ASSESSING PSYCHOSOCIAL, COGNITIVE

AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

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GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT

No single theory has been formulated to

embrace all aspects of why humans behave,
think, or believe the way they do. New
theories continue to emerge in an attempt to
explain human conduct. The developmental
theories presented in this chapter focus on
the growth (addition of new skills or
components) and development (refinement,
expansion or improvement of existing skills
or components) of an individual throughout
the life span. Each theorist varies on how to
categorize the phases of the life cycle (e.g.,
infancy, adolescence, adulthood).
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FREUD’S MAJOR
CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Freud (1935) postulated that the

psychological nature of human beings is
determined by the result of conflict between
biologic drives (instincts) and social
expectations. He believed that people
generally are not aware of the underlying
reasons for their behavior. Originally, Freud
conceived the concept of mental qualities,
which influenced behavior and occur at
three levels of awareness.
 THREE BASIC STRUCTURES IN FREUD’S ANATOMY OF PERSONALITY

The superego, often referred to as the moral component off

- Completely unconscious personality (or in lay terms, one's "conscience"), provides
- According to Freud, the id is the inherited system. The ego emerges to act initially as an intermediary between the id and feedback to the person regarding how closely his or her behavior
Containing the basic motivational drives for such entities as the external world, or reality (Freud, 1949). It includes many conforms to the external value system. It ascribes to perfection,
air, water, warmth, and sex, it seeks instant gratification and processes such as learning, perceptions, memory, problem solving, disregards reality, usually operates at the unconscious level, and
supplies the psychic energy for the ego and the superego. and decision making. According to Freud, the ego must attempt to is an insistent force against the desires of the id. Freud believed
Freud considered sex to be the most important drive. postpone or redirect id satisfaction. Since this is a source of much the superego originates in the learned rules of con duct imposed
Defining sex in very broad terms, he stated that it included conflict, Freud contended that people make use of a variety of defense by a person's parents. It emerges during the fifth year of life, and
all pleasurable thoughts and beliefs. He added that the id mechanisms (e.g. denial, rationalization, repression) to protect the in the course of a person's development could be influenced by
knows no perception of reality or morality (what is right and ego. Although the ego plays an important role in behavior, it does not "later successors and substitutes of his parents such as teachers,
wrong). possess a concept of morality. admired figures in public life, or high social ideas"
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Pleasure derived from the
mouth-such as sucking, eating,
chewing biting and vocalizing-
FREUD’S THEORY OF serve to reduce the infant's
PSYCHOSEXUAL tension. The id controls this
DEVELOPMENT stage.

Sigmund Freud constructed a

theory that people may go Pleasure involves the elimination
of feces. As the ego develops,
through five psychosexual the child decides to expel or
stages of development that retain the bowel movement
could overlap or exist
simultaneously.

Pleasure is derived from the genital region.

This can involve exploring and manipulating
the genitals of self and others. A child can
express curiosity about how a baby is "made
and born. The superego emerges from
interactions with parents. Parents insist that the
child control biologic impulses. Oedipal (for
males) and Electra (for females) complexes
appear.
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Abeyance of sexual urges occurs as the child develops
more intellectual and social skills. it is a time of
sch0ol activities, hobbies, sports, and for developing
friendships with members of the same sex. The
superego continues to develop. Defense mechanisms
appear

Puberty allows sexual impulses to reappear. Once

conflicts with parents are resolved and if no major
jixations have occurred, the individual will develop
heterosexual attachments outside of the family.
Romantic love can lead to successful marriage and
parenting.
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E R I K S O N ’ S T H E O RY O F
P S Y CH O S O CI A L
DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson was a psychoanalyst who adapted

ERIKSON’S MAJOR CONCEPTS AND
and expanded Sigmund Freud's psychosexual TERMS
theory. Erikson's theory has become known as a
psychosocial theory, with psychosocial being
defined as the intrapersonal and interpersonal  Crises – Dilemmas that are composed of opposing
responses of a person to external events
(Schuster & Ashburn, 1992).
viewpoints
Erikson concluded that societal, cultural, and
historical factors-as well as biophysical processes
and cognitive function-influence personality
development (Erikson, 1968). He declared that the
ego not only mediated between the id's abrupt
impulses and the superego's moral demands, but
that it can positively affect a person's
development as more skills and experience are
gained.
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ERIKSON’S STAGES OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

Erikson did not strictly define chronological

boundaries for his stages. He did assign
selected developmental levels throughout the
life span, termed critical periods, as times
when a person possesses criteria to attempt a
given developmental task (Erikson, 1963).
Each person develops at his or her own rate in
accordance with individual potential and
experience.
 ClickPiaget’s
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Major Concept and Terms

PIAGET’S THEORY OF Schema – A schema is a unit of thought and a classification for a

COGNITIVE phenomenon, behavior, or event. A schema may consist of a thought,
DEVELOPMENT emotional memory, movement of a part of the body, or a sensory
experience (such as making use of sight, hearing, taste, smell, or
touch). Schemata can be categorized using either assimilation or
accommodation
Assimilation - Assimilation is an adaptive process whereby a
stimulus or information is incorporated into an already existing
schema. Another way of saying this is that people change reality into
what they already know.
Accommodation – accommodation is the creation of a new
schema or the modification of an old one to differentiate more
Dr. Jean Piaget theory is a description and an
accurately a stimulus or a behavior from an existing schema.
explanation of the growth and development of the
intellectual structures. He focused on how a person Equilibration – the balance between assimilation and
learns, not what the person learns.
accommodation. When disequilibrium occurs, it provides motivation
Cognition is the process of obtaining understanding for the individual to assimilate or accommodate further.
about one's world (Schuster & Ashburn, 1992). Piaget
acknowledged that interrelationships of physical
maturity, social interaction, environmental
stimulation, and experience in general were necessary
for cognition to occur (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). His
primary focus, however, was the biology of thinking.
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PIAGET’S STAGES OF
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

Piaget (1970) postulated that a person may progress

through four major stages of intellectual development.
He theorized that intellectual development begins the
moment a baby is born. He did not believe that absolute
ages should be attached to these stages since
individuals progress at their own rate. At each new
stage, previous stages of thinking are incorporated and
integrated. Piaget acknowledged that a person may, at
times, display intellectual behaviors suggestive of more
than one developmental level. If a person attained
formal operational thinking, he declared that qualitative
changes in thinking cease and quantitative changes in
the content and function of thinking may continue.
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Lawrence Kohlberg, a psychologist, expanded Piaget's KOHLBERG’S MAJOR
thoughts on morality; in doing so, he developed a
comprehensive theory of moral development.
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
Traditionally, Kohlberg (1981) proposed, individual
morality has been viewed as a dynamic process that
extends over one's lifetime, primarily involving the
Kohlberg recognized that moral development is
affective and cognitive domains in determining what is
influenced by cognitive structures. However, he did not
"right" and "wrong. It has also been frequently
view moral development as parallel to cognitive
associated with those requirements necessary for
development. In his later years, he discussed how some
people to live together and coexist in a group. Dr. components of his theory contained elements of affective
Kohlberg was most concerned with examining the or reflective characteristics of people and proclaimed
reasoning a person used to make a decision, as these to be soft stages. Those stages that contained only
opposed to the action that resulted after that decision the Piagetian structures were differentiated as hard stages
was made. (Levine, Kohlberg, & Hewer, 1985).
Kohlberg viewed justice (or fairness) as the goal of
moral judgment. He often cowrote with colleagues,
publishing new thoughts regarding the form and content
of his theory. This included the addition of several
substages to his existing pro- posed stages of moral
KOHLBERG’S THEORY development.
OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
 NAL
EN TIO
CONV
PO ST

O NAL
EN TI
NV
CO

m oral)
L (Pre
A
NT ION
ON VE
E C
PR

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

 A SS E SS I N G D EV EL O P M EN TA L LE V EL :
P SY CH O S O CI A L STATU S

Preparing the Client

As with the collection of subjective data in the nursing history,
maintain a caring, helping, trusting relationship with the client
while assessing his or her developmental level.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F F R E U D ’ S S TA G E S O F P S Y C H O S E X U A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( Y O U N G A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS

 Still live with parent(s) at home? • Freud emphasized the significance of first • In the twenty-first century healthy sexual
maternal then later paternal influences on relationship includes practicing "safe sex”
the person's ability to fulfill a socially to decrease the risk of experiencing the
 Accept roles and responsibilities at
acceptable gender role. Generation Y (born high level of anxiety often associated with
place of residence? between 1982 and 2001) is much more having an unwanted pregnancy or
accepting of same-gender relationships. contracting a sexually transmitted
 Have experience of growing up in a • Freud declared that it was normal for infection
Single-parent home? young people to marry. Single-parent • The young adult is more likely to possess
families were not common during the time a sense of positive self-preservation t s/he
 Have unresolved issues with of Freud. can meet some financial expenses.
• Many independent people today choose to • Today's healthy young adult experiences
parent(s)? Have a satisfying sexual remain single. mild anxiety while attempting to balance
relationship with a significant other? • Freud believed that healthy young adults employment, continued formal education,
should expend their genital energies in a and relationship/family responsibilities.
 Have gainful employment? heterosexual relationship and then • Many more women are now performing
marriage followed by parenthood. He these multiple roles (however, note that
believed reproduction within a Freud affirmed that women should remain
heterosexual was a socially acceptable in the home as housekeepers, cooks, and
reason to engage in sexual intercourse. primary caregivers.)
 A S S E S S M E N T O F F R E U D ’ S S TA G E S O F P S Y C H O S E X U A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( Y O U N G A D U LT )

ABNORMAL FINDINGS

• If the young adult demonstrates extreme dependence • If the young adult does not possess a sense of
on a parent (e.g., assumes no responsibility for healthy sexuality, social and emotional isolation may
household which they share), Freud would state that occur.
the id, ego, and super ego would not be fully • This person has difficulty establishing healthy
developed and that the body organ that dominated relationships with others.
that person's mode of interaction would influence • The young adult who is concerned about finances
the person's behavior. and does not have a career could experience
• This young adult might make poor relationship depression and heightened anxiety.
choices. • This person may have poor eating habits, have
• According to Freud, this person would experience difficulty sleeping, or endure vivid dreams.
gender role confusion. • As with all adults, hallucinations and delusions are
• The confused young adult often experiences more unexpected findings.
than mild anxiety not being able to perceive all
relevant aspects of a situation).
• The unhealthy young adult suffers from low self-
esteem.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F F R E U D ’ S S TA G E S O F P S Y C H O S E X U A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( M I D D L E - A G E D A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS

 Demonstrate nervous mannerisms? • The healthy middle-aged adult copes with • Freud might contend that the person who
stress in a socially acceptable manner. successfully motivates during this period
 Frequently derive pleasure from • All people experience stress throughout of life uses repression (involuntary
the life cycle. Mild anxiety (remaining exclusion of anxiety-producing feelings,
selected activities?
attentive and alert to relevant stimuli) is thoughts, and impulse from awareness)
normal throughout adulthood and and/or sublimation (substitution of a
 Cope effectively with stress? provides motivation. socially acceptable behavior for an
• Healthy middle-aged adults may vent unacceptable sexual or aggressive drive or
 Have a satisfying sexual frustration to significant others, impulse.
relationship? effectively communicating in • The healthy middle-aged person,
relationships and seeking assistance when according to Freud, has attained and
 Believe physical changes of aging needed. maintained the genital stage and he
have affected any relationships? • Activities meet socially accepted norms. purported that a satisfying sexual
A balance of responsibilities and leisure relationship was fundamental to a
activities is necessary. successful marriage.
• Each person experiences “mid-life crisis” • Healthy middle-aged adults begin to value
differently. the quality of their sexual relationship
more than the quantity of sexual
intercourse.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F F R E U D ’ S S TA G E S O F P S Y C H O S E X U A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( M I D D L E - A G E D A D U LT )

ABNORMAL FINDINGS

• Nervous mannerisms could indicate an unhealthy • Freud would label the person who engages in an
psychosexual state in many stages of the life cycle. extramarital affairs) as narcissistic.
• For example, Freud might interpret fixation at the oral • He would say the same of the person with a body-image
stage if a person is engaged in at least one of the following disturbance related to grieving the loss of a youthful
behaviors: overreacting, excessive talking, smoking, physical appearance.
thumb sucking, and nail biting. • Some unhealthy middle-aged adults refrain from social
• Likewise he would attribute other socially unacceptable relationships/outings because they no longer look the same
behaviors or negative habits as being fixated at one of his as they did when younger.
other stages (anal, phallic, latency, or genital)
• Freud discussed fetishes as a way the libido attaches to
objects other than a socially acceptable love object.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F F R E U D ’ S S TA G E S O F P S Y C H O S E X U A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( O L D E R A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Engage in sexual activity? • Many older adults are capable of enjoying • The unhealthy older adult may avoid
sexual intimacy (Lindau &Gavrilova, 2010; relationships and mainstream society
Touhy & Jett, 2012).
 Positively cope with loss? in general.
• Many older adults make effective use of
communication and companionship to have • Chronic depression is not normal in
 Believe any changes in cognition a healthy sense of sexuality. older adulthood.
have occurred? • Freud might interpret alter native ways of • Freud often interpreted the
satisfying sexual needs as compensation misplacing of objects as intentional.
 Believe any significant changes have (overachievement in one area to offset • Current research on effects of stress
occurred in interests/relationships? deficiencies real or imagined, or to and symptoms of dementia have not
overcome failure or frustration in another
area). supported this belief ("Is it
• It is not uncommon to occasionally forget forgetfulness or dementia?," 2009;
(e.g., lose keys, misplace a pen, or glasses, "Forgetfulness: Knowing when to
not recall a person's name). ask for help" 2009; "Forgetfulness
• The older adult makes effective use of it's not always what you think,"
previous experiences, self, and others to 2013).
grieve loss. Experiencing more than one
loss does not make a subsequent loss less
painful
 A S S E S S M E N T O F E R I K S O N ’ S P S Y C H O S O C I A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( Y O U N G A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Accept self--physically, cognitively, and Intimacy Isolation
emotionally? • The young adult should have achieved • If the young adult cannot express
 Have independence from the parental self efficacy during adolescence and is emotion and trust enough to open up to
home? now ready to open up and become others, social and emotional isolation may
 Express love responsibly, emotionally, intimate with others. occur.
and sexually? • Although this stage focuses on the desire • Loneliness may cause the young adult to
 Have lose or intimate relationships with a for a special and permanent love turn to addictive behaviors such as
partner? relationship, it also includes the ability to alcoholism, drug abuse, or sexual
 Have a social group of friends? have close, caring relationships with promiscuity.
 Have a physiology of living and life? friends of both genders and a variety of • Some people try to cope with this
 Have a profession or a life's work that ages. developmental stage by becoming very
provides a means of contribution? • Spiritual love also develops during this spiritual or social, playing an acceptable
 Solve problems of life that accompany stage. role, but never fully sharing who they are
independence from the parental home? • Having established an identity apart from or becoming emotionally involved with
the childhood family, the young adult is others.
now able to form adult friendships with • When adults successfully navigate this
parents and siblings. stage, they have stable and satisfying
• However, the young adult will always be relationships with important others.
a son or daughter.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F E R I K S O N ’ S P S Y C H O S O C I A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( M I D D L E - A G E D A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Have healthful life patterns? Generativity Stagnation
 Derive satisfaction from contributing to • During this stage, the middle-aged • Stagnation occurs when the middle-
growth and development of others? adult is able to share self with others aged person has not accomplished
 Have an abiding intimacy and long-term and establish nurturing relationships. one or more of the previous
relationship with a partner? • The adult will be able to extend self developmental tasks, and is unable to
 Maintain a stable home? and possessions to others.
 Find pleasure in an established work or give to future generations.
• Generativity implies mentoring and • Sometimes severe tosses may result
profession ?
giving to future generations. in withdrawal and stagnation.
 Take pride in self and family
accomplishments and contributions? • Generativity also includes teaching • In these cases, the person may have
Contribute to the community to support others, children or adults, mentoring total dependency on work, a favorite
its growth and development? young workers, or providing child, or even a pet, and be incapable
experience and wisdom to assist a new
of giving to others.
business to survive and grow.
• Also implied in this stage is the ability • A project may never be finished or
to guide, then let go of one's creations. schooling never completed because
• Successful movement through this the person cannot let go and move
stage results in a fuller and more on.
satisfying life and prepares the mature
adult for the next stage.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F E R I K S O N ’ S P S Y C H O S O C I A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( O L D E R A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Adjust to the changing physical self? Integrity Despair
 Recognize changes present as a result of • According to Erikson (1950), a person in • If the older person cannot feel
aging, in relationships and activities? this stage looks back and either finds that
 Maintain relationships with children, grateful for his or her life, cannot
life was good or despairs because goals were
grandchildren, and other relatives? not accomplished. accept those less desirable aspects as
 Continue interests outside of self and home? • This stage can extend over a long time and merely part of living, or cannot
 Complete transition from retirement from include excursions into previous stages to integrate all of the experiences of
work to satisfying alternative activities? complete unfinished business. Successful life, then the person will spend his or
 Establish relationships with others who are movement through this stage does not mean
his or her own age? her last days in bitterness and regret
that one day a person wakes up and says,
 Adjust to deaths of relatives, spouse, and "My lite has been good. Rather, it and will ultimately die in despair.
friends? encompasses a series of reminiscences in
 Maintain a maximum level of physical which the person may be able to see past
functioning through diet, exercise, and events in a new and more positive light.
personal care? • This can be a very rich and rewarding time
 Find meaning in past life and face inevitable in a person's life, especially if there are
mortality of self and significant others? others with whom to share memories and
 Integrate philosophical or religious values who can assist with reframing lite
into self-understanding to promote comfort? experiences.
 Review accomplishments and recognize • For some people, resolution and acceptance
meaningful contributions he or she has made do not come until the final weeks of life, but
to community and relatives? this still allows for a peaceful death.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F P I A G E T ’ S C O G N I T I V E D E V E L O P M E N T ( Y O U N G A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Assume responsibility for • The young adult who has attained formal • The young adult who has not attained
independent decision making? operational thought continues to use formal operations will operate at the
 Realistically self-evaluate strengths sensor-motor thought and learning. stage in which cognitive arrest
• Being alert to both internal and external
and weaknesses? occurred.
stimuli assists information processing.
 Identify and explore multiple options • Cognitive regression occurs in all • This person will have difficulty with
and potential outcomes? individuals through- out the life cycle abstract thinking when information is
 Seek assistance as necessary? under conditions of stress. However, it presented in written form.
 Place decision into long-range should be regained in a timely manner. • This young adult will find it difficult
context? • Formal operations incorporates deductive to under stand and process the
 Make realistic plans for the future? reasoning. information in some high school, and
Seek career mentors? • The young adult can evaluate the validity definitely college level, textbooks.
of reasoning.
• This person who performs self-evaluation
must be able to make objective judgment.
• All people learn at their own pace and
with their own style. The young adult is
interested in learning that which is
considered relevant and worthy of use.
• These people are capable of making
realistic plans for the future.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F P I A G E T ’ S C O G N I T I V E D E V E L O P M E N T ( M I D D L E - A G E D A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Differentiate discrepancies among • The middle-aged adult using formal operational • The middle-aged adult who has not
thought is capable of readjusting/modifying goals
goals, wishes, and realities? as necessary. attained/maintained formal
 identify factors that give life • The healthy middle-aged person provides operational thought experiences
meaning and continuity? mentorship to others due to increased problem- difficulty maintaining current at
solving abilities and experiences.
 Effectively share knowledge and • Seeking new information maintains currency and work and meeting expectations in all
experience with others? promotes continued self-development and aspects of life in general.
 Separate emotional (affective) issues responsibility. The older members of generation x • This person has not made adequate
(born between 1965 and 1981) wish to learn to
from the cognitive domain for advance in their careers and other responsibilities. realistic plans for the future.
decision making? • The "baby boomers" (born between 1946 and • The middle-aged client who has not
 Seek new ways to improve/add to 1964) learn to adapt to fast change. attained formal operational thought
• Many of these adults have been called the
knowledge? "sandwich generation" (Schuster& Ashburn, may be able to teach other "hands-
 Adapt quickly to change and new 1992, p. 786; Touhy& Jett, 2012, p. 4) because on" skills that don't require in-depth
know edge? they try to meet the needs of their teenagers/adult explanation and rationale.
children (who have often returned to live at home
and bring grandchildren) as well as caring for
aging parents/grandparents
• They are attempting to guide young people who
are seeking independence while manage the older
persons who are experiencing loss of
independence
 A S S E S S M E N T O F P I A G E T ’ S C O G N I T I V E D E V E L O P M E N T ( O L D E R A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 Maintain maximal independence • The older adult who uses formal operational • The older adult who does not
with activities of daily living? thinking continues to share expertise with possess formal operational thinking
 Look for ways to find satisfaction others . eventually profits from assistance
• This person can remember events and stories
with life? that reflect earlier years, teaching others from others, especially in obtain ing
 Determine realistic plans for the about history and the continuities of life. activities of daily living, correctly
future including own mortality? • Many older adults prefer gradual transitions taking medication and maintaining
as opposed to abrupt change. one's highest level of wellness.
• The older adult, who has seen much change,
can demonstrate flexibility.
• This person is capable of making realistic
decisions regarding pacing of activities,
planning self-care, making living
arrangements, providing for transportation,
adhering to medical regimen, and managing
finances.
• Older adults are capable of gradually
transferring social/ civic responsibilities to
others.
• This person solidifies the concepts of life
and death.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F K O H L B E R G ’ S M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( Y O U N G A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 State priorities to be considered • According to Kohlberg's theory, • The young adult who continues to
when making a moral decision? which was based on male behavior, make decisions and behave for sole
 Perceive having approval of family? the young adult who has at least satisfaction has not attained the
 Perceive having approval of peers? reached Piaget's stage of concrete conventional level.
 Perceive having approval of operations may have attained the • Continued behavior that negatively
supervisor teachers/authority figures? conventional level of moral reasoning. affects the comfort zone of others or
 Perceive having approval of • As the young adult attempts to take on infringes on the rights of others is not
significant other? new roles (adult student, exclusive normal.
 Consider self to be a "good person"? sexual relationship, vocation, • Those persons experiencing extreme
Why or why not? marriage, parent), attempts are made stress overload may demonstrate
 Able to judge the intentions of to maintain expectations and rules of moral regression
others? the family, group, partner ship, or
society.
• This young adult obeys the law
because it is respect for authority.
• Guilt can be a motivator to do the
"right thing”.
• Decisions and behaviors are based on
concerns about gaining approval from
others.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F K O H L B E R G ’ S M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( M I D D L E - A G E D A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 State priorities to be considered • Kohlberg found that although many • The person who has consistently
when making a moral decision? adults are capable of Piaget's stage of used mal adaptive coping will not
 Focus more on law and order or formal operations, few demonstrated reach the postconventional level.
individual rights when making a the postconventional level of behavior • Such a person could regress as far as
decision? and, if healthy, were more than likely the premoral (or even amoral) level.
 Express willingness to stop at the conventional level. • This person fears authority and hopes
unhealthy behavior and change • Kohlberg believed that if a person was to "not get caught”.
lifestyle patterns to foster a higher capable of formal operations and
level of wellness? experienced additional positive
personal moral choices, that person
could reach a higher level of moral
development
• Many older middle-aged adults
questioned authority and challenged
the status quo during their young-
adult years.
• There are many healthy middle-aged
people who feel that they have learned
from mistakes made earlier during
young adulthood.
 A S S E S S M E N T O F K O H L B E R G ’ S M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T ( O L D E R A D U LT )

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE NORMAL FINDINGS ABNORMAL FINDINGS

 State priorities to be considered • Kohlberg believed that very few • It is difficult to assess anyone as
when making a moral decision? people attain and maintain the highest normal or abnormal unless that
stage of the postconventional level person is harming self or others.
 View rules and laws as changeable • During the fifth stage the person
using legal means believes in respect for individuals • Kohlberg hypothesized that older
while still emphasizing that the needs adults who were still at the
 Make decisions consistently on of the majority are more important. preconventional level obey rules to
internalized rules and in terms of • During the sixth stage, the person avoid the disapproval of others.
conscience? believes in absolute justice for every
individual and is willing to make a • Kohlberg believed that older adults
 Believe in equality for every person? decision or perform an action risking at the conventional level adhere to
external punishment. society's rules and laws because they
• It may be that the older adult believe this is what others expect of
perceives more authority time, and them.
courage to "speak one's mind"
• Today's senior citizen may have
developed belief patterns during a
time very different than the 21st
century.
THANK YOU!