Module 2

Theories of Child
and Adolescent
Development
“Children are great imitators. So, give them something great to imitate.”
– Anonymous

In this Module:
1. Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Behavioral Theories
a. Thorndike: Law of Effect
b. Watson: Stimulus-Response
c. Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
d. Skinner: Operant Conditioning
e. Tolman: Latent Learning
f. Gagné: Nine Levels
g. Engelmann: Direct Instruction
3. Cognitive Theories
4. Other Related Theories: Vygotsky & Bronfenbrenner

1
Introduction
This module presents brief overview of the different theories of child and
adolescent development. Starting with Freud’s psychoanalytic theory in which he
described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he
then labeled as Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
On lesson 2, the different behavioral theories will be discussed and what
are their contributions in terms of the learning process of the child as he/she develops.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Discuss the different theories of Child and Adolescent
 Compare and contrast the different theories using matrix
 List down the strengths and weaknesses of each development theories
 Critique school vision, mission and goals vis-à-vis child and adolescent

Are you ready? Then start the lessons now!

Lesson Psychoanalytic Theory

1 -Jilliene Samantha C. Napil, LPT

Objectives:
 Identify and familiarize the theories that falls within the
psychoanalytic perspective; and
 Determine how Freud’s theory differs from Erikson.

Introduction
A few theories fall within the psychoanalytic perspective. Each owes its origin
to Sigmund Freud and views children and adults as caught in conflict. The expression
of basic drives, such as sex and aggression, conflict with parental expectations, social
rules, moral codes, even laws. However, the outer limits of parental demands and
social standards are brought inside. That is, they are internalized. Once this
internalization happens, the conflict takes place between opposing inner forces.

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 ________________________________________________
Activity ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Recall a recent ________________________________________________

incident in your life ________________________________________________
when you had to
________________________________________________
decide. Narrate the
situation below. ________________________________________________
Indicate what the ________________________________________________
decision was about,
________________________________________________
the factors that were
involved and how ________________________________________________
you arrived at your ________________________________________________
decision.
__________________________________

Activity lifted from: Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2010) Child and Adolescent Development:
Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Module 5; Activity p.53.

3
 Analysis
What factors influenced you in making your decision?
Which of the following did you consider most in making your decision: what
will make you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical, or what you
believed was the most moral thing to do? Elaborate your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Abstraction

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a

mass of contradictions. He has been praised as
the greatest thinker of the 20th century. He
focused more on the learners' emotional and
social development and the origins of
psychological traits such as dependence,
obsessive neatness, and vanity.
Let us dive into the Freud's theory, and
I guess using the word 'diving' as a metaphor
would be a good thing because Freud believed
that most of the human mind lies beneath the
consciousness like an iceberg. The children
you observe do and say many things: cry,
crawl, run, talk, build, play, but all that is the

4
tip of the iceberg. He (Freud) theorized that people, because of their childhood
experiences, are only vaguely aware of the ideas and impulses that occupy the greater
depths of their minds.
He introduced the three parts of personality: the id, ego and superego.
This is present at birth while unconscious. It represents biological
Id drives and demands instant gratification, as suggested by the way
baby cries.
This is the conscious sense of self, begins to develop when
children learn to obtain gratification for themselves, without
Ego screaming or crying. The ego curbs the appetites of the id and
makes plans that are in keeping with social conventions so that a
person can find gratification yet avoid the disapproval of others.
Develops throughout infancy and early childhood. It brings inward
the wishes and morals of the child’s caregivers and the members of
the community. Throughout the remainder of the child’s life, the
Superego superego will monitor the intentions and behavior of the ego and
hand down judgements of right and wrong. If the child
misbehaves, the superego will flood him or her with guilt and
shame.

According to Sigmund Freud, childhood has five stages of psychosexual

development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. If a child receives too little or
too much gratification during a phase, the child can become fixated. 

During the first year of life, which Freud termed as the oral stage, “oral”
activities such as sucking, and biting bring pleasure and gratification. If the child is
weaned early or breast-fed too long, the child may become fixated on oral activities
such as nail-biting or smoking or even show a “biting wit.”
1st Stage Age Erogenous Zones
Mouth/Sucking, biting,
Oral 0-18 months
chewing

In the second stage, which he termed as the anal stage, gratification is

obtained through control and elimination of waste products. Excessively strict or
permissive toilet training can lead to the development of anal-retentive traits, such as
perfectionism and neatness or anal-expulsive traits, such as sloppiness and
carelessness.

2nd Stage Age Erogenous Zones

Anus/bowel and bladder
Anal 18-36 months
control

Freud termed the third stage as phallic stage. According to Rathus (2008), this
is where common parent-child conflict may develop over masturbation, which many
of them are treated with punishments and threats. It is when children can develop

5
strong sexual attachment to their parent of the other sex and begins to view their
parent of the same sex as their own rival.
Oedipus Complex develops when the son views his father as his competitor of
his mother’s attention; while Electra Complex develops when the daughter sees her
mother as a rival to her father’s affection.

3rd Stage Age Erogenous Zones

Phallic 3 to 6 years Genitals/Masturbation

From 6 years until puberty, Freud believed children are already under the
latency stage where sexual feelings become unconscious, children turn to schoolwork,
and they typically prefer playmates of their own sex.

4th Stage Age Erogenous Zones

Latency 6 years to puberty Repression of sexual feelings

The final stage of this theory was termed as the genital stage where biological
changes starts to manifest in adolescence. They generally desire sexual gratification
through intercourse with a member of the other sex. Freud believed that oral or anal
stimulation, masturbation, and male-male or female-female sexual activity are
immature forms of sexual conducts that reflect fixations at early stages of
development.

5th Stage Age Erogenous Zones

Maturation of sexual
Genital Puberty
orientation

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) modified and expanded Freud’s, like Freud’s

theory, it focuses on the development of emotional life and psychological traits. But
Erikson also focuses on the development of self-identity. Out of the chaos of his
identity problems, Erikson forged a personally meaningful life patter, and Erickson’s
social relationship had been more important than sexual or aggressive instincts in hi
development. Therefore, Erikson speaks of Psychosocial development rather than of
psychosexual development. Furthermore, it seemed to Erikson that he had developed
his personality through a series of conscious and purposeful acts. Consequently, the
place greater emphasis on the ego or the sense of self.
Erikson (1963) extends Freud’s five developmental stages to eight to include
the changing concerns throughout adulthood. Rather than labeling his steps after parts
to the body, Erikson labeled stages after the life crises that the child (and then the
adult) might encounter. Erikson proposed that our social relationship and physical
maturation give each phase its character. For example, the parent-child relationship
and the infant’s utter dependence and helplessness are responsible for the nature of
the earliest stages of development. The 6-year old’s capacity to profit from the school

6
setting reflects the cognitive functions to learn to read and to understand the basics of
math and even the ability to sit still long enough to focus on schoolwork.
According to Erikson, early experiences affect future developments. With
proper parental support early on, most children resolve early life crises productively.
Successful resolution of each bolsters their sense of identity – of who they are wand
what they stand for – and their expectation of futures success.
Stages of Psychological Development
Each stage in Erikson's theory carries a specific developmental task.
Successful of this task depends heavily on the nature of the child's social relationships
at each stage. Please refer to the table below to further understand the concept.
Like Freud's, Erikson's views have influenced child-rearing, early childhood
education, and child therapy. For example, Erikson's opinions about an adolescent's
identity crisis have entered the popular culture. They have affected how parents and
teachers deal with teenagers. Some schools help students master the crisis employing
life-adjustment courses and study units n self-understanding in social studies and
literature classes.

Comparison of Freud’s and Erikson’s Stages of

Development
Freud’s Stages of Erikson’s Stages of
Age Psychosexual Psychosocial
Development Development
TRUST VERSUS
MISTRUST
ORAL STAGE
The developmental task is
Gratification derives from
to come to trust the key
oral activities, such as
caregivers, primarily the
sucking. Fixation leads to
Birth to 1 year mother, and the
development of oral
environment. It is desirable
traits, such as
for the infant to connect its
dependence, depression,
environment which inner
and gullibility.
feelings of satisfaction and
contentment.
ANAL STAGE
AUTONOMY VERSUS
Gratification derives from
SHAME AND DOUBT
anal activities involving
The developmental task it
elimination. Fixation
to develop the desire to
About 1 to 3 years leads to developmental of
makes choices and the self-
anal- retentive traits (e.g.,
control to regulate one’s
excessive neatness) or
behavior so that choices
anal- expulsive traits
can be actualized.
(e.g., sloppiness).
About 3 to 6 year PHALLIC STAGE INITIATIVE VERSUS
Gratification derives from GUILT
stimulation of the genital The developmental task is
region. Oedipal and to add initiative, planning

7
 Electra complexes
and attacking to choose.
emerge and are resolved.
The preschooler is on the
Fixation leads to
move and becomes
development of phallic
proactive.
traits, such as vanity.
INDUSTRY VERUSU
INFERIORITY
LATENCY STAGE
The developmental task is
Sexual impulses are
to become absorbed in the
suppressed, allowing he
About 6 to 12 years development and
child to focus on
implementation of skills, to
developmental of social
master the basics of
and technological skills.
technology, and to become
productive.
IDENTITY VERSUE
ROLE DIFFUSION
GENITAL STAGE The developmental task is
Reappearance of sexual to associate one’s skills
impulses, with and social roles with the
Adolescence gratification sought developmental of career
through sexual relations goals. More broadly, the
with an adult of the other developmental if identity
sex. refers to a sense of who
one is and what one
believes in.
INTINACY VERSUS
ISOLATION
The developmental task is
Young Adulthood
to commit oneself to
another person and engage
in a mature sexual love.
GENERATIVITY
VERSUS STAGNATION
The developmental task is
to appreciate the
opportunity to “give back”.
Not only are generative
Middle adulthood
people creative, but they
also give encouragement
and guidance to the
younger generation, which
may include their own
children.
Late Adulthood EGO INTEGRITY
VERSUS DESPAIR
The developmental task is
to achieve wisdom and
dignity in the face of
declining physical abilities.
Ego integrity also means

8
 accepting the time and
place of one’s own life
cycle.

Application

How does Freud’s psychoanalytic theory differ from Erikson’s?

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

9
Closure

Congratulations! You have reached the end of the lesson 1. It is expected

that you have gained important insights that you can connect to the next lesson.
So, continue navigating this module and keep reading!

References

Britzman, D. P. (1998). Lost subjects, contested objects : Toward a psychoanalytic

inquiry of learning. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com
Britzman, D. P. (2003). After-education : Anna freud, melanie klein, and
psychoanalytic histories of learning. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com
Britzman, Deborah P.. A Psychoanalyst in the Classroom: The Human Condition of
Education, State University of New York Press, 2015. ProQuest Ebook
Central, https://search.proquest.com/legacydocview/EBC/4396568?
accountid=31259.
Freud, S. (1957). The unconscious. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard
edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp.
159–215). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1915).
Hoare, C. (Ed.). (2006). Handbook of adult development and learning : A handbook
of theory, research, and practice. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com
Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning : A guide for
teachers. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com

10
 Lesson Behavioral Theories
2
-Jilliene Samantha C. Napil, LPT

Objectives:
 Identify what are the different behavioral
theories;
 Create a simple matrix on how
you can apply laws of learning;
and
 Plan on how you can utilize these
theories in the learning process more effectively.

Introduction
Behaviorism is based on the principle of stimulus and response. It is a teacher-
led activity that assumes the teacher is in control of what needs to be done, how it will
be done, and what evidence of behavioral change needs to be produced. The basic
premise of behaviorism is that people need to be directed and that if the stimulus is
something that the individual wants (a reward) or fears (a punishment), the individual
will respond accordingly. There will be a noticeable change in behavior.
The theory is rooted in the late nineteenth- century studies into how people
behave and the emergence of the discipline of psychology. Many of the principles
underpin behaviorism were developed from a psychologist working with animals and
then transferring their theories to human beings. Although some of the methods were
determined through research that may these days be considered unethical,
behaviorism remained the basis of teaching approaches throughout the twentieth
century and is still useful when working with learners who may need more direction,
on subjects where precise adherence to procedures is essential or in environments
where there are health hazards. Behaviorism is not without its critics; however, it’s an
autocratic, transmission led approach that fails to recognize the independent and

11
enquiring nature of people.

________________________________________________
Activity ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Think of an ________________________________________________
important thing that ________________________________________________
happened during
________________________________________________
your elementary
days or even your ________________________________________________
younger school age? ________________________________________________
Can you remember
________________________________________________
the name of your
teacher that time? ________________________________________________
What kind of ________________________________________________
rewards and
punishments did ________________________________________________
he/she apply in your __________________________________
class?

12
 Analysis
1. Think about your personal philosophy of teaching. Does it contain elements
that you would describe as a “behaviorist philosophy”? If so, what are they
and have you accounted for the ethical use of these principles?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Abstraction

CONNECTIONISM (Trial and Error)

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) is regarded as the first pure behavioral

psychologist, although the term behaviorism was adopted long after his research had
been completed. His most famous experiment was a study into how cats were able to
escape from a locked box through trial and error, what he referred to as the process
of connectionism.

His research indicated that by trying different approaches to escape, the cats
would experience a rewarding outcome (escape) or a profitless outcome (trapped).
Through these outcomes, the amount of trial and error would decrease as the cat
learned which actions would lead to a reward and those profitless responses
were stamped out. 

In this theory, Thorndike asserts that learning has occurred when a secure

connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with
three primary laws. 

Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the
13
relationship between the stimulus and the answer is weakened when the result is
negative. He then found out that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily
undermine bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable results do not necessarily
motivate performance. 

Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more S-R (Stimulus-Response) bond is

practiced, the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated
with this. On the other hand, like the law of effect, the act of exercise also had to be
revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily
enhance performance. 

Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner must respond to the
stimulus, the stronger the bond will be. When a person is ready to respond to a
stimulus and is not made to answer, it becomes annoying. For example, if the teacher
says, “Okay, we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And
suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready
to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so. Another example with
when a teacher would call a student to stand up and recite, and the teacher would ask
a question and immediately expects the student to answer even though he/she is still
not ready. This won't be very pleasant for the student. This is why teachers should
utilize non-directed questioning, state the question first, and wait for a certain time
before calling as a student to answer. 

Additionally, the principles underpinning Thorndike’s work are:

 Learning requires the teacher to stimulate the learner by rewarding successful
practices.
 A series of stimulus- reward connections can be linked together if they belong
to the same action.
 Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
 Connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice
us discontinued.
 Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.

STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY

John Watson (1878- 1958) is largely credited as the founding father of the
behaviorist movement. Although he was not the first of his generation to look at how
behavior could be modified through neutral stimuli, his work is generally considered
to be the most conspicuous and arguable the most controversial amongst the
behaviorist.
Some of the images (recorded on film) of his work with Albert, a 9-month old
baby, are quite disturbing. In his experiments he introduced the baby to arrange of
different animals (a neutral stimulus). The baby showed no fear of any of the animals.
In separate tests Watsons made a series of loud noise (an unconditional stimulus)
which distressed the baby. By pairing the two test (the animal and loud noise) the
child’s natural responses to the noise (fear and distress) ad become associated with the
14
animal and when the loud noise was removed the baby had now been conditioned to
show fear and distress at the animal. The conditioned process can be displayed as

Post-
Pre- Condiotining Conditioning Conditioning
Baby Albert enjoys Everytime Albert When Albert sees
petting a rat. pets the rat, the rat (with no
Watson makes a accompanying
He displayes no loud noise that noise)he becomes
fear towards it. frightens Albert frightened and
distressed

In further experiments, Watson replaced the animals with a series of inanimate

objects, producing the same effect on the baby. In this way Watson was able to
demonstrate that people can be conditioned to produce emotional responses to objects
and to postulate that anyone, regardless of their nature, van be trained to be anything,
and that learning is a direct consequence of the conditioning.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a physiologist whose research into the digestive
secretions of dogs gained him a Nobel prize in 1904, his research indicated that
presenting a dog with an unconditioned stimulus (food) would provoke an
unconditioned response or reflex action in the form of the dog salivating. Adding an
accompaniment to the stimulus (ringing a bell) and, after a period of time of food +
bell, remove the original stimulus (the food) and the dog will salivate just at the sound
of the bell. He referred to his phenomenon as classical conditioning because the dog
had been conditioned to associate food with the sound of the bell ringing.

1st Pre-conditioned
Act Conditioning
Post-
The dog is offered food The food is Conditioning
and start to salivate offered and the
bell is rung When the bell is
2nd Pre-Conditioned simultaneously. rung the dog
Act salivates even
This is repeated when no food is
A bell sounds proviking time and time
no reaction from the offered.
again.
dog.

15
 The Principle of classical conditioning marked a groundbreaking step in
establishing psychology as a scientific discipline and influenced the work of other
behaviorist psychologist.

16
 OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904-1990) developed the ideas of a few his

predecessors (notably Pavlov and Watson) by subjecting animals and humans to a
series of rigorous experiments to arrive at the concept of what he termed radical
behaviorism.
Skinner designed several ingenious devises which of these boxes were used
for his experiments. The most famous of these was the Skinner Boxes. The inside of
these boxes was fitted with a lever, which if pressed would produce either water or a
food pellet. Rats were placed in the box. They pressed against the lever. He referred to
this phenomenon as positive reinforcement. In later experiments he added grids that
produces electric shocks when activated. Through thus he studied the impact of what
he called negative reinforcement on behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Rat will associate

Rewarded with lever with food
Rat presses level
food and repeat
process
Negative Reinforcement

Skinner argued that not only did positive reinforcement have a longer lasting
effect on behavior than negative reinforcement but that negative reinforcement could
be counterproductive.
At first glance, Skinner is merely confirming Pavlov’s notion of a conditioned
response. Skinner argued however that whereas the response made by Pavlov’s dogs
was a reflex action (a reaction to the environment), the rats in his experiment operated
not out of reflex but acted on the environment (rather than Reacting to it). This was
what became known as operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning – Radical Behaviorism
 Positive reinforcement is where good behavior can be encouraged by offering
rewards.
 Negative reinforcement is where the likelihood of poor behavior can be
discouraged through pairing it with an unpleasant consequence.

If you are going to use reinforcement as a behavior modification tool, then the
following points are important:
 Rewards and punishment as reinforcement if the reward is something an
individual desires or the punishment s something they fear.

17
  You can shape behavior in a series of gradual steps by offering rewards for
simple behavior modifications and then increasing the complexity.

PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

Edward Tolman (1886-1959) was regarded as one of the leading figures in

the behaviorist movement. Tolman took a different viewpoint from his
contemporaries and his theories arguably straddled the behaviorist/cognitivist divide.

Like Skinner, he uses rats as the basis for his studies but questioned Skinner’s
notion of operant conditioning by arguing that rats could learn about environment
without need for constant reward. He did this by observing the differences in behavior
of three separate groups of rats who were rewarded with food for successfully
negotiating a maze at intervals of one day, two days and six days. He was able to
demonstrate that the regards on offer produced no significant difference in he ability
of each of the groups of rats to escape the maze. From these experiments he rejected
the notion of focusing on one-off stimulus-response relationships and outlined his
theory of latent learning in which people build up cognitive maps of their
environment from past experiences. The key principle of this are:
 Learning is the potential to perform, whereas the actual performance is the
manifestation of that potential.
 Learning is always purposeful, and goal directed: people therefore don’t apply
their learning unless they have a reason to do so.
 Latent learning is what people have learned from previous experience, but
which lies dormant. The decision to keep it dormant may be subconscious and
the individual may need some prompting to apply it.

Tolman’s reinforcement of early behaviorism inspired a raft of research into

the subject and was attractive to many teachers who were repelled by the dry,
mechanistic theories of learning of earlier behaviorist theorist.

THE NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Robert Gagne (1916- 2002) was one of a wave of neo-behaviorist who

pioneered the science of instruction and identified what mental conditions were
necessary for effective learning. He suggested that instruction can be represented as
beginning with a phase retention, recall and generalization to performance and
feedback. In this respect he considers the instructor to be the designer and manager of
the learning process and evaluator of outcomes.

He argues that learning has a hierarchical nature where the teacher has to
ensure that the individual has mastered the relevant lower- order parts of the process
before learning at the next level can be undertaken. The process can be represented as:

18
 Gain Present Assess
Attention Content Performance

Set out Provide Provide

Objectives Guidance Feedback

Stimulate Elicit Enhance

Prior Learning Performance REtention

Although some critics of Gagne work argue that his theories are little more
than an eclectic, mechanistic mix of instructional techniques, his supporters welcome
his account of the levels of learning as a major contribution to understanding learning
behavior.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Siegfried Engelmann (B. 1931) Direct instruction model for teaching

emphasis the need for well developed and carefully planned lessons designed around
small learning increments and clearly defined and prescribed teaching tasks. It is a
behaviorist model, based on Engelmann belief that clear instruction as well as certain
affective behaviors.

Direct instruction operated on five key philosophical principles.

 All children can be taught.
 All children can improve academically and in terms of self- image.
 All teachers can succeed if provided with adequate training and materials.
 Low performers and disadvantage learners must be taught at a faster rate than
typically occurs if they are to catch up to their higher- performing peers.
 All details of instruction must be controlled to minimize the chance of students
mis- interpreting the information being taught and to minimize the reinforcing
effect of instruction.

Engelmann argues that in order for Direct Instruction to work effectively:

 Each student needs to be tested to find out which skills they have already
mastered and which one they need to work ok. From this, students are grouped
together with other students needing to work on the same skills.

19
  The programme must be structured so that skills are introduced gradually,
giving students a chance to learn those skills and apply them before being
required to learn another new set of skills.
 Instruction should be modified to accommodate each student’s rate of
learning. If some students need more practice with a specific skill, teachers
must provide the additional instruction within the programme to ensure
students master the skill. Conversely, if a student easily acquiring the new
skills and needs to advance to the next level, they can be moved to a higher so
that they may continue adding to the skills they already possess.

Engelmann argues that the implementation of Direct Instruction and the five key
philosophical principles requires teachers to behave differently to before. The popular
valuing of teacher creativity and autonomy as high priorities must, according to
Engelmann, give way to a willingness to follow certain carefully prescribed
instructional practices.

Application

For each situation depicted below, do the following: precursor

a. Determine whether it involves classical or operant conditioning.
b. If it involves classical conditioning, identify the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS), the unconditioned response (UCR), and the conditioned stimulus (CS)
and conditioned response (CR).
c. If it involves operant conditioning, identify the behavior being reinforced, the
reinforcer, and (if applicable) the antecedent stimulus.
Situation Analysis
1. Four boys have formed a rock band,
and they often perform at talent
shows and school dances. Although
they don’t make enough money to
cover their expenses, they enjoy
playing whenever they can. The also
enjoy the extra attention they get
from their classmates.
2. Bree once came down with a stomach
flu shortly after she ate pizza for
lunch in the school cafeteria. Now
she refuses to go to the cafeteria
whenever pizza is being served,
saying that the very smell of it makes
her feel sick to her stomach.

20
3. Melanie and Nancy don’t like Sonja,
and they taunt and tease her at every
opportunity just to make her cry.
4. In his mathematics class, Manuel is
studying certain concepts on the
computer. The computer frequently
asks him questions and tells hem
when his answers are correct.
5. Marianne’s father used to punish her
severely for each low grade she
brought home. Even though
Marianne no longer lives with her
father, she still cries whenever she
gets a low grade.
6. Five-year-old Alan is an easygoing
boy who seldom cries or shows fear
of the things around him. One day a
large stray dog wanders into Alan’s
front yard. Alan is delighted to see
the dog but reaches out too quickly to
pet the dog’s head. The dog is caught
by surprise and bites Alan’s hand
sharply in self-defense. The
following day, as Alan is running
home from school, the same dog
gives Alan a painful nip on the heel.
After two episodes in which the same
dog is associated with pain, Alan is
dog-phobic: Whenever he sees the
dog, he cries hysterically and runs
away as quickly as possible. But
Alan’s fear is not limited to the stray
dog. He seems equally afraid of his
aunt’s Irish setter, the next-door
neighbor’s German Shepard, and the
French poodle that lives down the
street—dogs that have never bitten
him.

21
Closure

Congratulations! You have reached the end of the lesson 2. It is expected

that you have gained important insights that you can connect to the next lesson.
So, continue navigating this module and keep reading!

References
Kunnen, S. E. (Ed.). (2011). A dynamic systems approach to adolescent development.
Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com
Gilmore, K., & Meersand, P. (2014). The little book of child and adolescent
development. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2012). Introduction to theories of learning :
Ninth edition. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com
Rathus, S.A. (2017) Child and Adolescence: Voyages in Development (Sixth
Edition). Cengage Learning, Australia.
Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child
and adolescent learners and learning principles. Lorimar Publishing, Quezon
City, Metro Manila.
Britzman, Deborah P.. A Psychoanalyst in the Classroom : The Human Condition of
Education, State University of New York Press, 2015. ProQuest Ebook
Central, https://search.proquest.com/legacydocview/EBC/4396568?
accountid=31259.

22
 Lesson Cognitive Theories
3 -Joecel Gomez, LPT

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a) describe Piaget’ cognitive concepts and stages in your own

words; and
b) match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.

Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 3! As you begin, let me share to you that this lesson
comprises two major points of Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development- the
basic cognitive concepts and the four (4) stages of cognitive development. Thus, this
lesson gives you an idea to incorporate specific situations especially on how
individuals construct their own knowledge.

Activity Instructions: Read intensively the three (3) situations

below. Try to examine each of them that are usually
common to a child’s developmental experience. Then
give your analysis thereafter.
1. There are several different sizes of juice on a table,
and a three year old Karen choose the glass that is the
tallest because she perceives the taller glass as having
more juice inside of it (even though the tallest glass
may also be the thinnest).
2. Siblings, Gina, 9; Paul, 7; and Josh, 4 were sorting
out their stuffed animals. They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2
cows, and 1 dolphin. Teresa, the mother, enters and
says, “Good thing that you are sorting those. Do you
have more stuffed animals or more bears?” Gina and
Paul say, “Stuffed animals.” Josh says, “Bears”.
3. Trisha wouldn't want to leave their teddy bear
outside for she is feared that it might get cold at night
and be lonely without them.

Activity lifted from: Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Module 6; Activity pp.. 77- 78.

23
 Analysis
On situation 1: Why do you think did Karen prefer the tallest glass?

On situation 2: Why do you think that Josh answered “Bears”? What does
this say about how he thought to answer the questions?

On situation 3: What does this say about how Trisha reason out with her fear
of leaving their teddy bear outside?

Activity lifted from: Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Module 6; Activity pp.. 77- 78.

Abstraction
The Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century’s most influential
researchers in the area of developmental psychology. He was a child prodigy who
published his first article in a referred journal at the age of 11.
While working in Binet’s test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how
children think. He noticed that young children’s answer were qualitatively different
than older children. This suggested to him that younger children were not less
knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers
because they thought differently.
This implies that human development is qualitative (changes in kind) rather
than quantitative (changes in amount). Piaget showed that young children think in
strikingly different ways compared to adults.
Basic Cognitive Concept
For better understanding of the cognitive development, it is important first to
examine some vital ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget. The following are some
factors that influence how children learn and grow.
Schema. It describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world. In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both category
of knowledge and process of obtaining that knowledge. Thus, as experiences happen,
this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schema.

24
 For example, a child may have knowledge about a type of animal such as a
dog. If the child’s sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that
all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an
enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include these new observations.
Along the process of this modification, children must also adapt or adjust to
their ever-changing environment. This process is called Adaptation which can be
done through assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation. It is the process of taking in new information into our already
existing schema. This process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify
experiences and information slightly to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs.
For example, if the child sees another dog which is smaller to the first one, he
would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (not of the
same appearance) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. It is the process of changing or altering our existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.
For example, if the same child sees another animal that looks a little bit like
dog, but somehow different, he might try to fit into his schema of a dog, even without
his knowledge that the one he is referring to is a goat. As he observes the goat, he
called it “a funny dog” because its bark is funny too (instead of Arf-Arf). When the
mother explains that it is not a funny dog, and add further descriptions of what is a
goat, then he will now create a new schema of a goat.
Equilibration. It is the process of achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation. As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage
of thought to the next.
According to Sigmund Freud, childhood has five stages of psychosexual
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. If a child receives too little or
too much gratification during a phase, the child can become fixated. 

During the first year of life, which Freud termed as the oral stage, “oral”
activities such as sucking, and biting bring pleasure and gratification. If the child is
weaned early or breast-fed too long, the child may become fixated on oral activities
such as nail-biting or smoking or even show a “biting wit.”

Stage Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 Years o Object Permanence
Stage when a child Ability is attained in this stage
initially reflexive in where the child knows that an
grasping, sucking, object still exists even when out
and reaching sight. For Example, if you place
becomes more
25
organized in his
movement and
activity. Focuses on
the prominence of a toy under a blanket, the child
the senses and who has achieved object
working with permanence knows it is there
children in the and can actively seek it. At the
sensorimotor stage, beginning of this stage the child
they should aim to behaves as if the toy had simply
provide a rich and disappeared.
stimulating
environment with
appropriate objects
to play with.
Preoperational 2 to 7 years o Symbolic Function
Stage when child The ability to represent object
can now make and events. For example, a
mental child is pretending a broom is a
representations and horse.
is able to pretend, o Egocentrism
the child can now The tendency of a child to only
ever closer to the see his point of view and
use of symbols. assume that everyone else has
Therefore, his same point of view. For
intelligence at this example, if the child sees his
stage is intuitive in mother crying, a young child
nature. gives her his favorite stuffed
animal to make her feel better
(since the stuffed animal makes
the child happy and relax).
o Centration
The tendency of the child to
only focus on one thing or event
and exclude other aspects. For
example, a child insists that
lions and tigers are not “cats”,
or the child believes that the
“taller” child must be “older.”
o Lack of Conservation
The inability to realize that
some things remain unchanged
despite looking different. For
example, several different sizes
of juice on a table, and they
choose the glass that is the
tallest because they perceive the
taller glass as having more juice
inside of it (even though the
tallest glass may also be the
thinnest).

26
 o Irreversibility
Pre- operational children still
have the inability to reverse
their thinking. For example, if a
three-year-old boy sees
someone flatten a ball of play
dough, he will not understand
that the dough can easily be
reformed into a ball.
o Animism
The tendency of the child to
attribute human like traits to
inanimate objects. For example,
a child wouldn't want to leave
their teddy bear outside for fear
that it might get cold at night
and be lonely without them.
o Realism
Believing that psychological
events. For example, as for
kids, dreams are real.
o Artificialism
The child believes that natural
events are man-made. For
example, a child might say that
it is windy outside because
someone is blowing very hard.
Concrete 7 to 11 years o Decentering
Operational The ability of the child to
This stage is perceive the different features
characterized by the of objects and situations. For
ability of the child example, when asked to choose
to think logically between two lollipops, a child
but only in terms of might choose based on how one
concrete objects; flavor is better than the other
covers the even though the other is the
elementary school same size and color.
years. o Reversibility
The ability of the child to
follow that certain operations
can be done in reverse. For
example, a child might be able
to recognize that his or her dog
is a Labrador, that a Labrador is
a dog, and that a dog is an
animal. The child could also
have an understanding 2 + 3 = 5
and 5 – 3 = 2.
o Conservation

27
 The ability to know that certain
properties of objects like
number, mass, volume or area
do not change even if there is a
change in appearance. For
example, a young child may
now understand that when you
flatten a ball of clay, it's still the
same amount of clay.
o Seriation
The ability to arrange things in
a series based on one dimension
such as weight, volume, size,
etc. For example, the children is
putting objects in order from
short to tall, thin to big, small to
large, or of importance, and so
forth.
o Classification
The ability to group things or
object based on a single
dimension. For example, the
child could identify the
difference between two similar
items such as daisies and roses.
Formal 11 years and above o Hypothetical Reasoning
Operational Ability to come up with
Thinking becomes different hypothesis about a
logical. They can problem and weigh data to
now solve abstract make judgment. An adult can
problems and can now explore several different
hypothesize. alternative solutions in parallel
to determine which approach or
series of steps best solves a
particular problem. For
example, the adult can now deal
with “What if” questions.
o Analogical Reasoning
Ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance and
use that relationship to narrow
down possible answers in
similar problems. An adult can
now recognize the relation
between two source concepts.
For example, the adult can now
use Simile in describing the
situations, “Life is like a box of
chocolate- you never know
what you’re going to get”. So,

28
 instead of describing the life
directly, the speaker uses
figurative language to describe
what it is.
o Deductive Reasoning
Ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a
particular situation. Deductive
reasoning is a type of logic
where general statements, or
premises, are used to form a
specific conclusion. For
example, the adult can now
understand that all numbers
ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by
5. The number 1,035 ends with
a 5; therefore, it is divisible by
5.

Application

STORYTELLING
Instructions: Using your imagination, make a short story that comprises a minimum of
5 characters, settings, and a plot. Describe the characters by highlighting situations
and dialogues which would exemplify the Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.
Make it sure to exhibit at least 2 characteristics for each stage in your story.

29
 Closure

Congratulations, Future Teacher! You were able to accomplish this lesson

and its corresponding tasks meaningfully. Truly, this theory of Piaget fuelled
other researches and theories of development and learning. As for him, “The
principal goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things,
not simply of repeating what other generations have done- men who are creative,
inventive, and discoverers.”

References
Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child
and adolescent learners and learning principles. Lorimar Publishing, Quezon
City, Metro Manila

Laganao, E. et al (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. St. Andrew Publishing

House: Bulacan

30
Lesson
4 Socio- Cultural Theory of
Development
-Joecel Gomez, LPT

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a) Describe the Socio-cultural” theory; and
b) Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill;
and

Introduction:

Welcome to Lesson 4! Since, we discussed successfully the Piaget’s Cognitive

Theory of Development; this lesson emphasizes the importance of social interaction
in stimulating the development of the child. Vygotsky made the reasonable proposal
that when a child is learning a new skill or solving a new problem, he or she can
perform better if accompanied and helped by an expert. The scaffolding of Vygotsky
stresses the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner
accomplishes the task if performing alone.

Activity

Let us try to reminisce our past, reflect the following

questions below which remind us as to how we learn
certain skills happened long before.
1. How did you learn a certain skill (like swimming,
riding a bike, and reading)?
2. What are the challenges that you’ve been through in
learning from it alone?
3. Who taught or assisted along the process?
4. How did the said assistance lead you to become

31
 Analysis
1. Upon reminiscing the past, what factors in the environment influenced you to
learn the skill?
2. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding? If yes,
how?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Abstraction
Socio- Cultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1978), a Russian Psychologist, focused on how a child’s or

novice’s thinking is influenced by relationships with others who are more capable,
knowledgeable, or expert than the learner. In other words, a child’s cognitive
development is guided by interaction with others. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that
young children are curious and development of new understanding or schema.
However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of
development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
Social Interaction. It plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive
development. Vygotsky noted that every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice; first on the social level or between people (inter-
psychological level) and then inside the child (intra-pychological level).
Zone of Actual Development (ZAD). It is when a child attempts to perform a
skill alone; she may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may
perform at certain level of competency.
More Knowledgeable Others (MKO). It is the competent adult or more
advanced peer who will guide, assist, and help a certain child (w/ ZAD) to
perform at higher level of competency.

32
 Scaffolding. The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It is the difference between what the
child can accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with the guidance
of another.
When MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:

1st Level: I do, you watch

2nd Level: I do, you help
3rd Level: You do, I help
4th Level: You do, I watch

Application
Instructions: Practice how to scaffold others. Try to identify an individual whom you
can teach your skill of which you’ve found that you are good at it. State the steps on
how will you take in teaching the skill by determining how will you use scaffolding
and describing the specific actions you will do to scaffold. Follow and fill out the
table presented below.
Preferred skill to teach:
Target to be learned:
Age of the Participant:
Steps:
 I Do
 We Do
 You Do
What went well?

Closure
Congratulations, Future Teacher! You are now done with the fourth lesson of
the Module 2. Truly, the theory of Vygotsky focused in social aspect and

33
emphasized on cultural factors in cognitive development. As for him, “What a
child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow he/she will be able to do alone.”

References
Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child
and adolescent learners and learning principles. Lorimar Publishing, Quezon
City, Metro Manila.
Laganao, E. et al (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. St. Andrew Publishing
House: Bulacan

34
 Bioecological Model Theory
Lesson of Development
5
- Joecel Gomez, LPT
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to
a) Describe each of the layers of Brofenbrenner’
Bioecological Model; and
b) Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence
on one’s development.

Introduction:

Welcome to Lesson 5! In this lesson, we can picture out that environment has
a large impact in the development of an individual. That is why Brofenbrenner, the
proponent, emphasizes the significant influence of the family, community, and even
mass media. As a future educator, this theory reminds us to build fundamental
relationships with our student knowing the fact that we are considered as the second
parent of our students.
Instructions: This activity requires you to recall
experience from your childhood up to the present.
Activity Hence, for you to continue sharing your experience,
read and reflect the following questions and write your
answers on the graphic organizer below.

1. Did you have strong relationship with your immediate environment

(family, church, and school)?
2. Were your needs met by the immediate environment?
3. How often did you seek advice from health professionals in your
community?
4. How often did your parents monitor your school performance knowing the
fact that they are working to address the basic needs of your family?
5. How often did your family initiate bonding together?
6. Did you see the benefits of those programs, projects, and orders
implemented by the local government unit?
7. What are those practices that your family usually does?
8. Did you see the benefits of those programs, projects, and laws implemented
by the national government? 35
Analysis
Instructions: Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where it
belongs.

Activity lifted from: Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Module 6; Activity pp.. 77- 78.

Abstraction
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s model is also known as the Bioecological Systems

theory. This theory describes development as a lasting change in the way which a
person perceives and deals with his or her environment. It comprises multipart layer
of environment that surrounds the child. Hence, each layer is composed of different
structures that may influence some factors of the child’s development. Therefore, any
changes that a child may undergo in any one layer will affect throughout other layers.
So, to fully understand this model, it is best to understand the contribution of each
layer to the child’s emotional, physical, social, and mental aspects of development.

36
Microsystem. It is the layer closest to the child. This contains the structures
with which the child has direct contact with the immediate environment like
the interaction with his/ her parent and other family members, teachers, and
neighborhood. In this layer, experiences and learnings happen bi-directionally
whom the child may be affected by his/her environment and vice versa. Part of
this system also is the satisfaction of the child’s basic needs such as the
appropriate care and love given by his/her parents and also to the quality of
learning experience the child received from his/her teacher.
Mesosystem. This layer provides the connection between the structures of the
child’s microsystem. The collaboration between those structures in the
microsystem plays an important role to address the basic needs of the child. In
simpler terms, not all the time parents are experts to everything; so, they need
to connect to other experts or professionals who can be trusted for the holistic
development of the child. For instance, the health personnel/ services unit are
the responsible authority for the health of the child, same way also with
teachers who is the responsible person for their quality education.
Exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child
does not function directly. It comprises the Local Government Unit, the
workplace of the parent, and the mass media. This means that the structures in
this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in
his/her microsystem. Parent workplace and schedules or community-based
family resources are examples. The child may not be directly involved at this
level, but he does feel the positive or negative force involved with the
interaction with his own system. Probably, parents could not be able to
monitor properly the progress of their child towards their study and
community-related activities. For instance, both parents are working abroad;
there might be these chances that their children are not doing well in their
studies or involved in any vices which affect their performances in school.
Therefore, factors that lead children to a certain development and success may
be compromised and could be possibly failed to achieve their aspirations in
life.
Macrosystem. This layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of
cultural values, customs, and laws. The effects of larger principles defined by
the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all
other layers. For instance, a Filipino Master’s degree graduate is surprised to
know that he cannot proceed the doctorate program applied for in Louvain,
Belgium because of the short year basic education.
Chronosystem. This system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to
a child’s environments. Elements within this system can be either external,
such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological
changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may
react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine
more how that change will influence them.

37
Application
Instructions: Make a minimum of five minute-video reaction on the Movie entitled
“Boyhood”. Discuss some salient events of the movie which best exemplifies a
particular layer in the Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

References
Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L. & Lucido, P.I. (2018) The Child
and adolescent learners and learning principles. Lorimar Publishing, Quezon
City, Metro Manila.
Laganao, E. et al (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. St. Andrew Publishing
House: Bulacan
.

Closure
Job well done, Future Teacher! You are now done with the last lesson of the
Module 2. Truly, Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm
showing the different factors that exert influence on an individual’ development.
As for him, “Children need people in order to become human”.

38