2) ... 1.: -:. q -12 .. g "- 0 r
-\ 3 (-1)~..i(qf-l)•l"t ~1-fc+'t ~ 3 Axis of Symmetry: I\ =- ... t>
o· <& (o 2. .i. Co ( o) +-t 0
/.,.
Vertex: (- ~ ' - \)
Maximum o Minimu
Solution(s): -L\ , -2
c.) x 2 + 7x + 9 = 0 c--=\ 1a.,..7 c..--C\
<S>A~r-s ~ 'J'fw-~~(
'X;: ~ ~
2o..
-J- ~)
2(\)
~ -i"2. .c-- -~.s
@\J~.\<..>C
1 "'" (- ?> .s-Y2. + "f (:-~. s) +q
~-s.2s-
@1 o-\.J\t_ o-f \lo.\~

t
1. ~ '{
-2 -\ (-2-)l..-\- ~(-2.)-tC\ '- I.\ - \\.\ -\ C\ -.. - \
\ Axis of Symmetry: ?(.:. -'; .s
.- ~ (-\) ' -1:· 'H -1) +<\ ~ \ - +-r °'. ~ ~
Vertex: (-!> .s , -3. is)
0 9 (o)~-1 ~l1>)-*C\"' l\
Maximum o Minimu
Solution(s): ~<..-twu:..\I\ -'9 Q.~o. -s
-2 o..~d. -\
d.) x 2 - 4 = 2x I<
2.
-2.-x -L\-:.. 0
6) Axes e.~ ~'f- ww"··~.. -h )L.

1( :. ~ ;:. - (-2.) ' 'l- \
2..o.. 2. (.') ... 2:- :.
-
<1>..\J e, r-k.,x
'("" (I)'- -2...(\) - L\
-:. \ -2 -4
~ -5
?( "'{
b -'-\ (<>) z. -2 Co} -L\ ~ _ '-\
Axis of Symmetry: _"?(_ =- _ _
-\ -\ (-1) i_ 2 ( -1) - I.\ ... \ 4 '2 - '-' ~ -I
Vertex: ( \ I - s)
-2- . L-\ t-11"-t.l-z)-y--I.\ ti.\-"\ -=-Y
Maxim um o(}\ifinim uillb
Solution(s): B<Z..-..\-w£1W"1 - 2 o..V\ J -\
3 o-~o L\
Example 2: Double Root
a.} x 2 - 6x +9 =0 °'.,.. \ b,. -eo c. '°" ?
Cb A-ic \":, .. ~ s'f ""'~ s

"X :.- .:::a_ ':>- - l-<o\ ~ ~ "' 3
Zo... 2( 1) '2-
@ \kr-k,25
12.~'\SC..'t~
t
~ = (~)z.- ~(3') -t-C\
-:. C\ - \ C6 +q
J
I
-=-o I
t
© T c..b\t.. o+ V ~ \vys.,
I
-I .
'A '{ I
z 1 t2)'- ~ci).1.C\.,, ·1-1'21A:::: Axis of Symmetry: ?( ::. ~

I.\ (. \)). ~ le(\).\-<\_ - \ -fc \ c, ' '-\ Vertex: ( ~ 'o)
0 l\ (o) '- - (c ( ()) ~ C\ :: °'-
Maximum or in1mum.
Solution(s) :_3_ _ __
2
b.} a - 2a = -1 0..
2
-2o. +- \ ':>- 0
© Ai<:t~ o{ Sy """~t....
?( ::. ~ "' - (-2.\ ~ 2:... .: . \
'2.o.. l..C.1) -i-
a> \/e-..--kx
'f ~ (\)'L-2(1') +-\
I ~ 3 I\ S '- ·7 ~
:. \ -2 +\ I
-=- 0 I
b \ ( o) i. -2.C o J + \ -.. \
L.( (-\)t-2(-1)+\ ~ \"'2-+\-:o '-\ Axis of Symmetry: 7' :. l

-\
-2 c-1..)t-2c-2).1-1° ~ *'"-l\ Vertex: ( \, b)
'1 -1:1..\
Maximum on
-----
Solution(s):_...;...
\ _ _ __
Example 3: No Real Roots
a.) x 2 - 4x +5 =0 "" . \ "'~ -'1 c ... s-
(b I\.}(\<;, o* St"""~~Y-
'X ~ -b -(-CU , 3... ~ L-
~ -:: 2.(\) "2.-
{J> \J~r.\<..x:
~1..~'"\.S,'.f'i' ,
'j -=-- (z..) 2 - l\ (i) +S 1
~ L\ -~-\--S .. I
-:. \
-I
i
I
2 (\)L-'-$\ ).\-S-:: l--'-1-<-S '- 2..
Axis of Symmetry: t< =L
0 s l0) L - L\ ( c)+- ":) -:; ')
Vertex: ( 2' $
-\ lO C-1)i.-L$ - 1)\-S~ \+Yr'; =-10
Maximum or ~
Solution(s): ~o s~\t.\,..\"lOV\
b.) x 2
- 4x = -6 7'\l-L$( +G:, ';;-o
©~rs "+ sy~
X=-;:J2.:: -~ ,,~ .._2
2-u,._ 2 (. \) 2-
(i) \J ¢.rk.;><
y .. ( 2.) l.. - 4. l 1.-J +-~
-:. 4, -8" +-Co
~ 2-
3> (\ ) l. -l\ll)-+- fo =- 1-L\ -1- '0"' ~

Axis of Symmetry: X . : 1-
() (o (c)t- l\lo 1;-fp~ G
Vertex: ( 2 , z.)
-I \\ (_ ·l) L - l\ ( -\ )-1{,: \ .. t.\ + 0 ~ l\
Maximumo ~
Solution(s ): No Soh.d1 OV'
[Algebra 1 (X)]
10. 3: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

HCPS Ill:
Goals:
• Solve quadratic equations by find the square root.
• Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.
Find the Square Root
Steps for Solving by Finding the Square Root.
Step 1: Factor the perfect square trinomial.

Step 2: Square root both sides of the equation. Be sure to use +
Step 3: Solve for the variable to get two solutions.
Example 1: Irrational Roots.

Solve the quadratic equation by taking the square root of each
side. Round your answer to the nearest tenth if necessary.
a.) x 2 - 10x + 25 = 7 b.) x 2 - 4x +4 =5

?(
1.
-
-
lOx + 2 S =- 'f ?(2-L\7( + L\-:: s
(-x-sj'-<=-7- Cx -2) 2 ::. s
-
/ (-i< -s) Z =±fr ,Jc~ -2> i!' =--~JS
xJ ~;!err ~ - 2/ -:: ±-JS
~ +'2..
s 0 \\/'-('_,
- .:ts:.
7( -= s ±ff ?\ '.:. 25:J5
-.K c.~L"""l ~w 2-E 2+rs
l-\.n
?( ,; 7(-::-
?\ ~ s -R ?\=S-;-J1 r?\ 9G -0. 2 - <7\ !/(_,
Ix ~ 2.11 G_ ~ :r~
Completing the Square
Completing the Square is a method used to make a perfect square

trinomial-which you can find the square root. As a result, you can solve
a quadratic equation.
Caution: this method should only be used on trinomials in the form

y = x
2
+ bx + c. * °" =- \
Notice the Pattern of a Perfect Square Trinomial
(x + 6) 2 = (x + 6)(x + 6)
= x2 + 6x + 6x + 36
= x 2 + 12x + 36
J, 1'
~ (Co)'2.
2~Co
Steps for Completing the Square

The goal is to find the perfect value for c that will complete
y = x 2 +bx+ c.
Step 1: Make sure x 2 + bx is on one side of the equation.

2
Step 2: Find the perfect value for c, by using c = (~) .
Step 3: Add the value for c to both sides of the equation.

Example 2: Complete the Square
Find the value of c that makes x 2 + 6x + ca perfect square.
(~)2.
(b\'-
C ~ 1J_) -= 2 : ( ~J'2.. ~ 9 ( G ::- ~ - \
0 1- -r-C,-x 1- ~
Example 3: Solve an Equation by Completing the Square

Solve the quadratic equation by completing the square and then
finding the square root.
a.) a 2 - 14a + 3 = -10
@ F ,~d. .\'k_ S<\ ~ ~o .\-
o. 'Z. - \L\. u. ;-L\. C\ """ "t> ~
(°'--1-J'2. =-'?:>Cc
J( °' - :./-)¥ =: ~
CA ;_{ ~~J
°' =- 1- ±-Co
~ ~_1, \~
b.} x 2 + 6x + 3 = 10
CD loMp\t,. \..<.. tk s<\\A."r(_ @ F'"'tl 1k. $'\~ ~o.\-
'XL +-Cot< +
-
1 : -:1L
lO x +Co?(+- C\ ,,_Ho
~llo
2
(A+3J
2
/\ +-~ A :o f '#;? f (C\ + ~)I ::.±}\ (o
+
- C\ -r'\
- x+ ;t ~=Lq
-.A. -~
7\ -:: - 3 1;.. L\
Example 4: Solve an Equation by Completing the Square where a *1
Solve the quadratic equation by completing the square. Round to
the nearest tenth if necessary.
a.) Sx 2 + 10x - 7 =0
(1) (,o ""'p\b- +~ s, ~ © h""-d tk sC\~ ~o4
\ 2.
2
SI\ +- \0 x - o/ =-0 /\1. +-27' +\-=- s=-
.tfr -t-:f. (-x + \\2- ~ %
2
Sx +lox =--1. .j (-x +\) I ~ff
s s
2
+2x ~ 9-
x ~ ~±. \.5
/\
4-\ -;- +\
- -* - --\
?( ~ - \ ±. \., s
?( ~ - 2. s )0 .. s\
b.) O.Sg 2 + 89 = -7
(b lo ~p\.. .\--M. S.'\ ~C>J'(.. @ FMd +w._ S>qu.a~ ~b +
2. (o ,S ~1.. + <0~) =-(:- ':f) 2 ~i.+\(oj+Col\ "'S-0
<J L +-l(o~ -IL\ =- (:1 + CZS) ?-- ~So
+Co<..\ *
-
+Col\
Jc 3 +~1 l =-:r.fso
~ ±. !:/--. \
-
-~
~ ~ -i x_ 1. \
'~ ~ - \So l- J -o. C\j

[Algebra 1 (X)]
10.4: Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula

HCPS Ill:
• Standard 9: Patterns, Functions, and Algebra: PATTERNS AND FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Und erstand various types of patterns and functional relationships.
• Benchmark MA.Al.9.3: Determine the zeros of linear or quadratic functions algebraically and
graphically.
Goals:
• Solve quadratic equations by using the Quadratic Formula.
• Use the discriminant to determine the number of solutions for a quadratic equation.
Solve Quadratic Equations

Method Can be Used Comments
Graphing Always Not always exact; use only when an approximate
solution is sufficient.
Factoring Sometimes Use if constant c is 0 or factors are easily determined.
Completing the Always Useful for equations of the form x 2 +bx + c = 0,
Square~ where bis an even number.
Quadratic Formula Always Other methods may be easier to use in some cases, but
this method always gives accurate solutions.
The Quadratic Formula
The Quadratic Formula is a method used to solve for x in a quadratic

equation, ax 2 +bx+ c = 0, where a =F 0.
-b + -Vb 2 - 4ac
x
2a
Steps for Using the Quadratic Formula
Step 1: Make sure the quadratic equation is set equal to zero.

Step 2: Identify the values for a, b, and c.
Step 3: Substitute the values a, b, and c into the Quadratic
"-it ?( = -b i ,./ 'o'z.-1.\ o..c,
Formu Ia. -i- °'
Step 4: Evaluate the solutions by using the order of operations

(PEMDAS).
Example 1: Use the Quadratic Formula

Solve the quadratic equation by using the Quadratic Formula.
Round to the nearest tenth if necessary.
a.) x 2 - 2x = 24 b.) x 2 + 2x = 3
CD ?<"2.t-27<-'6-=-0
·-x 2
- L?( ~ 2 )( <iJ °'=-\ \o"'°-'2- c·=- - 3
~ ~
l("l-2.-x - 2.L\ ~ 0 @ ·7( ::. - l2.) ±.j (l)L-L\ (J) l-?:>J
@ l ~.\-\+y 0.. 1 \:) I (...
2. L\)
CA=-\ b=- - 2 c:.-2'-\ (g) ?<= -2..·t.~q+\1.
© &u..o..~·~~"' Fo'(V"\.V.\O.. '2.
/( '.: - \o -~ ~ \'.)'2.- 1-\ (>..('..... = -2~~

2
=- - (~2.) ±.-~ (-2)1--t.\ (.\)(-2..l.\)
J._ l\) ·?(" -2 - L-\
2.-
© :. 2 ·±. ,J !.\ + C\Co
2 - - Co
- -2
~ 2±~$}0 ~ \
z_
?<'-=2-lO_-CO 0 • 'X"' 2 +\b"""~
--- - "L 2
2- 2-
?( = - L\
c.) 24x 2 - 14x =6 d.) x 2 - 6x - 2 =0
© 2L\" 'l - IL\ /< -l;; ~ 0 (b) o,.=-\ \Q=--(o L"--'2-
@ CA"'1L\ lt)::.-\l-\ (.."'"-~
@ I( = - {-<o) .:t _J (-Co) Z.~ t.\ ($l-2-)
@ ?( ~ - l-\"{) ±~ l-ll\) 2--~\ ('2."'\)l-~) 2-. (,\)
2... t2"\) =- ~ ~~ ~(o +'3
2
~ \L\ ±:.~\'\(o+5"9-Co
1-\<6 ~ (o±.]4'-\
]...
~ \ L\ 1:: J"fii
<-\en
~ -\3\g ~ 4\.lf
'-\.'3' 41$'
~ - C>. '2 'O 1-S ~o .i :.rog
The Discriminant
-b+..Jb 2 -4ac
In the Quadratic Formula, x = - , the expression under the
2a
radical sign, b 2 - 4ac, is called the discriminant. The discriminant can be
used to determine the number of real roots (solutions) for a quadratic
equation.
D = b ·4ac
2
# of Solutions # of x-lnterceps
D is positive Two solutions Two points
Dis zero One solution One point
D is negative No real solution Zero points

~ey Cone~!?~
Discriminant negative zero positive
2x2 +x + 3=0 x2 +6x+9=0 x2 - Sx +2=0
-1 ± v1 2 - 4(2)(3)
x=
-6 ::!: Y62 - 4(1)(9) •
x= - {- 5) ='= V<-5) 2 - 4(1J<2>
x = 2(2) 2(1) 2(1)
-1 ± \/=23 -6 :!:Vo
Example 4 2
There are no real roots = _::_§_ or - 3 There are two roots,

2
since no real number can 5 + v'17 d 5-\/17
be the square root of a There is a double root, - 3. 2 an 2 .
negative number.
Graph of Related
Function
L_ i i 0 !
~
· )
xi
The graph does not cross The graph touches the The graph crosses the
the x-axis. x-axis in one place. x-axis twice.
Number of Real Roots 0 1 2
Example 2: Use the Discriminant

State the value of the discriminant for each equation. Then
determine the number of real roots of the equation.
a.) 12x 2 + Sx = 4
l -2 7(2. ~5?( -L\ :-0
°': \'?.. 'o =s c..-:. - L\
0 ~ \o '1- - L-\. °" '-

~ l~ '- - L\ (\1..) (-~\
:--2S-\- \C\"1
;: 2 l 1-
\_o 0
2I1 } 2 ac..1 roof~
b.) 4t 2 - 20t + 25 = 0
D = bi- L\lA.c...
~ (-zo) 2- L\ ("\)(is)
= 400 - ~ 00
c.) 2x 2 + 3x = -4
~-
2-x'l. ~~-x +-L\ =- 0

o..=-2- 'o~3 c_-=-L\
D~ b 2. - L\. °'-<-
-=- (3) 2- ~ y ( 2-) ( 4')
::. q - 3'2
-; -23>
e.) 2x 2 + 10x = -11

2 -x ·t + ~o ~ -t-n ".;.- o \rD =- I 2 ~
\ ~)
L-
~I('~ \ ..tr
('oc 1~ .J
1
o...=-2- \:)=-\0 c=-l\
D::. b:z_- L\£A.L
~ (lo) i- - Lt (i..) (\\)
,_ 100- <38'
:: I 2
SMA1108: Algebra
Lecture Notes 3
Indices/Powers
In an expression an , a is called the base and n is called the index (or power or exponent).
Multiplication/Division of Powers
a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a) = a7
This illustrates:
Rule 1: ap × aq = ap+q
a×a×a×a×a
Also: a5 ÷ a4 = =a
a×a×a×a
Rule 2: ap ÷ aq = ap−q
Consequences of Rule 2:
a a1 a
= 1 = a1−1 = a0 . But also = 1
a a a
so a0 = 1
a0
Also 1
ap = ap = a0−p = a−p
1
so = a−p
ap
Powers of powers
Examples:
(a3 )2 = a3 × a3 = a6
(a2 )5 = a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 = a10
Rule 3: (ap )q = apq
q q
Note: The brackets are important here! ap is a(p ) but not (ap )q (therefore, to reduce
q
the chance of confusion, never use ap . Always use the variant with brackets!). E.g.,
2 2
103 = 10(3 ) = 109 (a billion), but (103 )2 = 103×2 = 106 (a million).
The numbers p, q in Rule 3 do not have to be integers, so
1 n
an = a1 = a.
This shows:
√ 1
Rule 4: n
a = an
Note: If in an expression ap the number p is not an integer, then a has to be positive.
Examples
2
(i) Evaluate 4 3 .
2 Rule 3 1 1
43 = 42 3 = 16 3
Rule 4 √
3
√ √
3
= 16 = 3 8 × 2 = 2 2.
3
(ii) Evaluate 4 2 .
1 3
3

Rule 3
42 = 42
√ 3
Rule 4
= 4 = 23 = 8.
1
(iii) Evaluate (43 ) 2 .
1 Rule 3 3 see (ii)
43 2
= 42 = 8.
2 × 23
(iv) Simplify .
42
2 × 23 Rule 1 24 4=22 24 Rule 3 24 Rule 2
= = = = 24−4 = 20 = 1
42 42 (22 )2 24
Logarithms
Examples: (a) What is the power that 10 must be raised to, to give answer 100?
Answer: Since 102 = 100, answer is 2.
(b) What power must 2 be raised to, to give 16?
Answer: 4
We can express these results using logarithms:

(a) says log10 100 = 2
(b) says log2 16 = 4
In general:
b = ac is equivalent to loga b = c.
In words: “The logarithm of b to the base a is c.”
Example: What is log4 64?

Since 43 = 64, one has log4 64 = 3.
Manipulating logarithms
How can we simplify expressions like loga (bc)? The rule is:
Rule 1: loga (bc) = loga b + loga c
Where does this rule come from?
Suppose x = loga b and y = loga c. This means ax = b and ay = c.

So, from Rule 1 for indices (recall ap × aq = ap+q ) we have b × c = ax × ay = ax+y . We
can write this another way as loga (bc) = x + y, and therefore obtain loga (bc) = x + y =
loga b + loga c.
So we have proved Rule 1.
Similarly, one can show (using Rule 2 for indices, i.e., ap /aq = ap−q ):

b
Rule 2: loga = loga b − loga c
c
and (using Rule 3 for indices, namely (ap )q = apq )
Rule 3: loga (bd ) = d loga b
Note: Since log is the inverse operation to taking powers, the rules for manipulating
logarithms can be deduced from the rules for manipulating indices here.

p
Example: Express loga √ in terms of loga p and loga q.
q

p Rule 1
1
Rule 3 1
loga √ = loga p − loga q 2 = loga p − loga q.
q 2
END: PART1 OF LECTURE 3
In this chapter we have looked at expressions of the type ap = b. Note that the following
cases may emerge:
√
• You know p and b. Then a is given by a = p b.
• You know a and p. Then b is given by b = ap .
• You know a and b. Then p is given by p = loga b.
We summarise the rules for manipulating surds, indices and logarithms here:
• Surds:
√ √ √
◦ n ab = n a × n b
√ √
◦ n ab = n a ÷ n b
p
• Indices:
◦ Rule 1: ap × aq = ap+q
◦ Rule 2: ap ÷ aq = ap−q
◦ Rule 3: (ap )q = apq
1 √
◦ Rule 4: a n = n a
◦ a0 = 1 and a−p = 1
ap .
• Logarithms:
◦ Rule 1: loga (bc) = loga b + loga c

b
◦ Rule 2: loga c = loga b − loga c
◦ Rule 3: loga bd = d × log ab
Further observations (for logarithms):
(a) Since x0 = 1, this can be rewritten as logx 1 = 0 (for any x 6= 0).

Think about the condition x 6= 0: What would “log0 a” mean, and for which numbers a is this meaningful?

1 Rule 2 1
(b) Also loga = loga 1 − loga c, so loga = − loga c
c c
Example
Write − loga p + 3 loga q as a single logarithm.
q3

Rule 3 1 Rule 1
+ loga q 3

− loga p + 3 loga q = loga = loga
p p
Natural logarithm
There is a special irrational number that plays an important role as base in calculations
involving logarithms and powers (especially, for integration and differentiation of func-
tions, something we will about later in this course): Euler’s number e = 2.71828 . . ..
Powers to this base e are written as ex = y, while logarithms – which should read
loge y = x – are written ln y = x (ln is the abbreviation of the Latin “logarithmus
naturalis”).
The natural logarithm ln and the logarithm to base 10, which is abbreviated log (written
without any base!), can be found on a (scientific) calculator. This notation for logarithms
is also used in applied sciences.
Warning: In (pure) mathematics, however, log usually denotes the natural logarithm
(log10 plays no special role there!).
In this course, log = log10 always!
Calculating logarithms
Look at the following table:
x 1 2 5 10
log x 0 0.301 (3 d.p.) 0.699 (3 d.p.) 1
If one remembers log 2 ≈ 0.3, many logarithms can be estimated closely.
Examples: log 4 = log(2 × 2) = log 2 + log 2 ≈ 0.3 + 0.3 = 0.6

(in fact, log 4 = 0.602 (3 d.p.))
log 5 = log 10
2 = log 10 − log 2 ≈ 1 − 0.3 = 0.7 (in fact, log 5 = 0.699 (3 d.p.))
3
log 8 = log 2 = 3 log 2 ≈ 3 × 0.3 = 0.9 (in fact, log 8 = 0.903 (3 d.p.))
More examples on logarithms

(a) If 10x = 5, find x.
x = log10 (5) = 0.699 (3 d.p.) (see above or use your calculator).
(b) If (0.1)x = 5, find x.

The easy solution would be x = log0.1 5, but then, how do we calculate logarithms
1
to base 0.1? Note that 0.1 = 10 = 10−1 , therefore
x
5 = (0.1)x = 10−1 = 10−x ,
so −x = log 5 and hence x = − log 5 = −0.699 (3 d.p.).

Change of base
In more general terms, the last example (b) asks the following question: Given ap and a
number b, can one find the index q such that ap = bq ?
Write a = bx , then x = logb a, i.e., a = blogb a (this is actually the definition of the
logarithm!). But then p
ap = blogb a = bp logb a ,
i.e., ap = bp logb a (~).
On the calculator, only ln and log can be found. How can we calculate log2 5, log3 7 etc.?
~
Again, p = loga c means c = ap = bp logb a , hence logb c = p logb a. So, we have two
equations for p, namely p = loga c and p = logb c/ logb a, and therefore obtain
logb c
loga c =
logb a
This is the formula if we want to change the base in logarithms (the “old” base a appears
in the logarithm in the denominator on the right-hand side!)
log 5
Example: log2 5 = log 2 = 2.322 (3 d.p.)
7
With log 2 ≈ 0.3 and log 5 ≈ 0.7, we estimate log 5 ÷ log 2 ≈ 0.7/0.3 = 3
= 3.3.
More examples and a warning (not lectured)

Examples:
(a) If 3x = 5, find x.
log 5
x = log3 5 = = 1.465 (3 d.p.).
log 3
(b) Write log8 32 in terms of logs to base 2, hence find log8 32 exactly.
log2 32 5
log8 32 = =
log2 8 3
logb c c
Warning: logb a 6= logb a (e.g., log 10/ log 2 = 1/ log 2 = 3.322 (3 d.p.), while
10
log 2 = log 5 = 0.699 (3 d.p.))
Expression where two logarithms are multiplied or divided cannot be sim-
plified, at least not in an “easy way”!
For the “not-so-easy” way, study the following example:
Rule 3 for log

(log2 100) × (log 2) = log 2log2 100 = log 100 = 2.
END: PART2 OF LECTURE 3:

MORE ON SURDS TO
FOLLOW
MORE ON: SURDS, INDICES & LOGARITHMS
§3 Surds, Indices & Logarithms
Square roots √ √
√ b = a × a, then we say that a is the square root of b, written a = b, e.g., 2 = 4.
If
b always means
√ the postive square√root of b.
Example 49 = 7 and −7 = − 49
General roots
Examples:
√
4
16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 so 2 = 16 (“the fourth root”)
√
5
√
10
1024 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 so 4 = 1024 Also 2 = 1024 .
√
n
| ×a×
If b = a {z· · · × a}, then a = b.
n times
Surds √
Some roots are irrational, e.g., 2. Such numbers are called surds and are manipulated
as symbols.
√
Irrationality of 2 (not given in lecture, not examinable)
This is an example in mathematical reasoning.

One easily verifies the following two statements:
n
(a) If a fraction m is in lowest terms, the numerator n and the denominator m cannot
be both even numbers (if they were, we could cancel a common factor of 2).
(b) The square of an even number is even, the square of an odd number is odd.
√ √ n
Now assume that 2 is rational, i.e., there are integers n and m such that 2 = m .
n
Let m be in lowest terms (so, according to (a) above, at least one of the two numbers is
√ n n2 2 2
odd). Taking the square of 2 = m on both sides yields 2 = m2 and hence 2m = n .
2
But this shows, that n contains a factor of 2 and is therefore even. Using (b) above, we
therefore conclude that n itself is even;
√ consequently, m is odd.
n
So far, we have: If we assume that 2 = m is rational, then the numerator n is even
and the denominator m is odd.
However, since n is even, there is another integer k such that n = 2k (k is half of n and
√ n 4k2
an integer since n is even). Then 2 = m = 2k
m and squaring this yields 2 = m2 and
hence m2 = 2k 2 . But then, m2 (being twice some integer) is even and therefore (using
(b)) also m!
√ √ n
Result: From the assumption that 2 is rational, 2 = m , we have concluded that the
denominator m is both even and odd. This is absurd, √ since an integer is either even or
odd, therefore the assumption has to be wrong. So, 2 is not rational.
Addition/Subtraction
√ √ √
Example: 2 + 3 2 = 4 2.
√ √
We cannot simplify 2 − 5 3.
Multiplication
√ √ √
The rule is: n ab = n a × n b
Examples:
√ √ √ √ √
8= 4×2= 4× 2=2 2
√
3
√ √3
√3
√
3
24 = 3 8 × 3 = 8 × 3 = 2 3
Division r √
n
a a
The rule is : n
= √
n
b b
q √
9 √9 3
Example: 25 = 25
= 5
Examples
√ √ √
(a) Simplify 12 − 3 + 5.
Reducing to smallest possible surds, answer is
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
12 − 3+ 5 = 2 3 − 3 + 5 = 3 + 5.
√ √
(b) Simplify: (2 + 3)(3 + 5).
√ √ √ √ √ √
(2 + 3)(3 + 5) = 2 × 3 + 2 5 + 3 3 + 3 × 5
√ √ √
= 6 + 2 5 + 3 3 + 15.
√ √
(c) Simplify: 7(4 − 7).
√ √ √ √ √ √
7(4 − 7) = 4 7 − 7 7 = 4 7 − 7.
When simplifying fractions we are required to make sure that the denominator is rational.
Example: √ √
3 3 5 3 5
√ = √ √ =
5 5 5 5
↑ ↑
irrational denom. rational denom.
2 √
For fractions such as √ , multiplying numerator and denominator by 4 + 3 will
4− 3
rationalise the denominator (remember the formula for the difference of two squares:
(a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2 ):
√ √ √
2 2(4 + 3) 8+2 3 8+2 3
√ = √ √ = = .
4− 3 (4 − 3)(4 + 3) 16 − 3 13
Examples:
√
(a) Simplify √ 5 .
3 7−2
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
5 5(3 7 + 2) 3 5 7+2 5 3 35 + 2 5 3 35 + 2 5
√ = √ √ = √ = =
3 7−2 (3 7 − 2)(3 7 + 2) 9( 7)2 − 4 63 − 4 59
√
(b) Simplify √ 5 .
5−1
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
5 5( 5 + 1) ( 5)2 + 5 5+ 5 5+ 5
√ = √ √ = √ = =
5−1 ( 5 − 1)( 5 + 1) ( 5)2 − 1 5−1 4
END OF LECTURE 3
L4 – SERIES: Finite & Infinite
An introduction…………
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 35 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 62
9, 1,  7,  15 12 9,  3, 1,  1/ 3 20 / 3
6.2, 6.6, 7, 7.4 27.2 1, 1/ 4, 1/16, 1/ 64 85 / 64
,   3,   6 3  9 , 2.5, 6.25 9.75
Arithmetic Sequences Geometric Sequences
ADD MULTIPLY
To get next term To get next term
Arithmetic Series Geometric Series

Sum of Terms Sum of Terms
Find the next four terms of –9, -2, 5, …
Arithmetic Sequence
2  9  5  2  7
7 is referred to as the common difference (d)
Common Difference (d) – what we ADD to get next term
Next four terms……12, 19, 26, 33

Find the next four terms of 0, 7, 14, …
Arithmetic Sequence, d = 7
21, 28, 35, 42
Find the next four terms of x, 2x, 3x, …

Arithmetic Sequence, d = x
4x, 5x, 6x, 7x
Find the next four terms of 5k, -k, -7k, …
Arithmetic Sequence, d = -6k

-13k, -19k, -25k, -32k
Vocabulary of Sequences (Universal)
a1  First term
an  nth term
n  number of terms
Sn  sum of n terms
d  common difference
nth term of arithmetic sequence  an  a1  n  1 d

n
sum of n terms of arithmetic sequence  Sn   a1  an 
2
Given an arithmetic sequence with a15  38 and d  3, find a1.
x a1  First term
38 an  nth term
15 n  number of terms
NA Sn  sum of n terms
-3 d  common difference
an  a1  n  1 d
38  x  15  1 3 
X = 80
Find S63 of  19,  13, 7,...
-19 a1  First term

353 ?? an  nth term
x Sn  sum of n terms
6 d  common difference
n
an  a1  n  1 d Sn   a1  an 
2
??  19   63  1 6  63
S63   19  353 
??  353 2
S63  10521
Try this one: Find a16 if a1  1.5 and d  0.5
1.5 a1  First term
x an  nth term
0.5 d  common difference
an  a1  n  1 d
a16  1.5  16  1 0.5
a16  9
Find n if an  633, a1  9, and d  24
9 a1  First term
633 an  nth term
x n  number of terms
24 d  common difference
an  a1  n  1 d
633  9   x  1 24
633  9  24x  24
X = 27
Find d if a1  6 and a29  20
20 an  nth term
x d  common difference
an  a1  n  1 d
20  6   29  1 x
26  28x
13
x
14
Find two arithmetic means between –4 and 5
-4, ____, ____, 5

5 an  nth term
an  a1  n  1 d
5  4   4  1 x 
x3
The two arithmetic means are –1 and 2, since –4, -1, 2, 5
forms an arithmetic sequence
Find three arithmetic means between 1 and 4
1, ____, ____, ____, 4

1 a1  First term
4 an  nth term
an  a1  n  1 d
4  1   5  1 x 
3
x
4
The three arithmetic means are 7/4, 10/4, and 13/4
since 1, 7/4, 10/4, 13/4, 4 forms an arithmetic sequence
Find n for the series in which a1  5, d  3, Sn  440
5 a1  First term
x
y an  nth term 440   5  5   x  1 3 
2
x n  number of terms x  7  3x 
440 
440 Sn  sum of n terms 2
d  common difference
880  x  7  3x 
3
0  3x 2  7x  880
an  a1  n  1 d
Graph on positive window
y  5   x  1 3
X = 16
n
Sn   a1  an 
2
x
440   5  y 
2
The sum of the first n terms of an infinite sequence
is called the nth partial sum.
Sn  n (a1  an)
2
Example 6. Find the 150th partial sum of the arithmetic sequence, 5,
16, 27, 38, 49, …
a1  5 d  11  c  5  11  6
an  11n  6  a150  11150  6  1644
150
S150   5  1644   75 1649   123,675
2
Example 7. An auditorium has 20 rows of seats. There are 20 seats in
the first row, 21 seats in the second row, 22 seats in the third row, and
so on. How many seats are there in all 20 rows?
d 1 c  20  1  19
an  a1   n  1 d  a20  20  19 1  39
20
S20   20  39   10  59   590
2
Example 8. A small business sells $10,000 worth of sports memorabilia
during its first year. The owner of the business has set a goal of
increasing annual sales by $7500 each year for 19 years. Assuming that
the goal is met, find the total sales during the first 20 years this business
is in operation.
a1  10,000 d  7500 c  10,000  7500  2500
an  a1   n  1 d  a20  10,000  19  7500   152,500
20
S20  10,000  152,500   10 162,500   1,625,000
2
So the total sales for the first 2o years is $1,625,000
Geometric Sequences and Series
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 35 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 62
9, 1,  7,  15 12 9,  3, 1,  1/ 3 20 / 3
6.2, 6.6, 7, 7.4 27.2 1, 1/ 4, 1/16, 1/ 64 85 / 64
,   3,   6 3  9 , 2.5, 6.25 9.75
Arithmetic Sequences Geometric Sequences
ADD MULTIPLY
To get next term To get next term
Arithmetic Series Geometric Series

Sum of Terms Sum of Terms
Vocabulary of Sequences (Universal)
a1  First term
an  nth term
n  number of terms
Sn  sum of n terms
r  common ratio
nth term of geometric sequence  an  a1r n1

 
a1 r n  1 
sum of n terms of geometric sequence  Sn   
r 1
Find the next three terms of 2, 3, 9/2, ___, ___, ___
3 – 2 vs. 9/2 – 3… not arithmetic
3 9/2 3
  1.5  geometric  r 
2 3 2
9 9 3 9 3 3 9 3 3 3
2, 3, ,  ,   ,   
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
9 27 81 243
2, 3, , , ,
2 4 8 16
1 2
If a1  , r  , find a9 .
2 3
a1  First term 1/2
an  nth term x
n  number of terms 9
Sn  sum of n terms NA
r  common ratio 2/3
an  a1r n1
91
 1  2 
x    
 2  3 
28 27 128
x 8  8 
23 3 6561
Find two geometric means between –2 and 54
-2, ____, ____, 54

a1  First term -2
54 an  a1r n1
an  nth term
54   2  x 
41
Sn  sum of n terms NA 27  x 3
x 3  x
r  common ratio
The two geometric means are 6 and -18, since –2, 6, -18, 54
forms an geometric sequence
2
Find a2  a 4 if a1  3 and r 
3
-3, ____, ____, ____
2
Since r  ...
3
4 8
3,  2, ,
3 9
 8  10
a2  a 4  2    
 9  9
Find a9 of 2, 2, 2 2,...
a1  First term 2
an  nth term x
r  common ratio 2 2 2
r   2
2 2
an  a1r n1
 2
91
x 2
2  2
8
x
x  16 2
If a5  32 2 and r   2, find a2
____, ____, ____,____,32 2
a1  First term x
an  nth term 32 2
r  common ratio  2
an  a1r n1
 
51
32 2  x  2
2  x  2 
4
32
32 2  4x
8 2x
*** Insert one geometric mean between ¼ and 4***
*** denotes trick question
1
,____,4
4
an  nth term 4
r  common ratio x
an  a1r n1 1
, 1, 4
4
1 31 1 2
4  r  4  r  16  r 2  4  r
4 4 1
,  1, 4
4
1 1 1
Find S7 of    ...
2 4 8
an  nth term NA
Sn  sum of n terms x 1 1
1
r  common ratio r 4  8 
1 1 2
Sn  
 
a1 r n  1 
 2 4
r 1
 1   1 7   1   1 7 
     1       1 
 2   2     2   2    63
x  
1 1 64
1 
2 2
Applications of Sequences
Example The winter moth population in thousands

per acre in year n, is modeled by
a1  1, an  2.85an1  .19an21 for n > 2
(a) Give a table of values for n = 1, 2, 3, …, 10
(b) Graph the sequence.

Applications of Sequences
Solution
(a)
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2.66 6.24 10.4 9.11 10.2
n 7 8 9 10
an 9.31 10.1 9.43 9.98
(b)
Note the population
stabilizes near a value
of 9.7 thousand insects
per acre.
Infinite Series
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …. Infinite Arithmetic No Sum
n
3, 7, 11, …, 51 Finite Arithmetic Sn   a1  an 
2
a1 r n  1
1, 2, 4, …, 64 Finite Geometric Sn 
r 1
1, 2, 4, 8, … Infinite Geometric No Sum

r>1
r < -1
1 1 1 Infinite Geometric a1
3,1, , , ... S
3 9 27 -1 < r < 1 1 r
1 1 1
Find the sum, if possible: 1     ...
2 4 8
1 1
2 4 1
r    1  r  1  Yes
1 1 2
2
a1 1
S  2
1 r 1
1
2
Find the sum, if possible: 2 2  8  16 2  ...
8 16 2
r   2 2  1  r  1  No
2 2 8
NO SUM
2 1 1 1
Find the sum, if possible:     ...
3 3 6 12
1 1
3 6 1
r    1  r  1  Yes
2 1 2
3 3
2
a1 3 4
S  
1 r 1 3
1
2
2 4 8
Find the sum, if possible:    ...
7 7 7
4 8
r  7  7  2  1  r  1  No
2 4
7 7
NO SUM
5
Find the sum, if possible: 10  5   ...
2
5
5 2 1
r    1  r  1  Yes
10 5 2
a1 10
S   20
1 r 1
1
2
The Bouncing Ball Problem – Version A
A ball is dropped from a height of 50 feet. It rebounds 4/5 of

it’s height, and continues this pattern until it stops. How far
does the ball travel?
50
40 40
32 32
32/5 32/5
50 40
S   450
4 4
1 1
5 5
The Bouncing Ball Problem – Version B
A ball is thrown 100 feet into the air. It rebounds 3/4 of

it’s height, and continues this pattern until it stops. How far
does the ball travel?
100 100
75 75
225/4 225/4
100 100
S   800
3 3
1 1
4 4
Sigma Notation
UPPER BOUND
(NUMBER)
B
SIGMA
(SUM OF TERMS) a
n A
n NTH TERM
(SEQUENCE)
LOWER BOUND
(NUMBER)
4
  j  2  1 2   2  2  3  2   4  2  18
j1
  2a    2  4     2 5     2  6     2  7    44
a4
   0
 
0.5  2  0.5  2  0.5  2
n
 0.5  212
 
0.5  23
  
0.5  2 4
  
n 0
 33.5
n 0 1 2

3 3 3 3
 6 5  6  5   6   6  5   ...
b 0     5  
a1 6
S   15
1 r 3
1
5
23
  2x  1   2  7  1   2 8   1   2 9   1  ...   2  23  1
x 7
n 23  7  1
Sn   a1  an   15  47   527
2 2
19
  4b  3    4  4  3   4 5   3    4  6   3   ...   4 19  3
b 4
n 19  4  1
Sn   1 n
a  a  19  79   784
2 2
Rewrite using sigma notation: 3 + 6 + 9 + 12
Arithmetic, d= 3
an  a1  n  1 d
an  3  n  1 3
an  3n
4
 3n
n1
Rewrite using sigma notation: 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
Geometric, r = ½
an  a1r n1
n1
 1
an  16  
2
n1
5
 1

n1
16  
2
Rewrite using sigma notation: 19 + 18 + 16 + 12 + 4
Not Arithmetic, Not Geometric
19 + 18 + 16 + 12 + 4
-1 -2 -4 -8
an  20  2n1
5
 20
n1
 2n1
3 9 27
Rewrite the following using sigma notation:    ...
5 10 15
Numerator is geometric, r = 3
Denominator is arithmetic d= 5
NUMERATOR: 3  9  27  ...  an  3 3 
n1
DENOMINATOR: 5  10  15  ...  an  5  n  1 5  an  5n
3 3
n1

SIGMA NOTATION: 
n1 5n
 INTRODUCTION
In this section, The Remainder Theorem

provides us with a very interesting test to
determine whether a polynomial in a form x-c
divides a polynomial f(x) or simply not.
NB: Also refer/read “Philip Schmidt & Frank Ayres

(2003) Schaum's Outline of College
Mathematics, chapter 43: pages: 330─334”
 Understandthe proving of The
Remainder Theorem.
 Determine if the polynomial f(x) is

divisible or not divisible by
polynomial of the form x-c,
where c is a constant.
THE REMAINDER THEOREM
The remainder obtained in dividing f(x) by x-c is the

value of the polynomial f(x) for x=c, that is f(x=c)=f(c).
PROOF:
Since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder

will be a constant r. Let q(x) be the quotient, we have the
identity.
f(x) = (x-c)q(x)+r.
On substituting the number c in place of x into this

identity we must get equal numbers.
Since r is a constant, it is not affected by
this substitution and the value of the right-
hand member for x=c will be
(c-c)q(c)+r = r.
Where the value of the left hand

member is f(c); hence, r=f(c) which means
also that identically in x,
f(x) = (x-c)q(x) + f(c).
It follows from this theorem that f (x) is

divisible by x-c if and only if (iff) f(c) = 0.
QED
If you don’t understand well the first one,
here’s another one to understand the proving
of The Remainder Theorem.
f(x) = A0Xn + A1Xn-1 + . . . + An
Where:
A is constant
X is variable
n is the number of exponent
First we let f(x) = A0Xn + A1Xn-1 + . . . + An
Then we multiply 1/ (x-c) ,
Where x-c is a linear polynomial which means the number of

exponent in x is one or the highest degree of a term is one
and c is a constant.
[1/ (x-c)][f(x)] = [A0Xn + A1Xn-1 + . . . + An][1/(x-c)]
Then,
f(x) = A0Xn + A1Xn-1 + . . . + An

x-c x-c
Recall this,
b/a → b = aq + r,
b → dividend
a → divisor
q → quotient
r → remainder
in divisibility form.
Then
f(x)/(x-c) → f(x) = (x-c)q(x) + r
f(x) → dividend
x-c → divisor
q(x) → quotient
r → remainder
Then the form goes like this;
f(x) = (x-c)q(x) + r
then we substitute c in x.
f(c) = (c-c) q(c) + r
f(c) = r
then we substitute f(c) in r in the original equation.
f(x) = (x-c) q(x) + f(c)
Then:
If f(c) = 0, then it is divisible
If f(c) ≠ 0, then it is not divisible. QED
If you still don’t understand it, we have the last one
different way of proving The Remainder Theorem. And
we’re hoping that you will finally understand the
Remainder Theorem, and ready to proceed in the
examples below.
Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x-r, the remainder

is equal to the value of the polynomial where r is
substituted for x. Divide the polynomial by x-r until the
remainder, which may be zero is independent of x.
Denote the quotient by Q(x) and the remainder by R.
Then according to the meaning of the division,
f(x) = (x-r) Q(x) + R.

Since this an identity in x, it is satisfied
by all values of x, and if we set x=r we
find that,
f(r) = (r-r) Q(r) + R = 0 . Q(r) + R = R.
Here it is assumed that a polynomial is

finite for every finite value of the
variable. Consequently, since Q(x) is a
polynomial, Q(r) is a finite number, and 0.
Q(r) = 0.
 Note:The solutions of the following
examples are given step by step in
order that any student (fast or slow
learners) could be able to understand
the process.
Let f(x) = Xn+An, where n is a positive
integer, using Remainder
Theorem, show that (x+a) | f(x)
whenever n is odd.
Note:
x + a = 0 ; x = -a
f(x) = (x+a); then substitute –a in x.
By The Remainder Theorem we know that (x+a) |f(x) if and
only if
f(-a) = (-a)n + an = 0
But if n is odd positive number then there is a positive

number m
such that n= 2m + 1.
Hence,
f(-a) = (-a)2m+1 + an
= -a (-a)2m + an
= -a2m+1 + an
= -an + an
=0
Show that f(x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 is divisible
by x + 3.
SOLUTION:
So, f(-3) = (-3)3 + (-3)2 – 5 (-3) + 3 = 0
= -27 + 9 + 15 + 3
= -27 +27
=0
Then it is divisible by x+3.
Under what conditions is xn+cn
divisible by x+c?
SOLUTION:
f(x) = Xn+cn
xn+cn x3+c3 = (x+c) (x2-cx+c2)

x+c f(-c) = (-c)n + cn
n xn + cn
1 x+c
2 x2 + c2
3 x3 + c3
4 x4 + c4
For n; odd
- Divisible by x + c.
For n; even
- Remainder is 2cn
Using Remainder Theorem show that
x4+3x3+3x2+3x+2 is divisible by x+2.
SOLUTION:
f(-2) = (-2)4+3(-2)3+3(-2)2+3(-2)+2
= 16-24+12-6+2
= 16+12+2-30
= 30-30
= 0. Then it is divisible by x+2.
Without actual division, show that x5-3x4+x2-
2x-3 is divisible by x-3.
SOLUTION:
f(3) = (3)5-3(3)4+(3)2-2(3)-3
= 243-243+9-6-3
=0. Then it is divisible by x-3.
Are the lessons clear?
If yes then you may
proceed to the practice
exercises.
If you think you cannot still
manage, please go over
the examples once more.
1. Show x3–6x2+11x-6 that is divisible by x-1
2. Use the Remainder Theorem to determine whether x = –4 is a

solution of x6 + 5x5 + 5x4 + 5x3 + 2x2 – 10x – 8
3. x4+7x3+3x2-63x-108 is divisible by x+3.

I can do it
4. X3+4x2-9x-36 is divisible by x-3. alone.
5. X3+4x2-9x-36 is divisible by x-1.
Check your answers
next page “BE
HONEST”
1. Show that x3–6x2+11x-6 is divisible by x-1
Solution:
X=1
= (1)3-6(1)2+11(1)-6
= 1-6+11-6
= -5+5
=0.
2. x6 + 5x5 + 5x4 + 5x3 + 2x2 – 10x – 8; x= -4
Solution:
= (-4)6 + 5(-4)5 + 5(-4)4 + 5(-4)3 + 2(-4)2 – 10(-4) – 8

= 4096-5120+1280-320+32+40-8
=-1024+960+72-8
= -64+64
= 0.
3. x4+7x3+3x2-63x-108; x=-3
Solution:
= (-3)4+7(-3)3+3(-3)2-63(-3)-108
= 81-189+27+189-108
= -108+216-108
= 108-108
= 0.
4. X3+4x2-9x-36; x=3
Solution:
= (3)3+4(3)2-9(3)-36
= 27+36-27-36
= 63-63
= 0.
5. X3+4x2-9x-36; x=1
Solution:
= (1)3+4(1)2-9(1)-36
= 1+4-9-36
= 5-45
= 40. X-1 does not divide X3+4x2-9x-36.
1. Find the remainder when 4x3 – 5x + 1 is
divided by:
a) x – 2
b) x + 3
c) 2x – 1
2. The expression 4x2 – px + 7 leaves a

remainder of –2 when divided by x – 3.
Find the value of p.
 Philip Schmidt & Frank Ayres (2003)
Schaum's Outline of College
Mathematics, chapter 43: pages:
330─334
 Marvin Marcus, Henryk Minc. College
Algebra. USA. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1970.
 Rider, Paul R. College Algebra.
10.4: The Fundamental Counting Principle
and Permutations [Algebra2 (\')]
HCPS Ill: Benchmarks

• Standard 14: Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability: PROBABILITY: Understand and
apply basic notions of change and probability.
• Benchmark MA.All.14.1: Use the Fundamental Counting Principle for combinations
and permutations to determine probability.
Goal: Use the fundamental counting principle and permutations.
Fundamental Counting Principle

How can you find thf number of meal possibilities at a cafeteria?
How many lunch specials can you choose from if you can choose chicken, pasta, or fish
as a· main dish and soup or salad as a side dish? One way to answer this question is to
use a tree diagram, as shown below. '
Main Dish Side Dish Lunch Choice
Chicken I
I
Pasta I Pasta
I Pasta 1 / Salad / ~
Fish l Fish
Fish
I 1 1. Salad . 1 <o
For each of the 3 main dishes, there are 2 possible side dishes, for a total of 3 * 2 =6
different lunch specials.
Two Events Three Events
If one eventcan occur in m ways and If one event can occur in m ways, a
another even can occur in n ways, then second event in n ways, and a third
the number of ways that both events event in p ways, then the number of
.
can occur 1s ways that both events can occur is
\:.\. '31"("1.
&"<NI.\- E J.. E "''"" +
m• n m• n • p
* The counting principle also extends to four or more events.
Example 1 : Use the Fundamental Counting Principle

a.) At a blood drive, blood can be labeled one of four types (A, B, AB, or 0), one of two
Rh factors (7- or - ), and one of two genders (For M). How many different ways can
blood be labeled?
6\004 T'ff~ \\ ~c..-h.~~ C,.t..\"\d."r
(~, s . ~s . o) (~ ,-) (f ,M)
11 • '2. • L. = \ <o t:h~+e.~V\ 1- w ()..'{ ~ -\- 0
L \~b~\ \o\ood \
b.) You are ordering a case for your MPS player. You can choose any of 30 colors for
the main shell, any of 32 colors for the protective band, and any of 200 decals for the
cover screen. How many different cases are possible?
• •
-
Example 2: Use the Fundamental Counting Principle
a.) Suppose a bicycle license plate is 2 letters followed by 4 digits (e.g., AB 1234)
* l.c...\-.\-(.rs, ~~ 2 (o c...ho\~~ (A--"2:) .. ' " ·, '"'
How many license plates are possible if letters and digits can be repeated?
\~ \. 'l"' ~ '
\..&.~" LtA+u- Ot~ '- 'Ot'\""" th'\;. \ .
:2. (o 0
2. ~ l Cl • lC 0
C. • ( =- (o, 'flc01 000 \ ie.tMS£- p\o..+e.-s
Q
.,
How many license plates are possible if letters and digits cannot be repeated?
\a.\- ln ! \
~..\-.k.- Le.-\-.\.er ~~'~ t'tl~<~ C~t.\- ~'+-
r
2-~ • 2.5 • \0 • ~ .. i · . 1- :. 3, 21-&> 1000 \itiflh'\~ x:>\o....k-_S>
b.) You are choosing a password that has 4 letters followed by 2 digits (e.g., NCWJ 37)
* 0~ \c..\-_\.....- ho..~
( Pr-i:)
2(.;. pt>!>~\* C..~OiCA!..S 1 •
'
~"
,.
.:.L. s.
(o-9.)
How many passwords are possible if letters and digits can be repeated?
\~\. '2"' ! 'l~~ '\'""
\..c...\-~ Lc,..\o\.r .~ l,..c,..\-+~ P,~t+
2,,(, • i~ .. 2Co • 2<o • \{)
How many passwords are possible if letters and digits cannot be repeated?
lCo • 1..5 ° 2t.\. • 23 • lC 0
Permutations
An ordering of a set of objects is a permutation of objects. By the
fundamental principle, there are 3 * 2 * 1 =6 permutations of 3 objects. For
example, there are 6 permutaions of the letters, A, B, and C.
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA

Permutations of n Objects "* \.\ou.1 ""'°"''f ch~4~.\- v.J""'(S <.0.."1 'ftM
p~~ ~ o'o}(...C...\-s \VI b~~~~
The number of permutations of n distrinct objects is n !.
n! = n • ( n - I) • ( n - 2) • ...... • 3 • 2 • 1
4 Objects 5 Objects 6 Objects

5!= 5. 4. 3. 2. 1 6! = 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
*o \-; \
Example 3: Find the Number of Permutations
a.) A television news director has 8 news stories to present on the evening news.
How many different ways can the stories be presented?
<O\. "'3 · ~·(o.S.l\·~ · '2·\:. 40"~2-0 6·,~.\ orcl.e..rS. o~ ~G"'<'\-C6.

'b ~t'\.C.6
If only 3 of the stories will be presented, how many possible ways can a lead story,
a second story, and a closing story be presented?
'D • T · (o -=- ?, ~ (p ~~ + -wo..y 5 ~ ~-h.r \C.-5 C..<A-V'I \:>e.. or de--re.d.
~
3 s.-h,ctc,~
b.) Eight skiers are competing in a moguls (snow bumps) competition.
How many different orders can the skiers finish the competition?
<3 ~ ~ 'b · 1- · ~ · S · L\ • 3 · 2 .. \ =- . '-\ 0 1 ~1.0 di~e..~.\- o-rde•~ \

.....__
<i.
,
:!> \c.' (..(''!»
.# ~\c:,e..rs c.a."' -hY\i'i:>"'- l
In how many ways can 3 of the skiers finish first through third?
<6 • '::J • (o :. 33(o d,Jl~~~+ w~'I .5 ~ ~\t.ie,CS co-V"'
.._" ...., ..CMt~Y\ ~y~.\- -\-'nroW>. ~· 1"-'IY'd y>\o..~ _\

~ ~\&.4c.r !> J
Using Factorial Notation
In part (b) above, an ordered group of 3 skiers is taken from the group of 8
skiers. This is a permutation of 8 objects taken 3 at a time. It is denoted by
s P3. This number can be expressed using factorial notation.
8 • 7 • 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 8! 8!
p =8•7•6= =-=---
18 \ 5• 4 • 3• 2• 1 5! (8 - 5) !
4 cbj<t...\-<:;, 1\- -:,\ot~ ~
-I\\\
Permutations of n Objects Taken rat a Time

~ a \ots. ~ ~. \\
The number of permutations of n objects taken rat a time is denoted by

npr and is given by the following formula:
P = n!
n r (n-r)!
Example 4: Permutations of n Objects Taken rat a Time

You have 6 text messages on your cell phone. In how many orders can you reply
to 4 of the messages? To all 6 of the messages?
(o . s -L\ ' 3 ·'2 - '

~ - (o ~ :; - ---- ~ ~20
O'. \ L .·
[Algebra 2(Y)]
10.5: Combinations and Pascal's Triangle

HCPS Ill
• Standard 14: Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability: PROBATILITY: Understand and apply
basic notions of chance and probability.
• Benchmark MA.All.14.1: Use the fundamental counting principles for combinations and
permutations to determine probability.
Goal: Use combinations and relate them to Pascal's triangle.
Combinations of n Objects Taken rat a Time

A combination is a selection of r objects from a group of n objects where
the order is not important.
The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken rat a time is

indicated by nCr, and is given by the formula.
n!
(n - r )! · r !
°* f>6~\-koV\S
-n-, .f.·.\\
Example 1: Find Combinations

a.) A baseball game starts with 9 players. How many ways can you select two
co-captains from the 9 players?
n. :. q p\,,.y~rs 9! '\ ~ q . 'ZS • 1- \.
C - · - 3<o w o..ys
r,. 2. ?o:">\ ~h>~S q 2 - ( G\ - l ) ~ · 2 ~ ~ 'f ~ · 2 ~ - 1- l. · 2 · \ - ••
~r lo-lo.p-6.:1Y1
b.) Charlie, Denis, Frank, and Mac have volunteered to help a nonprofit
organization remodel houses. Three of the 4 will be assigned to work as
painters. How many choices are there for the 3 painters?
IL -c 'i &v.'f ~ LJ C ., :. __'i_ l_"' IL\~ . ~,\ :. L\3·\3~ :. L\ J,-f+e-~+
( "\ - ~ )~· 3 ! \.~\ 3, •
I
, '3
r ~ 3. ::,\ob. ~
G~oic.e...$ .
PCM"V\krs
Example 2: Distinguish Permutations and Combinations
'
Tell whether the question can be answered using a permutation or a combination.
Then find the answer. Pe:(""""".\-o..\-\oV\ ~ ol"~e...<' '""°' \ \<.f'C:.
• t y- \ 1""T ~
[
. t'\
P.
'('
-=-
(
n
V\ -
~
Y') \
l
C.o'V't\O"M o...·ho"' : or de...< d. o c.. !>
hot ~o..\- .\-.t..r
a.) For a 9-person baseball team about to play, how many ways can you list the
first 6 players in the batting order?
I f ~(" )'\'\ v...~a. -tt ov-. I p =- 'f '. C\~ ~ll·'t>·1 · Cs, · S·L.\·~~
- OCdl!..(" \IV\0..-\4-e_v-~ '1 (o ( 't - <o)\ -- '5\ - 3~
~ '•(oO,L\</SO wo.y~
b.} For a 10-person basketball team, how many-ways can you select 4 players to
take part in a pre-game coin toss?
~ Lo'Mb\y\..o,·h OV'I
- O(' 0.e.'(" doe,.S ·
\"\(> \- vvw. +0
c.) For summer reading, you are asked to read 2 books from a list of 6 books.
How many different books can you choose to read?
~~ (g-S · 'i~ J \S po:,r~
~ c 2.. : (b - 2 )~· 2.~
[ Co\M'o i. V\ o...\-\"oV\
- o< C.e...r d.oc..5> V"I ot '"\ '· . 2 ~ o~ \?oolL-~
l.N\O.. +.\-.e..'("
d.} Twelve students enter a talent show. Awards are given for first place through
fifth place. In how many ways can the students finish first through fifth?
p ::.
\J. ~ ;:.
\2~ =- \'2 ·\\ · \O · q ·<g . f.~
11. 5' ( \'2. - 5 ) \_ 7- ~ ':f 1.
Multiple Events
Recall that combination is used to determine the number of possible
ways you can choose a specific amount from a number of objects-where
order does not matter.
Multiple events occur when you have two or more different

combinations that are linked together by the words, "either" and ''or".
Example 3: Find Combinations of Multiple Events

Parents have 10 books that they can read to their children this week. Five of the
books are nonfiction and 5 are fiction.
a.) If the order in which they read the books is not important, how many
different sets of 4 books can they choose?
- \0. C\. ~ · 1-. ~ '-

Co\. t..\· ~- 2.
:. 2 \0 se.+s
b.) In how many groups of 4 books are all the books either nonfiction or fiction?
\ ~.\- G'1~ + °Z"'d £~ .\.-
( -
-
2~
(2-\) \. \ ~ ~
21
If -:. 2- :. ____ - __
5\ S\ ..
(S-L\)~·L\\.- l\\
S-L\~
'-\\
~s
2
c \ . s( I.\
~ 2 .. s ~
;
\D
Pascal's Triangle
If you arrange the values of n Cr in a triangular pattern in which each row

corresponds to a value of n, you get a pattern called Pascal's Triangle.
n = 0 (0th row) oco 1
n = 1 (1st row) lCO 1c1 1 1

\I
n = 2 (2nd row) 2Co 2c1 2c2 1 2 1
\l\I
n = 3 (3rd row) 3CO 3C1 3c2 3C3 1 3 3 1
\l\1\1
n = 4 (4th row) 4CO 4c1 4c2 4C3 4C4 1 4 6 4 1
\1\1\l\I
n = 5 (5th row) sco sC1 sc2 5C3 5C4 sCs I 5 10 10 5 1
The first and last numbers in each row of Pascal's triangle are 1. Every other
nun1ber is the sum of the two closest numbers in the row just above it.
Example 4: Use Pascal's Triangle

\""09 1...wtlonol Ms. Nakamura has 7 favorite flavors at Yogurtland (Arctic Van illa,
Coffee, Double Cookies n' Cream, Dutch Chocolate, Irish Mint Creme, Matcha
Green Tea, and Vanilla Wafer Cookies n' Cream). She w ants you to buy her a cup
with only 3 flavors. Use Pascal's triangle to find the number of combinations of 3
flavors that you will buy for her. * Don't forget the toppings :P*
Cc~\?l.t..k- 9o-..~c.o..\'!:> \r~ °'"'j Lt.

-k '+ . \-\.-_ '('ow .
Mathematical Induction
Everybody – do the wave!
The Wave
● If done properly, everyone will eventually end
up joining in.
● Why is that?
● Someone (me!) started everyone off.
● Once the person before you did the wave, you did
the wave.
The principle of mathematical induction states
that if for some property P(n), we have that
P(0) is true and it keeps
If it starts... going...
and
For any natural number n, P(n) → P(n + 1)

...then it's
Then
always true
For any natural number n, P(n) is true.

Another Example of Induction
Human Dominoes
● Everyone (except that last guy) eventually fell
over.
● Why is that?
● Someone fell over.
● Once someone fell over, the next person fell over
as well.
Induction, Intuitively
● It's true for 0.
● Since it's true for 0, it's true for 1.
● …
Proof by Induction
● Suppose that you want to prove that some property
P(n) holds of all natural numbers. To do so:
● Prove that P(0) is true.
● This is called the basis or the base case.
● Prove that for any natural number n, if P(n) is true,
then P(n + 1) is true as well.
● This is called the inductive step.
● P(n) is called the inductive hypothesis.
● Conclude by induction that P(n) holds for all n.
Some Sums
0=0
0+1=1
0+1+2=3
0+1+2+3=6
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
1 + 2 + … + (n – 1) + n = n(n+1) / 2
n+1
Some Sums
0=0
0+1=1
0+1+2=3
0+1+2+3=6
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
Some Sums
0 = 0 = 0(0 + 1) / 2
0 + 1 = 1 = 1(1 + 1) / 2
0 + 1 + 2 = 3 = 2(2 + 1) / 2
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 = 3(3 + 1) / 2
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 = 4(4 + 1) / 2
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 = 5(5 + 1) / 2
Our First Proof By Induction
Theorem: The sum of the first n positive natural numbers is n(n + 1)/2.
Proof: By induction. Let P(n) be “the sum of the first n positive natural
numbers is n(n + 1) / 2.” We show that P(n) is true for all natural
numbers n.
For our base case, we need to show P(0) is true, meaning that the sum
of the first zero positive natural numbers is 0(0 + 1)/2. Since the sum of
theAlways
first zeromention
positive that
natural numbers is 0 = 0(0 + 1)/2, P(0) is true.
you're
Forplanning
the inductive step, assume
on doing that for some n, P(n) holds, so
the proof
1 + 2by+ … + n = n(n + 1) / 2. We need to show that P(n + 1) holds,
induction, just as you
meaning that the sum of the first n + 1 natural numbers is
(n +would by contradiction
1)(n + 2)/2. or of the first n + 1 positive natural
Consider the sum
numbers. contrapositive.
This is the sum of the first n positive natural numbers, plus
n + 1. By the inductive hypothesis, this is given by
Thus P(n + 1) holds when P(n) is true, so P(n) is true for all natural
numbers n. ■
numbers n.
the first zero positive natural numbers is 0 = 0(0 + 1)/2, P(0) is true.
For the inductive step, assume that for some n, P(n) holds, so
1 + 2 + … + n = n(n + 1) / 2. We need to show that P(n + 1) holds,
Explicitly
meaning that the state
sum of the first n +what property
1 natural numbers is
you're
(n + 1)(n + 2)/2. trying
Consider the sumto show
of the first for all
n + 1 positive natural
numbers. This is the sum of the first n positive natural numbers, plus
thehypothesis,
n + 1. By the inductive natural this numbers.
is given by
numbers n. ■
numbers n.
(n + 1)(n + 2)/2. Consider the sum of the first n + 1 positive natural
n + 1. By theState what
inductive you're this
hypothesis, trying to by
is given prove for P(0),
then go and prove it. You can use any
proof technique you'd like.
numbers n. ■
numbers n.
n + 1. By the In this step,
inductive we this
hypothesis, need to prove
is given by
“For any natural number n, P(n) → P(n + 1)”
To prove this, we choose an arbitrary n, then
Thus P(n + 1) holds whenassume P(n).
P(n) is true, so P(n) is true for all natural
numbers n. ■
numbers n.
State what P(n + 1) means, then

numbers n. ■ try to prove it.
numbers n.
n( n+1) n(n+1)+2(n+1) (n+1)(n+2)
1+...+n+n+1= +n+1= =
2 2 2
The inductive hypothesis is that P(n) is
Thus P(n + 1) holds when P(n) is true,
true. sowhy
It's P(n)we
is true
can for
use all
thenatural
result for n
numbers n. ■
to simplify this sum.
numbers n.
n( n+1) n(n+1)+2(n+1) (n+1)(n+2)
1+...+n+n+1= +n+1= =
2 2 2
numbers n. ■
Structuring a Proof by Induction
● State that you are attempting to prove something by induction.
● State what your choice of P(n) is.
● Prove the base case:
● State what P(0) is, then prove it.
● Prove the inductive step:
● State that you're assuming P(n) and what P(n) is.
● State what P(n + 1) is. (this is what you're trying to prove)
● Go prove P(n + 1)
● This is very rigorous, so as we gain more familiarity with
induction we will start being less formal in our proofs.
Notation: Summations
● Instead of writing 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, we write
∑i
i=0
Notation: Summations
● Instead of writing 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, we write
Sum from i = 0 to n
n
∑i of i
i=0
Summation Examples
5
∑ i=1+2+3+4+5=15
i=1
3
∑ i =1 +2 +3 =1+4+9=14
2 2 2 2
i=1
∑ (i −i)=(0 −0)+(1 −1)+(2 −2)=2

2 2 2 2
i=0
The Empty Sum
● A sum of no numbers is defined to be zero.
● Examples:
0 42 −1
∑ 2 =0i
∑ i =0 i
∑ i=0
i=1 i=137 i=0
n
n(n+1)
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ i=
i=1 2
Proof: By induction. Let P(n) be
n
n(n+1)
P(n) ≡ ∑ i=
i=1 2
For our base case, we need to show P(0) is true, meaning that
0
0(0+1)
∑ i= 2
i=1
This is trivial, since the empty sum is defined to be zero.
n
n(n+1)
∑ i= 2
i=1
We need to show that P(n + 1) holds, meaning that
n+1
(n+1)(n+2)
∑ i= 2
i=1
To see this, note that Pro tip – When proving
n+1 n
n(n+1) n(n+1)+2(n+1)
properties of (n+1)(n+2)
sums with
∑ i=∑ i+( n+1)= 2 +n+1= =
i=1 i=1 induction,2 it often helps 2to “peel
Thus P(n + 1) holds when P(n) is true, so P(n) off”
is truethe
for all
lastnatural
few numbers
terms. n. ■
n
n(n+1)
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ i=
i=1 2
n
n(n+1)
P(n) ≡ ∑ i=
i=1 2
0
0(0+1)
∑ i= 2
i=1
This is trivial, since the empty sum is defined to be zero.
n
n(n+1)
∑ i= 2
i=1
n+1
(n+1)(n+2)
∑ i= 2
i=1
To see this, note that
n+1 n
n(n+1) n(n+1)+2(n+1) (n+1)(n+2)
∑ i=∑ i+( n+1)= 2 +n+1= 2
=
2
i=1 i=1
Thus P(n + 1) holds when P(n) is true, so P(n) is true for all natural numbers n. ■
An Incorrect Proof
n 2
1 1
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ i= ( n+ )
i=1 2 2
n 2
1 1
Proof: Let P(n) be P(n) ≡ ∑ i= ( n+ )
i=1 2 2
Now, assume that for some n, P(n) holds, so
n 2
1 1
∑ 2 2)
i= ( n+
i=1
We want to show that P(n + 1) is true, which means that we want to show
n+1 2 2
∑ i= 12 ( n+1+ 12 ) = 12 (n+ 32 )
i=1
1 2 1 2
n+1 n 2 (n+ ) ( n+ ) +2( n+1)
1 1 2 2(n+1) 2
∑ ∑ i= i+n+1=
2
(n+
2
) +n+1=
2
+
2
=
2
i=1 i=1
2 1 2 9 3 2
n +n+ +2n+2 n +3n+ (n+ )
4 4 2
= = =
2 2 2
So P(n + 1) follows from P(n), completing the induction. ■

An Incorrect Proof
n 2
1 1
i=1 2 2
n 2
1 1
Proof: Let P(n) be P(n) ≡ ∑ i= ( n+ ) Where did we prove
i=1 2 2
n 2
the base case?
1 1
∑ 2 2)
i= ( n+
i=1
n+1 2 2
∑ i= 12 ( n+1+ 12 ) = 12 (n+ 32 )
i=1
1 2 1 2
n+1 n 2 (n+ ) ( n+ ) +2( n+1)
1 1 2 2(n+1) 2
∑ ∑ i= i+n+1=
2
(n+
2
) +n+1=
2
+
2
=
2
i=1 i=1
2 1 2 9 3 2
n +n+ +2n+2 n +3n+ (n+ )
4 4 2
= = =
2 2 2

An Incorrect Proof
n 2
1 1
i=1 2 2
n 2
1 1
Proof: Let P(n) be P(n) ≡ ∑ i= ( n+ ) . Where did we prove
i=1 2 2
n 2
the base case?
1 1
∑ 2 2)
i= ( n+
i=1
n+1 2 2
∑ i= 12 ( n+1+ 12 ) = 12 (n+ 32 )
i=1
1 2 1 2
n+1 n 2 (n+ ) ( n+ ) +2( n+1)
1 1 2 2(n+1) 2
∑ ∑ i= i+n+1=
2
(n+
2
) +n+1=
2
+
2
=
2
i=1 i=1
2 1 2 9
n +n+ +2n+2 n +3n+ 2
4 4 (n+3/ 2)
= = =
2 2 2

When proving P(n) is true for all n by induction,
make sure to show the base case!
Otherwise, your entire argument is invalid!

Stopping the Juggernaut
“Once he gets
a momentum,
nothing can stop
him”
- X Men 3
P(n) → P(n + 1)
is not enough!
Sums of Powers of Two
20 = 1 = 1
20 + 2 1 = 1 + 2 = 3
2 0 + 2 1 + 22 = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7
20 + 21 + 22 + 23 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15
20 = 1 = 1 = 2 1 – 1
20 + 2 1 = 1 + 2 = 3 = 22 – 1
2 0 + 2 1 + 22 = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7 = 2 3 – 1
20 + 21 + 22 + 23 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15 = 24 – 1
20 = 1 = 1 = 2 1 – 1
20 + 2 1 = 1 + 2 = 3 = 22 – 1
2 0 + 2 1 + 22 = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7 = 2 3 – 1
20 + 21 + 22 + 23 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15 = 24 – 1
n
∑ 2 =2 i n+1
−1
i=0
n
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ 2i =2n+1−1

i=0
n
P(n) ≡ ∑ 2i =2n+1−1
i=0
0
∑ 2i =21−1
i=0
Since 20 = 1 = 21 – 1, this is true.
n
∑ 2 =2i n+1
−1
i=0
n+1
∑ 2i =2n+2−1
i=0
n+1 n
∑ 2i =∑ 2i+2 n+1=2 n+1−1+2Seem

n+1 n+1
=2(2familiar?
n+2
)−1=2 −1
i=0 i=0
n
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ 2i =2n+1−1

i=0
n
P(n) ≡ ∑ 2i =2n+1−1
i=0
0
∑ 2i =21−1
i=0
Since 20 = 1 = 21 – 1, this is true.
n
∑ 2 =2i n+1
−1
i=0
n+1
∑ 2i =2n+2−1
i=0
n+1 n
∑ 2i =∑ 2i+2 n+1=2 n+1−1+2 n+1=2(2 n+1)−1=2n+2−1

i=0 i=0
The Counterfeit Coin Problem
Problem Statement
● You are given a set of three seemingly identical
coins, two of which are real and one of which is
counterfeit.
● The counterfeit coin weighs more than the rest
of the coins.
● You are given a balance. Using only one
weighing on the balance, find the counterfeit
coin.
Finding the Counterfeit Coin
3
1 2
3
3
3
3
3
1 2
3
1 2
3
A Harder Problem
● You are given a set of nine seemingly identical
coins, eight of which are real and one of which
is counterfeit.
● The counterfeit coin weighs more than the rest
of the coins.
● You are given a balance. Using only two
weighings on the balance, find the counterfeit
coin.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 8 9
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 8 9
6
5
4
3
2
1
7 8 9
Now we have one weighing to find

the counterfeit out of these three
1
2
3
4
5
7 8 9 6
1
2
3
4
5
7 8 9 6
1
2
3
4
5
7 8 9 6

1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9

If we have n weighings on the scale, how many
coins can we have while still being able to find the
duplicate?
A Pattern
● If we have no weighings, how many coins can
we have while still being able to find the
counterfeit?
● One coin, since that coin has to be the counterfeit!
● If we have one weighing, we can find the
counterfeit out of three coins.
● If we have two weighings, we can find the
counterfeit out of nine coins.
So far, we have
1, 3, 9 = 30, 31, 32
Does this pattern continue?

Theorem: Given n weighings, we can detect which of the 3n coins is counterfeit.
Proof: By induction. Let P(n) be “Given n weighings, we can detect which of the 3 n
coins is counterfeit.” We prove that P(n) is true for all natural numbers n by
induction.
For the base case, we want to show that P(0) holds, which means that we need to
be able to detect which of the 30 = 1 coins is counterfeit in no weighings. But this
is trivial – if there is only one coin, it must be the counterfeit.
For the inductive step, suppose that for some n, P(n) holds, so we can detect
which of 3n coins is counterfeit using n weighings. We want to prove that P(n + 1)
holds, which is true if we can detect which of 3n+1 coins is counterfeit using n + 1
weighings. To do this, split the coins into three equal groups of size 3 n; call the
groups A, B, and C. Now, put the coins in set A on one side of the scale and the
coins in set B on the other side. There are three cases to consider:
Case 1: If side A is heavier, then the counterfeit coin must be in group A.
Case 2: If side B is heaver, then the counterfeit coin must be in group B.
Case 3: If the scale is balanced, then the counterfeit coin must be in group C,
since it isn't in groups A or B.
In any case, we can use one weighing to find which group of 3 n coins the
counterfeit coin is contained in. By the inductive hypothesis, we can use n more
weighings to find which of these 3n coins is counterfeit. Combined with our original
weighing, this means that we can find the counterfeit of 3n + 1 coins in n + 1
weighings, so P(n + 1) holds. ■
The MU Puzzle
Gödel, Escher Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid
● Pulitzer-Prize winning
book exploring
recursion, computability,
and consciousness.
● Written by Douglas
Hofstadter, computer
scientist at Indiana
University.
● A great (but dense!)
read.
The MU Puzzle
● Begin with the string MI.
● Repeatedly apply one of the following operations:
● Double the contents of the string after the M: for example,
MIIU becomes MIIUIIU or MI becomes MII.
● Replace III with U: MIIII becomes MUI or MIU
● Append U to the string if it ends in I: MI becomes MIU
● Remove any UU: MUUU becomes MU
● Question: How do you transform MI to MU?
A) Double the contents
of the string after M.
B) Replace III with U.
C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
MI

C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
MI
A
MII

C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
MI
A
MII
A
A) Double the contents MIIII
C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
MI
A
MII
A
D
MIIIIU
C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
MI
A
MII
A
D
MIIIIU
C) Remove UU
B
D) Append U if the MUIU
string ends in I.
MI
A
MII
A
D
MIIIIU
C) Remove UU
B
string ends in I.
A
MUIUUIU
MI
A
MII
A
D
MIIIIU
C) Remove UU
B
string ends in I.
A
MUIUUIU
C
MUIIU
Try It!
Starting with MI, apply these operations to make MU:

C) Remove UU
D) Append U if the
string ends in I.
Not a single person in this room
was able to solve this puzzle.
Are we even sure that there is a solution?

Counting I's
Counting I's
MI
MII
MIIII
MIIIIU
MIIIIUIIIIU
MIIIIUUIU
MIIIIUUIUIIIIUUIU
MUIUUIUIIIIUUIU
Counting I's
MI 1
MII 2
MIIII 4
MIIIIU 4
MIIIIUIIIIU 8
MIIIIUUIU 5
MIIIIUUIUIIIIUUIU 10
MUIUUIUIIIIUUIU 7
Counting I's
MI 1
MII 2
MIIII 4
None of
these are
MIIIIU 4 multiples of
three...
MIIIIUIIIIU 8
MIIIIUUIU 5
MIIIIUUIUIIIIUUIU 10
MUIUUIUIIIIUUIU 7
The Key Insight
● Initially, the number of I's is not a multiple of
three.
● To make MU, the number of I's must end up as
a multiple of three.
● Can we ever make the number of I's a multiple
of three?
Lemma: After beginning with MI and applying any legal sequence of the specified
rules, the number of I's never becomes a multiple of three.
Proof: By induction. Let P(n) be “After making n legal moves after starting with MI,
the number of I's is not a multiple of 3.” We prove that P(n) holds for all natural
numbers n.
As a base case, to prove that P(0) is true, we need to show that after making no
moves the number of I's is not a multiple of 3. MI has one I in it, which is not a
multiple of 3.
For the inductive step, assume that P(n) holds and that after any sequence of n
operations, the number of I's is not a multiple of 3. To prove that P(n + 1) holds (that
after n + 1 operations the number of I's is not a multiple of 3), we note by the
inductive hypothesis that after the first n operations, the number of I's is not a
multiple of 3. Since it is not a multiple of 3, it must either have the form 3k + 1 or
3k + 2 for some k. Consider the (n + 1)st operation:
- If it's “double the string after the M,” then we either end up with 2(3k + 1) = 6k + 2 =
3(2k) + 2 or 2(3k + 2) = 6k + 4 = 3(2k + 1) + 1 I's, neither of which is a multiple of 3.
- If it's “delete UU” or “append U,” the number of I's is unchanged.
- If it's “delete III,” then we either go from 3k + 1 to 3k + 1 – 3 = 3(k – 1) + 1 or from
3k + 2 to 3k + 2 – 3 = 3(k – 1) + 2 I's, neither of which is a multiple of 3.
Thus any sequence of n + 1 legal operations starting with MI ends with the number
of I's not a multiple of three, so P(n + 1) holds. ■
Theorem: The MU puzzle has no solution.
Proof: By contradiction; assume it has a solution.

By our lemma, the number of I's in the final string
must not be a multiple of 3. However, for the
solution to be valid, the number of I's must be 0,
which is a multiple of 3. We have reached a
contradiction, so our assumption was wrong and
the MU puzzle has no solution. ■
Algorithms and Loop Invariants
● The proof we just made had the form
● “If P is true before we perform an action, it is true after we
perform an action.”
● We could therefore conclude that after any series of
actions of any length, if P was true beforehand, it is true
now.
● In algorithms and program analysis, this is sometimes
called a loop invariant.
● Formal proofs of algorithms often use loop invariants to
establish correctness.
Slimming Down Induction Proofs
Induction in Practice
● Typically, a proof by induction will not explicitly state
P(n).
● Rather, the proof will describe P(n) implicitly and
leave it to the reader to fill in the details.
● Provided that there is sufficient detail to determine
● what P(n) is,
● that P(0) is true, and that
● whenever P(n) is true, P(n + 1) is true,
the proof is usually valid.
n
n(n+1)
Theorem: For any natural number n, ∑ i= 2
i=1
Proof: By induction on n. For our base case, if n = 0, note that
0
0(0+1)
∑ i= 2 =0
i=1
and the theorem is true for 0.
For the inductive step, assume that for some n the theorem is true. Then we
have that
n+1 n
n(n+1) n(n+1)+2(n+1) (n+1)(n+2)
∑ i=∑ i+( n+1)= 2 +n+1= 2
=
2
i=1 i=1
so the theorem is true for n + 1, completing the induction. ■
A Variant of Induction
n versus 2
2 n
● 02 = 0 ● 20 = 1
● 12 = 1 ● 21 = 2
● 22 = 4 ● 22 = 4
● 32 = 9 ● 23 = 8
● 42 = 16 ● 24 = 16
● 52 = 25 ● 25 = 32
● 62 = 36 ● 26 = 64
● 72 = 49 ● 27 = 128
● 82 = 64 ● 28 = 256
● 92 = 81 ● 29 = 512
● 102 = 100 ● 210 = 1024
n versus 2
2 n
● 02 = 0 < ● 20 = 1
● 12 = 1 < ● 21 = 2
● 22 = 4 = ● 22 = 4
● 32 = 9 > ● 23 = 8
● 42 = 16 = ● 24 = 16
● 52 = 25 < ● 25 = 32
● 62 = 36 < ● 26 = 64
● 72 = 49 < ● 27 = 128
● 82 = 64 < ● 28 = 256
● 92 = 81 < ● 29 = 512
● 102 = 100 < ● 210 = 1024
n versus 2
2 n
2n is much
02 = 0 < 20 = 1
bigger here.
● ●
● 12 = 1 < ● 21 = 2
Does the trend
● 22 = 4 = ● 22 = 4
continue?
● 3 =9
2
> ● 2 =8
3
● 42 = 16 = ● 24 = 16
● 52 = 25 < ● 25 = 32
● 62 = 36 < ● 26 = 64
● 72 = 49 < ● 27 = 128
● 82 = 64 < ● 28 = 256
● 92 = 81 < ● 29 = 512
● 102 = 100 < ● 210 = 1024
Theorem: For any natural number n ≥ 5, n2 < 2n.
Proof: By induction on n. As a base case, if n = 5, 52 = 25 < 32 = 25, so

the claim holds. For the inductive step, assume that for some n ≥ 5,
n2 < 2n. Then we have that
(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1
Since n ≥ 5,
(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1
< n2 + 2n + n (since 1 < 5 ≤ n)
= n2 + 3n
< n2 + n 2 (since 3n < 5n ≤ n2)
= 2n2.
By the inductive hypothesis, n2 < 2n, so
(n + 1)2 < 2n2

< 2(2n)
= 2n + 1
Completing the proof by induction. ■


(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1
Since n ≥ 5,
(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1
< n2 + 2n + n (since 1 < 5 ≤ n)
= n2 + 3n
< n2 + n 2 (since 3n < 5n ≤ n2)
= 2n2.
(n + 1)2 < 2n2

< 2(2n)
= 2n + 1


(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1
Since n ≥ 5,
(n + 1)2 = n2 + 2n + 1 Why
Why isis this
this
< n2 + 2n + n allowed?
(since 1 < 5 ≤ n)
allowed?
= n2 + 3n
< n2 + n 2 (since 3n < 5n ≤ n2)
= 2n2.
(n + 1)2 < 2n2

< 2(2n)
= 2n + 1

Why is this Legal?
● Let P(n) be “Either n < 5 or n2 < 2n.”
● P(0) is trivially true.
● P(1) is trivially true, so P(0) → P(1)
Remember: A → B means
“whenever A is true, B is true.”
● We explicitly proved P(5), so P(4) → P(5)
● For any n ≥ If5, Bweisexplicitly
alwaysproved
true,that
A P(n)
→ B→isP(n + 1).
● Thus P(0) and for any true for →
n, P(n) any
P(nA.+ 1), so by induction
P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
Why is this Legal?
● For any n ≥ 5, we explicitly proved that P(n) → P(n + 1).
● Thus P(0)
Again, A and
→ B for is
anyautomatically
n, P(n) → P(n +true
1), so by induction
if B is always true.
Why is this Legal?
● For any n ≥ 5, we explicitly proved that P(n) → P(n + 1).
● Thus P(0) and for any n, P(n) → P(n + 1), so by induction
Induction Starting at k
● To prove that P(n) is true for all natural numbers
greater than or equal to k:
● Show that P(k) is true.
● Show that for any n ≥ k, that P(n) → P(n + 1).
● Conclude P(k) holds for all natural numbers greater
than or equal to k.
One More Induction...
Rube Goldberg Machines
● Every device eventually trigges.
● Why?
● The first device is triggered manually.
● Every device then triggers the next device.
● (This machine was built by Purdue university
and unveiled one weekend at the 2012 Rube
Goldberg Machine Contest. It won second
place.)
Next Time
● Strong Induction
● Stronger than normal induction!
● … or is it?
SMA1108--Algbra
L8: Comlex numbes &

polar coordinates
© Ogutu Keroboto
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Girolamo Cardano:
1501-1576
A colourful life!
ax  bx  cx  d
3 2
x  px  q  0
3
The “depressed cubic”;

other cubics can be expressed
in this form.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Cardano “stole” the method from

Tartaglia. Finding x you must
write:
2 3
q q p p a
u 3  2  , x u 
2 4 27 3u 3
but the solution
can be less than zero is a real number!
Square roots of negative numbers can be useful,

just as negative numbers themselves.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
By introducing one number i  2 1

we can solve lots of new problems, and make
other problems easier.
It can be multiplied, divided, added etc. just as any

other number; but the equation above is the only
extra rule that allows you to convert between i and
real numbers.
Start by noticing that
So the square root of
any negative number
4  4  1  2i can be expressed in terms
of i.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Therefore we can solve equations like:
x  8
2
The answer is x  2 2i
But what is 1  3i  1  3i
The two types of number cannot be “mixed”.
Numbers of the form k i , k 
are called imaginary numbers (or “pure imaginary”)
Numbers like 1, 2, -3.8 that we used before are called
real numbers.
When we combine them together in a sum we have
complex numbers.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
COMPLEX NUMBERS
To summarize,
z  a  bi
•a and b are real numbers
•a is the “real part” of z; Re(z)
•b is the “imaginary part” of z; Im(z)
•The sum of the two parts is called a
“complex number”
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Adding and subtracting complex numbers:
z1  (2  3i)
z1  z2  6  6i
z2  (4  9i )
(a  bi)  (c  di)  (a  c)  (b  d )i
For addition and subtraction the real and imaginary

parts are kept separate.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Multiplying and dividing complex numbers:
z1  (2  3i)
z1 z2  (2  3i)  (4  9i)
z2  (4  9i )
 2  4  (2  9i)  (3i  4)  (3i  9i)
 8  18i  12i  (27  i 2 )
 35  6i
(a  bi)  (c  di)  (ac  bd )  (bc  ad )i

Notice how, for multiplication, the real and imaginary
parts “mix” through the formula i2 = -1.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Multiplying and dividing complex numbers:
z1  (2  3i) z1 (2  3i ) Remember

z2  (4  9i ) z2 (4  9i ) this trick!!
(2  3i) (4  9i)
 
(4  9i) (4  9i)
8  18i  12i  (27  i 2 )

4  4  36i  36i  (9  9  i 2 )
19  30i 19 30
Read through    i
Appendix H of 97 97 97
James Stewart (2016)
to make sure you understand the basics.
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
Now that we have introduced complex numbers, we can

view the quadratic solution differently.
b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
Now there are always two solutions, albeit they can be
repeated real solutions.
If the equation has no real roots, it must have two

complex roots.
If one complex root is 1  8i what is the other?
1  8i These two numbers are called

“complex conjugates”.
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
What are the solutions to x2  6 x  21  0 ?
3  2 3i
* means conjugate
If we write z  3  2 3i
Then the complex conjugate is written as z*  3  2 3i
Calculate the following:
z  z*  6  2 Re( z )
This will be discussed
z  z*  4 3i  2 Im( z ) later.
 
2
 z
* 2
zz 3  2 3
2
 21
COMPLEX POWERS
What happens if we And then square

square a complex number z? its conjugate, z*:
z  x  iy
z *  x  iy
z 2  ( x  iy )( x  iy )
 x 2  xiy  xiy  y 2 z 
* 2
 ( x  iy )( x  iy )
 ( x  y )  i (2 xy )
2 2
 x 2  y 2  i (2 xy )
Compare the two results;

they are complex conjugates!
z   z 
2 * * 2 Later we will understand
this result geometrically
COMPLEX POWERS
Continuing these investigations further (you may study

in your own time if you wish):
z    This will be easy to justify

n
n *
 z *
later.
 1 2 1 2
*
z  z  z *
 z *
Examine the argument in

Appendix H of James Stewart (2016).
This is a key idea, although you don’t
have to understand the proof.
Non-real roots of polynomials
with real coefficients
always occur in conjugate pairs.
COMPLEX POWERS
Tasks
Find all the roots of the following two polynomials:
a) z 3  z 2  7 z  65
b) z  z  1
4 2
The first example can be attacked using the factor

theorem.
Examining +/-1,+/-5,+/-13 gives one root as -5.
Equating coefficients therefore gives:
z 3  z 2  7 z  65  ( z  5)( z 2  4 z  13)
COMPLEX POWERS
 z 3  z 2  7 z  65  ( z  5)( z  2  3i)( z  2  3i)

The roots are therefore -5, 2-3i, 2+3i.
b) z 4  z 2  1
The second example looks simpler but is, in a way,
more difficult.
First set w = z2. w2  w  1  0
1  3
It seems we have w
to find the square 2
root of a complex 1 3i 1 3i
number! z  
2
or z   
2
2 2 2 2
COMPLEX POWERS
Algebra is not the best way to do it, but let’s try anyway.
The next step is important to
z  a  ib understand. It is called
 (a  ib)(a  ib)  z “equating real and imaginary
parts”.
Re :
y
a b  x
2 2
a
2b Simultaneous
Im : equations.
y Let’s apply it
2ab  y b  x
2
to our problem.
2
4b
COMPLEX POWERS
1 3i
z  
2
2 2
1 3i
( x  iy )( x  iy )   
2 2
1 3
x  y   , 2 xy 
2 2
2 2
9 1
x 
2
2

16 x 2
16 x 4  8 x 2  9  0
8  24 1 3 1
x 
2
    1 or
32 4 4 2
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
Special properties of complex conjugates:

Im( z )
z  z*  2 Re( z ) z
z  z  2 Im( z )
*
 Re( z )

How do we know
z* it must be a real
number?
What is zz * ?
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
z  r (cos   i sin  )
z*  r (cos   i sin   ) arg( z1 z2 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )
 arg( zz * )      0
zz *  z z*  z
2
or r 2
zz*  z
2
This is a very important result.
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
How many complex roots do the following polynomials

have?
A z10  3  4 z 10
B 65  63 z  z 2  z 3 3
C 3z 2  4 z 5  18 z 4  13 5
See Appendix H of James Stewart (2016). We

always have n roots for a polynomial of degree n.
If the coefficients are real numbers, then we
also know that any non-real roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs.
If 1-8i is a root of polynomial B, what are the other roots?
POLAR COORDINATE FORM
Im( z )
z
r
r sin 
 Re( z )
r cos 
The modulus is the length of the line

from 0+0i to the number z, i.e. r.
The argument is the angle between the
positive real axis and that line, by
convention we use     
Find, to 3 s.f. the modulus and argument of the following

complex numbers:
4i
7  6i
arg( z )   r  42  12  17 modulus
z  r (cos  i sin  )
To find θ we have two equations:
4 1
cos   , sin     0.245
17 17
4i
7  6i
z  r  62  72  17 5  9.22 (3 s.f.)
7 6
cos   , sin   arg( z)    2.43 (3 s.f.)
17 5 17 5
 z  7  6i  9.22(cos(2.43)  i sin(2.43))
EXPONENTIAL FORM
y( x)  cos( x)  i sin( x)
or
z( )  cos( )  i sin( )
dy
  sin x  i cos x  i (i sin x  cos x)
dx  iy
dy
Which function does this?  ky
dx
EXPONENTIAL FORM
y  Ae kx
So (not proof but good enough!)
z  r (cos   i sin  )  re
i
If you find this incredible or bizarre, it means you

are paying attention.
Substituting   gives “Euler’s jewel”:
i which connects, simply, the 5 most

e 1  0 important numbers in mathematics.
EXPONENTIAL FORM
We can write any complex number in this form rei

As before, r is the modulus and θ is the argument.
Examples:
i 2
i e Do you see how easy it
 i 2
is to calculate powers?
2i  2e
 
10
6 6e i 0 Find 1  3i
 i 3
1  3i  2e
1 i 23
e
1024

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UNIVERSITY ALGEBRA MANUAL

OGUTU KEROBOTO B. ZA’NGOTI

Department of Mathematics and Physical Sciences,

Determination of linear laws from experimental data.

Quadratic functions, equations and inequalities.

Permutations and combinations.

Course Text Books

Reference Text books

Graphing a Quadratic Fu nction

• Quadratic Function: a function that can be written in standard form

• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.

'\/61.A COd\ se,Q... 0../(1S ot .o,,'/""'~+r1

-1. -1..(-2) 2 +2 (-2) +L\ :0 - <6 - L-\ + L-\ :;. - '3 - CO

-\ - 2. ( - \) '- -1- 2 (- \) -t l\ .,_ - 2 - t t 1.-1 : . 0 0

Step 2: Find the vertex by substituting the axis of symmetry (x)

Example 2: Vertex and Axis of Symmetry

CD Ay.·,5 o+ ~y ""e.+,y {?( :. -2

(i) Ve.,r ~e,x {( - 2 , (o) \

't :: ; ~ '1 - G:,?\ t- "'\

(D A)'.\~ o.f Sy IM~+.ry f

G) \ CL\c~ "~ v ~lUV!:> l

'( Axis of Symmetry: ~ =- - \

Solve a Qu adratic Equation by Graphing

• Roots: the solutions of a quadratic equation, ax 2 +bx+ c = 0,

* solutions =roots =zeros =x-intercepts·

Three Types of Solutions:

Two Solutions One Solution No Solution

~=-\o ... -(\.\) .... -~.,..-2...

@1 o-\.J\t_ o-f \lo.\~

6) Axes e.~ ~'f- ww"··~.. -h )L.

Cb A-ic \":, .. ~ s'f ""'~ s

z 1 t2)'- ~ci).1.C\.,, ·1-1'21A:::: Axis of Symmetry: ?( ::. ~

L.( (-\)t-2(-1)+\ ~ \"'2-+\-:o '-\ Axis of Symmetry: 7' :. l

3> (\ ) l. -l\ll)-+- fo =- 1-L\ -1- '0"' ~

10. 3: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

Find the Square Root

Steps for Solving by Finding the Square Root.

Step 1: Factor the perfect square trinomial.

Example 1: Irrational Roots.

a.) x 2 - 10x + 25 = 7 b.) x 2 - 4x +4 =5

?\ ~ s -R ?\=S-;-J1 r?\ 9G -0. 2 - <7\ !/(_,

Completing the Square is a method used to make a perfect square

Caution: this method should only be used on trinomials in the form

Steps for Completing the Square

Step 1: Make sure x 2 + bx is on one side of the equation.

Step 3: Add the value for c to both sides of the equation.

Example 3: Solve an Equation by Completing the Square

<J L +-l(o~ -IL\ =- (:1 + CZS) ?-- ~So

'~ ~ - \So l- J -o. C\j

10.4: Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula

Solve Quadratic Equations

The Quadratic Formula

The Quadratic Formula is a method used to solve for x in a quadratic

Step 1: Make sure the quadratic equation is set equal to zero.

Step 4: Evaluate the solutions by using the order of operations

Example 1: Use the Quadratic Formula

© &u..o..~·~~"' Fo'(V"\.V.\O.. '2.

/( '.: - \o -~ ~ \'.)'2.- 1-\ (>..('..... = -2~~

D is positive Two solutions Two points

Dis zero One solution One point

-4, , , 5

1, , , , 4

-2, , , 54

-3, , ,