Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.

org on November 7, 2015

Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentation on a tectonically active

margin: Example from the Pliocene of Baja California Sur, Mexico
Rebecca J. Dorsey* Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1272, USA
Susan M. Kidwell Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA

ABSTRACT nonmarine, deltaic, and marine environments

Bioclast-rich, coarse-grained deposits in the Pliocene Loreto basin provide a record of mixed (Dorsey et al., 1995; Dorsey and Umhoefer,
carbonate and siliciclastic sedimentation at the steep hanging-wall margin of this small, fault- 1999). The stratigraphy of the Loreto basin is
controlled basin. Sedimentary facies consist of sand- to gravel-sized carbonate debris mixed with divided into four sequences that record fault-
volcaniclastic sand and gravel in a proximal to distal facies tract that includes matrix-rich and controlled basin evolution: (1) relatively slow
matrix-poor shelly conglomerate, impure calcirudite and calcarenite, mixed-composition turbidites, deposition in a nonmarine half graben; (2) very
and bioturbated calcarenitic sandstone. Carbonate material was produced by mollusks and other rapid westward tilting, subsidence, and deposi-
benthic organisms on a narrow, high-energy shelf and mixed with volcaniclastic sand and gravel tion of footwall-derived marine Gilbert-type fan
in cross-shelf channels. These mixtures were transported down a steep subaqueous slope by debris deltas and associated nonmarine and marine
flows, grain flows, and turbidity currents, forming foresets and bottomsets of marine Gilbert-type facies; (3) continued rapid subsidence and depo-
deltas. This style of mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentation has not been documented in detail sition of impure bioclastic carbonates derived
elsewhere but should be locally abundant in the stratigraphic record of fault-bounded basins, par- from the eastern hanging-wall dip slope; and
ticularly those with cool or nutrient-rich waters that support relatively few binding and frame- (4) abrupt foundering of the basin to outer shelf
work-building faunas. Recognition of similar facies in other settings can provide useful insights depths followed by filling with marine mudstone
into ancient conditions of carbonate production, oceanography, climate, and tectonics. and limestone (Dorsey et al., 1995; Dorsey and
Umhoefer, 1999). Sequence 3 (this study) con-
INTRODUCTION be locally abundant in the stratigraphic record and tains abundant bioclastic carbonates and asso-
Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentation is can be useful for reconstructing paleogeography, ciated volcaniclastic sediments that accumulated
common in middle- to low-latitude shelf and oceanography, climate, and tectonics of ancient in foresets and bottomsets of marine Gilbert-type
platform settings and can be controlled by a vari- sedimentary basins. deltas (Fig. 2) at the eastern margin of the Loreto
ety of physical and biological processes (Choi basin. These coarse-grained deltas prograded to
and Ginsburg, 1982; Mount, 1984; Flood and BASIN SETTING AND STRATIGRAPHY the west and northwest into the basin in response
Orme, 1988; Pilkey et al., 1988). Mixing can The Pliocene Loreto basin is a small, trans- to fault-controlled uplift of the hanging-wall tilt
occur when terrigenous sand and mud are deliv- tensional half-graben basin that formed during block, which created a new source of siliciclastic
ered to a carbonate shelf during storms, causing development of the modern transform-rift plate sediment in the Sierra Microondas (Fig. 1) and a
temporary termination or diminution of carbon- boundary in the Gulf of California (Fig. 1; narrow shelf for carbonate production.
ate production (e.g., Kreisa, 1981). Storms may Umhoefer et al., 1994; Umhoefer and Dorsey,
winnow and transport skeletal carbonate material 1997). The basin formed by westward tilting and SEDIMENTOLOGY OF MIXED FACIES
from outer reef or bank settings into inner shelf asymmetric subsidence between ca. 5(?) and Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits in se-
and lagoonal areas of fair-weather siliciclastic 2 Ma, and it contains a thick, diverse assemblage quence 3 vary considerably in grain size, sorting,
sedimentation, producing stratified bioclastic of sedimentary rocks that accumulated rapidly in sedimentary structures, thickness, and relative
deposits and interbedded mixtures (e.g., Kelling
and Mullin, 1975). Rarely, clastic carbonate
material is derived from older lithified carbonate
terranes, in which case production of carbonate
sediments is unrelated to basinal dynamics or Figure 1. Geologic map of
paleoecology of the shelf (Mount, 1984). Loreto basin and regional
In this paper we introduce a previously undoc- tectonic setting (inset). Bio-
umented style of mixed carbonate and siliciclastic clastic carbonates include
sedimentation by using an example from the tec- mixed carbonate and vol-
caniclastic deposits of this
tonically active Pliocene Loreto basin in Baja study (box shows location
California Sur, Mexico (Fig. 1). In this setting, of this study). Abbrevia-
molluscan carbonates were produced on a narrow, tions: BC—Baja Califor-
high-energy shelf rimmed by Miocene volcanic nia; BCS—Baja California
Sur; Kg—Cretaceous gran-
bedrock, mixed with volcaniclastic sand and itoids; L—Loreto basin;
gravel in cross-shelf channels, and transported m—pre-Cretaceous meta-
down steep, unstable slopes into the flanking morphic rocks; Mv—Mio-
basin by a variety of subaqueous sediment-gravity cene volcanic rocks; Qt—
flows. These flows produced a diverse array of Quaternary terrace depos-
its; Qal—Quaternary allu-
mixed bioclastic and volcaniclastic deposits that vium; Tv—Tertiary vol-
are described and interpreted in the following. canic rocks; sst—sand-
Although not previously documented, this style of stone.
mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentation should

*E-mail: rdorsey@darkwing.uoregon.edu.

Geology; October 1999; v. 27; no. 10; p. 935–938; 4 figures; 1 table. 935
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on November 7, 2015

overlain by massive pebbly calcirudite and sandy

Figure 2. View looking north calcarenite (Fig. 3, B and C; Table 1). Carbonate
at large-scale foresets of
Gilbert-type fan delta, show- grains are well sorted and in extreme instances
ing transport toward west. consist of closely stacked concave-up valves of a
Upper foresets (dark colored) single scallop or barnacle species. Inverse and nor-
are matrix-rich shelly con- mal grading in basal gravel layers, abrupt but
glomerate (facies 2); lower
foresets (light-colored) are
nonerosive contacts between gravel and calciru-
transported calcirudite and dite, and close association with subaqueous debris
calcarenite (facies 4) and bi- flows and turbidites suggest deposition from high-
partite conglomerate and cal- concentration grain flows and overflowing, lower
carenite (facies 3). Thickness density turbulent suspensions (e.g., Lowe, 1982;
of exposed foresets is ~50 m.
Nemec, 1990; Falk and Dorsey, 1998). Concentra-
tion of calcirudite and calcarenite in the upper
parts of these deposits is attributed to hydraulic
sorting and segregation of lighter carbonate shell
percent of carbonate and siliciclastic components hash refers to carbonate grains 2–10 mm in diam- debris from heavier volcaniclastic gravel.
(Table 1; Fig. 3). These deposits are exposed in a eter, and calcirudite indicates gravel-sized car- Facies 4 consists of massive to relict-bedded
laterally contiguous facies tract that displays an bonate particles (Table 1). calcirudite and calcarenite with relatively minor
overall decrease in grain size from proximal Facies 1 is preserved locally as thin topset lithic sand, granules, and small pebbles (Fig. 3C).
Gilbert-type delta foresets (Fig. 2) to medial and deposits and consists of thin- to medium-bedded Calcirudite and calcarenite record deposition
distal bottomsets. Carbonate grains consist clast-supported conglomerate, shelly sandstone, from bioclastic turbulent suspensions, or high-
mainly of transported calcitic skeletons, espe- and shell beds (sandy calcirudite). Shell beds density turbidity currents, that bypassed the less
cially scallops, oysters, barnacles, and bryozoans, contain abundant articulated organisms in life mobile basal gravel flows of facies 3 and accu-
that range from sand-sized carbonate grains to positions, particularly scallops, oysters, bar- mulated as amalgamated run-out deposits on
shell fragments and unbroken shells. Siliciclastic nacles, and gravel-nucleated bryoliths. These lower foresets and bottomsets of prograding
grains consist of volcaniclastic sand and gravel, components are distributed in a mosaic of sand, Gilbert-type deltas.
including andesitic to basaltic rock fragments and gravel, and shell patches that record benthic Facies 5 consists of mixed-composition tur-
sand-sized minerals (typically plagioclase and colonization and tractional reworking by waves bidites characterized by rhythmic alternations of
pyroxene) derived from Miocene andesites and and currents in a shallow-marine shelf setting. sharp-based sandy calcarenite, calcarenitic sand-
basaltic andesites to the east. Rock names used in Matrix-rich shelly conglomerate (facies 2) is stone, and mudstone, with gradational contacts
this paper (Table 1) employ the carbonate or silici- characterized by poor sorting, lack of current between units and abundant normal grading
clastic terms depending on which component is stratification, ungraded or inversely graded clast (Fig. 3D; Table 1). These are interpreted to record
greater than 50% (e.g., sandy calcarenite vs. cal- fabric, matrix-supported texture, and predomi- a further degree of run-out, dilution, hydraulic
carenitic sandstone), but in reality, lithologies fall nantly disarticulated and broken shells of robust sorting, and deposition of bioclastic and volcani-
in a continuum of carbonate:siliciclastic mixtures species (Fig. 3A; Table 1). Shelly conglomerate clastic detritus by low-density turbidity currents
ranging from 90:10 to 10:90. Mixtures between records deposition by cohesive subaqueous debris in distal bottomsets.
~70:30 and 30:70 are most common. In this study, flows in proximal Gilbert-type delta foresets, Facies 6 consists of burrow-mottled, massive
sand is used to designate sand-sized volcanic rarely continuing down to the base of foreset to weakly bedded fine-grained sandstone and cal-
grains <2 mm in diameter, conglomerate refers to slopes, where they terminate abruptly. carenitic sandstone that record slow deposition
deposits of gravel-sized volcanic clasts, cal- Bipartite deposits (facies 3) consist of ero- by distal low-density turbidity currents and
carenite indicates sand-sized carbonate grains, sionally based, clast-supported conglomerate strong biogenic reworking.

936 GEOLOGY, October 1999

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on November 7, 2015

DEPOSITIONAL MODEL B
Figure 4 depicts our interpretation of the A calcirudite
depositional systems and resulting sedimentary
facies that formed on the eastern margin of the
Loreto basin during sequence 3 time. Uplift and
westward tilting created a rapidly eroding east-
ern source area that delivered volcaniclastic
gravel and sand to small coastal alluvial fans.
Alluvial-fan facies are not directly observed be-
cause of postdepositional erosion, but their pres- basal gravel
ence is inferred from abundant coarse volcani-
clastic gravel in proximal foresets and rare C D
topsets of marine Gilbert-type deltas. A narrow
(<1 km) marine shelf formed along the western
fringe of these fans and provided a shallow-
water sand and gravel habitat for shelly macro-
benthos. Shifting cross-shelf channels incor-
porated molluscan shells and shell fragments,
and mixed bioclastic-volcaniclastic detritus was
transported to the top of steep delta slopes,
where oversteepening caused slope failures and
sediment avalanching (e.g., Nemec, 1990). West-
ward transport and deposition of mixed bio- Figure 3. Mixed bioclastic and volcaniclastic deposits. A: Poorly sorted matrix-rich shelly con-
clastic and volcaniclastic sediment were domi- glomerate (facies 2). B: Bipartite conglomerate and calcirudite (facies 3). C: Massive calcirudite
nated by sediment-gravity flows that underwent and calcarenite (facies 4). D: Mixed-composition turbidites (facies 5).
progressive down-transport transformation from
cohesive debris flows to bipartite flows and low-
density turbidity currents (Fig. 4).

DISCUSSION
Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sediments have
been observed in other fan-delta systems where
they typically consist of dominantly autochtho-
nous thin shell beds and patch reefs that record
periods of transgression or stalled progradation,
as in the Eocene southern Pyrenees (Lopez-
Blanco, 1993), Neogene Betic Cordillera (Dabrio,
1990), and Pliocene footwall-derived fan deltas
of the western Loreto basin (Dorsey et al., 1995).
In the Red Sea, Holocene deposits make up a
complex mosaic of siliciclastic fans, fringing
reefs, and biogenic (bioturbated) mixtures of
longshore-transported carbonate and siliciclastic
sand (Hayward, 1985). Voluminous physical
mixing of lithologies by subaqueous debris flows
and turbidity currents, as described here, has not
been documented in detail elsewhere. The two
closest analogs we are aware of are: (1) rare, thin
mass-flow deposits containing >50% barnacle
debris in Miocene sandy conglomeratic fans of
the Tabernas basin, Spain (Doyle et al., 1996), and Figure 4. Conceptual model for transport and deposition of mixed bioclastic-volcaniclastic litho-
(2) traction transport of loose barnacle-bryozoan facies at eastern margin of Pliocene Loreto basin. Mollusk-rich carbonates were produced in
debris from thrust-cored antiforms and strike-slip shoals and banks in narrow shelf setting, reworked into cross-shelf channels, and transported
down steep basin-margin slope by subaqueous mass flows. Idealized lateral variation in litho-
blocks into adjacent structural troughs (Neogene facies records downslope transformation from debris flows to high- and low-density turbidity
of New Zealand; Kamp and Nelson, 1987). currents. See text for discussion; abbreviations: comp.—composition, turb.—turbidity, cgl—con-
A combination of conditions apparently was glomerate, sst—sandstone.
required to form the coarse-grained mixed facies
described here for the Loreto basin. In particular, carbonate production, a slow rate of carbonate downslope evolution of subaqueous sediment-
mobilization and rapid downslope transport of breakdown by processes such as dissolution, bio- gravity flows. Condition 1 appears to require non-
large volumes of loose carbonate particles require erosion, and maceration, so that carbonate grains tropical temperatures and/or an elevated nutrient
(1) a relatively high rate of carbonate production in could survive temporary storage in shallow load, which would curtail binders, suppress in-
shallow waters but without extensive algal and/or waters; and (3) strong tectonic uplift to produce organic cementation, and favor the dominance of
coral binding or early cementation; (2) relative to steep basin-margin gradients, slope failure, and mollusks and barnacles (James, 1997). Average

GEOLOGY, October 1999 937

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on November 7, 2015

accumulation rates for such heterozoan car- graphic conditions: (1) high rate of carbonate pro- Falk, P., and Dorsey, R. J., 1998, Rapid development of
bonates on Quaternary shelves are 1–100 cm/k.y., duction in shallow waters without extensive algal gravelly high-density turbidity currents in ma-
rine Gilbert-type fan deltas, Loreto basin, Baja
an order of magnitude lower than those for chloro- and/or coral binding or early cementation; (2) California Sur, Mexico: Sedimentology, v. 45,
zoan shallow-water reefs (1000 cm/k.y.); how- slow rate of carbonate breakdown relative to pro- p. 331–349.
ever, at the high end they match accumulation duction rate so that the net supply of carbonate Flood, P. G., and Orme, G. R., 1988, Mixed silici-
rates for tropical tidalites, oolites, and deeper debris is comparable to that of coarse siliciclastic clastic/carbonate sediments of the northern Great
Barrier reef province, Australia, in Doyle, L. J.,
water (>5 m) reefs (James, 1997), and thus are detritus; and (3) steep basin-margin gradients that
and Roberts H. H., eds., Carbonate-clastic transi-
capable of feeding steep-sloped delta systems. are necessary for rapid downslope transport of tions: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 175–205.
These rates reflect the net outcome of total pro- sediment mass flows. These conditions existed in Hayward, A. B., 1985, Coastal alluvial fans (fan deltas)
duction and total postmortem destruction, sug- the tectonically active Pliocene Loreto basin, of the Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat), Red Sea:
gesting that condition 2 also would have been where high productivity of nontropical carbonates Sedimentary Geology, v. 43, p. 241–260.
James, N. P., 1997, The cool-water carbonate deposi-
met in the Loreto basin. The absence of micri- (mollusk-dominated faunas) resulted from strong tional realm, in James, N. P., and Clarke, J. A. D.,
tized shells is consistent with cooler temperatures upwelling of nutrient-rich cool waters in the Gulf eds., Cool-water carbonates: SEPM (Society for
or elevated nutrients, because micritization is of California. Similar facies are likely to be pre- Sedimentary Geology) Special Publication 56,
known to take place only in warm tropical served in other basins, where they can be useful p. 1–20.
Kamp, P. J. J., and Nelson, C. S., 1987, Tectonic and sea-
chlorozoan sediments (Alexandersson, 1972). for better understanding past climatic, oceanic,
level controls on nontropical Neogene limestones
In the Loreto basin (26°N) during Pliocene and tectonic conditions of sedimentation. in New Zealand: Geology, v. 15, p. 610–613.
time, the conditions described herein were con- Kelling, G., and Mullin, P. R., 1975, Graded limestones
trolled by several regional-scale geologic and cli- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and limestone-quartzite couplets: Possible storm-
Supported by the donors of the Petroleum Research deposits from the Moroccan Carboniferous: Sedi-
matic factors. The Pliocene Gulf of California Fund (administered by the American Chemical Society) mentary Geology, v. 13, p. 161–190.
and adjacent embayments such as the Loreto and by the National Science Foundation (grant EAR- Kreisa, R. D., 1981, Storm-generated sedimentary
basin were likely affected by oceanographic and 9526506). We thank Paul Umhoefer for useful discus- structures in subtidal marine facies with examples
physiographic conditions similar to those of the sions and insights during the course of the study, and from the Middle and Upper Ordovician of south-
James Boles and an anonymous reviewer for helpful western Virginia: Journal of Sedimentary Petrol-
modern gulf: a long, narrow marine body deeper comments on the manuscript. ogy, v. 51, p. 823–848.
at its mouth than at the head, with a semiarid to
Lopez-Blanco, M., 1993, Stratigraphy and sedimentary
arid climate. The modern gulf is a subtropical REFERENCES CITED development of the Sant Llorenc del Munt fan-
area of exceptionally high productivity resulting Alexandersson, T., 1972, Micritization of carbonate delta complex (Eocene, southern Pyrenean fore-
from its thermohaline circulation: warm surface particles: Processes of precipitation and dissolu- land basin, northeast Spain), in Frostick, L. E.,
tion in modern shallow-marine sediments: Uni- and Steel, R. J., eds., Tectonic controls and signa-
water created in the northern gulf flows out at the versity of Uppsala Geological Institute Bulletin, tures in sedimentary successions: International
southern end, cool nutrient-rich Pacific water is new series, v. 3, p. 201–236. Association of Sedimentologists Special Publica-
drawn into the gulf at depth, and seasonal shifts Alvarez-Borrego, S., and Lara-Lara, J. R., 1991, The tion 20, p. 67–88.
in large-scale wind patterns cause upwelling of physical environment and primary productivity of Lowe, D. R., 1982, Sediment gravity flows: II. Deposi-
the Gulf of California, in Dauphin, J. P., and tional models with special reference to the depos-
these deep waters along both the Baja and Sonoran Simoneit, B. R. T., eds., The Gulf and Peninsular its of high-density turbidity currents: Journal of
(mainland) coasts (Alvarez-Borrego and Lara- Province of the Californias: American Association Sedimentary Petrology, v. 52, p. 279–297.
Lara, 1991; Bray and Robles, 1991). Upwelling of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 47, p. 555–567. Mount, J. F., 1984, Mixing of siliciclastic and carbonate
conditions probably existed in the Loreto area Bray, N. A., and Robles, J. M., 1991, Physical oceanog- sediments in shallow shelf environments: Geol-
during Pliocene time and can explain the taxo- raphy of the Gulf of California, in Dauphin, J. P., ogy, v. 12, p. 432–435.
and Simoneit, B. R. T., eds., The Gulf and Penin- Nemec, W., 1990, Aspects of sediment movement on
nomic composition of the Loreto benthic fauna, sular Province of the Californias: American Asso- steep delta slopes, in Colella, A., and Prior, D. B.,
which is typical of cool and/or nutrient-enriched ciation of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 47, eds., Coarse-grained deltas: International Associ-
waters (classic heterozoan association) rather p. 511–553. ation of Sedimentologists Special Publication 10,
than the warmer and clearer subtropical condi- Choi, D. R., and Ginsburg, R. N., 1982, Siliciclastic p. 29–73.
foundations of Quaternary reefs in the southern- Pilkey, O. H., Bush, D. M., and Rodriguez, R. W., 1988,
tions that would be expected in the absence of up- most Belize Lagoon, British Honduras: Geologi- Carbonate terrigenous sedimentation on the north
welling. Reduced water clarity due to terrigenous cal Society of America Bulletin, v. 93, p. 116–126. Puerto Rico shelf, in Doyle, L. J., and Roberts,
input from nearby eroding uplands may have also Dabrio, C. J., 1990, Fan-delta facies associations in late H. H., eds., Carbonate-clastic transitions: Amster-
contributed to conditions that favored mollusks Neogene and Quaternary basins of southeastern dam, Elsevier, p. 231–250.
and inhibited carbonate production by more typi- Spain, in Colella,A., and Prior, D. B., eds., Coarse- Umhoefer, P. J., and Dorsey, R. J., 1997, Translation of
grained deltas: International Association of Sedi- terranes: Lessons from central Baja California,
cal subtropical corals and encrusting algae. The mentologists Special Publication 10, p. 91–111. Mexico: Geology, v. 25, p. 1007–1010.
requisite narrow shelf setting, steep bathymetric Dorsey, R. J., and Umhoefer, P. J., 1999, Tectonic and Umhoefer, P. J., Dorsey, R. J., and Renne, P. R., 1994,
gradient, and rapid input of coarse terrigenous eustatic controls on sequence stratigraphy of the Tectonics of the Pliocene Loreto basin, Baja Cali-
sediment (condition 3) resulted from rapid tec- Pliocene Loreto basin, Baja California Sur, fornia Sur, Mexico, and evolution of the Gulf of
Mexico: Geological Society of America Bulletin California: Geology, v. 22, p. 649–652.
tonic uplift in the hanging-wall tilt block of a (in press).
tectonically active, fault-bounded basin. Dorsey, R. J., Umhoefer, P. J., and Renne, P. R., 1995,
Manuscript received February 8, 1999
Rapid subsidence and stacked Gilbert-type fan
Revised manuscript received July 6, 1999
CONCLUSIONS deltas, Pliocene Loreto Basin, Baja California Sur,
Manuscript accepted July 16, 1999
Mixed bioclastic and volcaniclastic facies in Mexico: Sedimentary Geology, v. 98, p. 181–204.
Doyle, P., Mather, A. E., Bennett, M. R., and Bussell,
the Loreto basin were deposited by a variety of M. A., 1996, Miocene barnacle assemblages from
submarine debris flows and turbidity currents in southern Spain and their palaeoenvironmental
Gilbert-type deltas that prograded away from the significance: Lethaia, v. 29, p. 267–274.
active eastern margin of the basin. This style of
mixed carbonate and siliciclastic sedimentation
requires a specific set of tectonic and oceano-

938 Printed in U.S.A. GEOLOGY, October 1999

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on November 7, 2015

Geology

Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentation on a tectonically active margin:

Example from the Pliocene of Baja California Sur, Mexico
Rebecca J. Dorsey and Susan M. Kidwell

Geology 1999;27;935-938
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0935:MCSSOA>2.3.CO;2

Email alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new
articles cite this article
Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions/ to subscribe to Geology
Permission request click http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA
Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of
their employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further
requests to GSA, to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent
works and to make unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms
to further education and science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post
the abstracts only of their articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting
includes a reference to the article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the
presentation of diverse opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race,
citizenship, gender, religion, or political viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect
official positions of the Society.

Notes

Geological Society of America