MODULE 5- ESTABLISHING LEARNING TARGETS

INTRODUCTION

This module will introduce you to the different concepts in establishing learning targets. The
first part of this module will tackle the purposes of instructional goals and objectives, and learning
targets and its types. The second part will tackle Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning domains-cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

In this module, you will be able to:

1. Differentiate the types of learning targets;
2. Give concrete examples of the different learning targets; and
3. Discuss the taxonomies of learning objectives

PRE-ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Complete the table below with the desired information.

What I Know about this What I want to know about What do I Learned from this
lesson? this lesson? lesson?
MODULE MAP

CONTENT

ENGAGE ENGAGING ON THE ESTABLISHING OF LEARNING TARGETS

Activity No. 1 – DID YOU KNOW?

Instruction: Discuss the taxonomies of learning objectives.
EXPLORE DELVING ON THE ESTABLISHING OF LEARNING TARGETS
Activity No. 2 – Read Me!
Instruction: Closely read the text below.

A good classroom assessment has clear, appropriate learning targets. Defining learning targets/outcomes is
the first step in good teaching. It is also essential in the assessment of student learning.

Purposes of Instructional Goals and Objectives

Instructional goals and objectives provide direction for the instructional process by clarifying the intended
learning outcomes. They also convey instructional intent to stakeholders such as students, parents, other
personnel, and the public. Most importantly, they provide a basis for assessing student learning by describing
the performance to be measured. Instructional goals and objectives are sometimes stated in terms of actions
to be taken. Thus, there is a statement saying: "demonstrate to students how to operate computers." This
statement clearly indicates the teaching activity. However, it does not clearly specify the intended learning
outcomes and does not point very explicitly to the type of student assessment that would be most
appropriate.

Educational goals are general statements of what students will know and be able to do. Goals are written to
cover most of the instructional time, such as a unit, semester, or year, and indicate in broad terms what will
be emphasized during that time period. Goals are essential because they reflect educational philosophies
about what is important. They also provide a starting point for more specific learning objectives. By
beginning with goals, the general outline can be validated by parents, teachers, and school officials.

An example of a goal is "know how to think critically, be good followers of school policies, and work with
peers."

Instructional objectives are sometimes stated in terms of actions to be taken. Thus, statements like these
abound: "the students will demonstrate how to use the microscope" and "the student will underline the
subject and predicate of each sentence.

Statements, such as the ones mentioned, direct attention to the students and the types of performance they
are expected to exhibit as a result of instruction. Thus, the focus shifts from the teacher to the students and
from the learning experiences to the learning outcomes.

In stating instructional objectives, it is important to keep in mind that the concern is on the product of
learning rather than with the process of learning. This is not meant to suggest that the process is
unimportant. Remember, the long-term instructional objective concerns the product.

Instructional objectives are usually relatively specific statements of the student performance that should be
demonstrated at the end of an instructional unit. They are meant as intended learning outcomes. They
should be stated in terms of specific, observable, and measurable student response. These types of
objectives are characterized by the use of action verbs, such as list, outline, distinguish, categorize, apply,
subtract, synthesize, underline, and define. Highly precise behavioral objectives include the following criteria:

1. Audience. This is a description of the students who are expected to perform or demonstrate the
behavior of a specific grade level.

2. Behavior. Specific behavior is indicated by action verbs.

3. Criterion. This is a description of the criteria used to indicate whether the behavior has been
demonstrated, like answering eight out of ten questions correctly.

4. Condition. This may be circumstances, equipment, or materials used when demonstrating the
behavior, such as with or without the use of a calculator, an open book, or a dictionary.

When instructional objectives are written to include all these criteria, they will be highly specific as the
examples listed below:
 Given one and a half hours without a calculator (condition), students in the honors program
(audience) will compute (behavior) the indexes of discrimination and difficulty of 15 multiple choice
items (criterion).

Writing instructional objectives with these criteria is time-consuming and too confusing for teachers,
however, it depicts very clearly what the students are expected to demonstrate.

Another approach is to state a goal or general objective followed by an example of specific objectives that
indicate the various types of student performances required, for example:

General Objective: Understand what constitutes a good test.

Specific Objective: List the criteria of a good test.

General Objective: Know the importance of Bloom's Taxonomy of Education in test item formulation.

Specific Objectives: Differentiate various levels of difficulties of the several cognitive objectives; give
examples of the different levels of cognitive objectives; distinguish the slim difference of
comprehension from application.

Learning Targets

Terms associated with learning targets are goal, objectives, competency. outcome, standard, and expectation
Learning target is defined as a staternent of student performance that includes both a description of what
students should know or be able to do at the end of a unit of instruction and the criteria for judging the level
of performances demonstrated.

The word learning is used to convey that targets' emphasis on the importance of how students will change.
The learning targets are composed of content and criteria. Content is what students should know and be
able to do. On the other hand, criteria are dimensions of student performance used for judging attainment.

It is necessary that the criteria for judging levels of performance be included in the target. The target
"students will know the cities in the Philippines" means something different if the students have to commit
the major chartered cities to memory than if the students can correctly match half of the names of major
chartered cities with provinces or regions. The criterion for judging levels of performance needs to be
communicated to the students prior to instruction. Below is an example of a learning target:

Students will be able to explain why changing the government from presidential to parliamentary
form is (un)necessary by writing an essay that indicates the favorable or unfavorable conditions the change
would bring to the economy. The papers will be graded holistically by looking for evidence of reasons and
knowledge of the forms of government and organization.

Types of Learning Targets

Knowledge Learning Targets. Knowledge of the subject matter is the foundation upon which other learning is
based. Teachers expect their students to master at least some content. Marzano et al. (1993) suggested that
knowledge is differentiated as declarative and procedural knowledge.

Reasoning Learning Targets. Due to the advent of technology, the accessibility to information has resulted in
an increased attention to thinking skills. Such capabilities may be described by a number of different terms,
including problem solving, critical thinking, analysis, comparing, intellectual skills, intellectual abilities,
higher-order thinking skills, and judgment.

Skill Learning Targets. In most classrooms, there are things teachers want their students to be able to do; for
example, in a science class, a teacher may want students to operate a laboratory apparatus. In cases like
these, success lies on doing the task well. The challenge for teachers to assess lies on the clarity of terms or
the usage of words, or both. A skill is something that the student demonstrates, something done. Skill
learning targets involve a behavior in which knowledge and reasoning are used in an overt manner.

Product Learning Targets. Products, like skills, are dependent on the prior attainment of knowledge and
reasoning targets. Products are samples of student work that demonstrates the ability to use knowledge and
reasoning in the creation of a tangible product like a term paper, investigative report, artwork, or other
projects. Thus, products are used to demonstrate knowledge, reasoning, and skills Performance-based
assessments are examples of how product learning targets are measured.

Affective Learning Targets. Affective learning includes emotions, feelings, and beliefs that are different from
cognitive learning, like knowledge, reasoning, and skills. It can be described as being positive or negative,
and most teachers hope that students will develop positive attitudes toward school subjects and leaming,
themselves as learners, and other students and schools Affective learning targets are also referred to as
motivational dispositions, values, and morals. Although most teachers believe that a positive affect is an
important outcome as well as a determinant of cognitive learning, many believe that schools should only be
concerned with cognitive learning targets, because even though affective targets are possible to assess, they
are still complex.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Educational psychologists have advocated various techniques of stating educational objectives. They have
also assisted in specifying goals by constructing taxonomies of educational objectives. These taxonomies
have classified the goals of education and are useful as a means both of communicating goals and
understanding some relationships among them. Original plans for one classification system called for the
development of taxonomies in three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

The cognitive domain includes objectives that deal with the recall or organization of knowledge and the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. The cognitive taxonomy contains six major classes of
objectives arranged in hierarchical order on the basis of the complexity of a task. Bloom's Taxonomy enables
teachers and educators to use exact and varied terminologies for stating specific learning outcomes. These
terms are identified in the table below:

Table 5.1 FORMULATING COGNITIVE LEARNING TARGETS

Description of the Major Illustrative Behavioral
Illustrative General
Categories in the Cognitive Terms for Stating Specific
Instructional Objectives
Domain Learning Outcomes
KNOWLEDGE. It is defined as the
recall of previously learned material.
This may involve the recollection of a
wide range of materials, from specific Knows common terms; knows Defines; describes; identifies;
facts to complete theories, although specific facts; knows methods labels; lists; matches; names;
remembering the appropriate and procedures; knows basic outlines; reproduces; selects;
information is the only thing required. concepts; knows principles states
Knowledge represents the lowest level
of learning outcome in the cognitive
domain.
COMPREHENSION. It is defined as
the ability to grasp the meaning of the Understands facts and
material. This may be shown by principles; interprets verbal Converts; defends;
translating the material from one form material; interprets charts and distinguishes; estimates;
to another, interpreting the material, graphs; translates verbal explains; extends; infers;
and estimating future trends. Learning formulas to mathematical ones generalizes; gives examples;
outcomes go one step beyond the estimates future consequences; paraphrases; predicts; rewrites;
simple remembering of a material. It justifies methods and summarizes
represents the lowest level of procedures
understanding.
APPLICATION. It refers to the ability
Applies concepts and principles
to use learned material in a new,
to new situations; applies laws
concrete situation. This may include Changes; computes;
and theories to practical
the application of things such as rules, demonstrates; discovers;
situations; solves mathematical
methods, concepts, laws, principles, manipulates; modifies; operates;
problems; demonstrates correct
and theories. Learning outcomes in predicts; prepares; uses;
usage of a method or
this area require a higher level of produces; relates; shows; solves
procedure; constructs charts
understanding than those under
and graphs
comprehension.
ANALYSIS. It refers to the ability to
break down material into its
component parts so that its Recognizes unstated
organizational structure may be assumptions; recognizes logical Breaks down; diagrams;
understood. This may include the fallacies in reasoning; data; differentiates; discriminates;
identification of the parts, and distinguishes between facts and distinguishes; identifies;
recognition of the organizational opinion/ inferences; evaluates illustrates; infers; outlines;
principles involved. Learning outcomes the relevance of analyzes the points out; relates; selects;
here represent a higher intellectual organizational structure of a separates; subdivides
level than the comprehension of both work
the content and structural form of the
material.
SYNTHESIS. It refers to the ability to
put parts together to form a new Writes a well-organized theme;
whole. This may involve the gives a well-organized speech Categorizes; combines;
production of a unique communication writes a creative short story, compiles; composes; creates;
(theme or speech), a plan of poem, or music; proposes a devises; designs; explains;
operations (research proposal), or a plan for an experiment; generates; modifies; plans;
set of abstract relations (scheme for integrates learning from organizes; rearranges;
classifying information). Learning different areas into a plan for reconstructs; relates;
outcomes in this area stress creative solving a problem; formulates a reorganizes; revises; rewrites;
behaviors, with major emphasis on new scheme for classifying summarizes; tells; writes
the formulation of new patterns or objects, events or ideas
structures.
EVALUATION. Evaluation is
concerned with the ability to judge the Judges the logical consistency
value of a material (statement, novel, of written material; judges the
poem, research, and report) for a adequacy with which
Appraises; compares; concludes;
given purpose. The judgments are to conclusions are supported by
contrasts; criticizes; describes;
be based on definite criteria or be data; judges the value of work
discriminates; explains; justifies;
given to them. Learning outcomes in (art, music, and writing) by use
interprets; relates; summarizes;
this area are highest in the cognitive of internal criteria; judges the
supports
hierarchy because they contain value of work (art, music, and
elements of all the categories, plus writing) by use of external
conscious value judgments based on standards of excellence
clearly defined criteria.

The affective domain is concerned with changes in interests, attitudes, and values and the development of
appreciation and adjustment. It is divided into five major classes hierarchically arranged on the basis of
involvement. Teachers will have a great deal to do with the feelings, attitudes, and values developed in their
classrooms regardless of whether they state or do not state affective objectives. Although teachers are tacitly
expected to encourage mainstream values-for example, honesty and responsibility they may inadvertently
cause a conflict by espousing a more complex or more specific moral stance. Therefore, the only way to
assess the attitudes or values people have is by observing what they do or say. Affective domain includes the
manner in which we deal with things emotionally (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1973). The five major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex.

Table 5.2FORMULATING AFFECTIVE LEARNING TARGETS

Category Examples and Key Words
Receiving (Attending) Phenomena: Awareness,
willingness to hear, selected attention
Examples: Listens to others with respect;
listens for and remembers the name of
This is the lowest category in the affective domain. At
newly introduced people
this level, the student is aware of the existence of a
condition or problem and is willing to at least listen
Key Words: asks; chooses; describes;
attentively to what others have to say about it. The
follows; gives; holds; identifies; locates;
element of commitment is not present, and the
names; points to; selects; sits; erects;
behavior is somewhat analogous to "sitting on the
replies; uses
fence." The student is aware of an issue, but has not
yet made a decision about it.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on
the part of the learners; attends and reacts to a Examples: Participates in class
particular phenomenon. discussion; gives a presentation;
questions new ideals, concepts, models,
Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in etc. to fully understand them; knows the
responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in safety rules and practices them
responding (motivation). At this level, the student is
willing to go along with an idea or a value, such as Key Words: answers; assists; aids;
being willing to follow school rules, actively volunteers complies; conforms; discusses; greets;
to respond, and takes satisfaction in the response. The helps; labels; performs; practices;
level of commitment is minimal and the behavior is presents; reads; recites; reports; selects;
analogous to jumping off the fence, but holding on to it tells; writes
and being ready to jump back at any moment.
Examples: Demonstrates belief in the
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a
democratic process; is sensitive toward
particular object, phenomenon, or behavior
individual and cultural differences (values
diversity); shows the ability to solve
This ranges from simple acceptance to the more
problems; proposes a plan for social
complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the
improvement and follows through with
internalization of a set of specified values. Clues to
commitment; informs management on
these values are expressed in the learner's overt
matters that one feels strongly about
behavior and are often identifiable. Here, the student
demonstrates that an attitude has been accepted and is
Key Words: completes; demonstrates;
constantly preferred over competing attitudes and
differentiates; explains; follows; forms;
values. The commitment is clear. The student has
initiates; invites; joins; justifies;
walked away from the fence and is willing to be
proposes; reads; reports; selects;
identified as someone holding the attitude or value.
shares; studies; works
Examples: Recognizes the need for
balance between freedom and
responsible behavior; accepts
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by
responsibility for one's behavior; explains
contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between
the role of systematic planning in solving
them, and creating a unique value system; emphasis is
problems; accepts professional ethical
on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values
standards; creates a life plan in harmony
with abilities, interests and beliefs;
The students eventually recognize that conflicts
prioritizes time effectively to meet the
between values arise and must be resolved by setting
needs of the organization, family, and
priorities on values. To do so, students should use
self
higher-level cognitive thinking, which will enable them
to resolve value conflicts in a logical and defensible
Key Words: adheres; arranges;
manner. They will then have greater confidence in their
combines; compares; completes;
decisions. This level is a direct link between the
defends; explains; formulates;
cognitive and the affective domains.
generalizes; identifies; integrates;
modifies; orders; organizes; prepares;
relates; synthesizes
Internalizing values (Characterization): Has a Examples: Shows self-reliance when
value system that controls behavior; behavior is working independently; cooperates in
pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, group activities (displays teamwork);
a characteristic of the learner; instructional objectives uses an objective approach in problem
are concerned with the student's general patterns of solving; displays a professional
adjustment (personal, social, emotional) commitment to ethical practice on a daily
basis; revises judgments and changes
This is the highest level of the affective domain. At this behavior in light of new evidence; values
level, a person has developed and internalized a value people for what they are, not how they
system to the extent that those values are clearly look
reflected in the person's behavior. When we think of a
miser or a spendthrift, we are thinking of someone who Key Words: acts; discriminates; displays;
has reached the characterization level. That person has influences; listens; modifies; performs;
reason for holding particular values and is satisfied with practices; proposes; qualifies; questions;
those values. Since students are in the process of revises; serves; solves; verifies
developing their value structures, only a few will reach
the characterization level while in high school.

The psychomotor domain is concerned with the development of motor skills and neuromuscular control.
Objectives in the psychomotor domain often contain elements of the cognitive and affective domains and
vice versa, but the dominant characteristic and intent of the student's response is physical movement. The
curricular areas in which psychomotor skills receive major emphasis include typing, shorthand, home
economics, industrial education, art, music, and of course, physical education. It is important to keep in
mind, however, that virtually all other curricular areas depend, on one degree or another, on psychomotor
skills. Speaking, gesturing, writing, and eye-hand coordination are examples of psychomotor domain skills.
The psychomotor domain has five levels; namely, imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation, and
naturalization.

Table 5.3 FORMULATING PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING TARGETS (Simpson et al., 2001)

Descriptors of Major Categories in the
Illustrative Verbs
Psychomotor Domain
1. Imitation - early stage in learning a complex skill, Begins; assembles; attempts; carries
overtly, after the individual has indicated a readiness to out; copies; calibrates; constructs;
take a particular type of action. Imitation includes dissects; duplicates; follows; mimics;
repeating an act that has been demonstrated or moves; practices; proceeds; repeats;
explained. It also includes trial and error until an reproduces; responds; organizes;
appropriate response is achieved. sketches; starts; tries; volunteers
2. Manipulation - individual continues to practice a
(Same as imitation); acquires;
particular skill or sequence until it becomes habitual and
assembles; completes; conducts; does;
the action can be performed with some confidence and
executes; improves; maintains; makes;
proficiency. The response is more complex than the
manipulates; operates; paces; performs;
previous level, but the learner is still not "sure of
produces; progresses; uses
himself/ herself."
(Same as imitation and manipulation);
3. Precision-skill has been attained. Proficiency is
achieves; accomplishes; advances;
indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate performance,
automatizes; exceeds; excels; masters;
requiring minimum energy. The overt response is
reaches; refines; succeeds; surpasses;
complex and performed without hesitation.
transcends
4. Articulation - involves an even higher level of
Adapts; alters; changes; excels;
precision. The skills are so well developed that the
rearranges; reorganizes; revises;
individual can modify movement patterns to fit special
surpasses; transcends
requirements or meet a problem situation.
5. Naturalization - response is automatic. The
individual begins to experiment, creating new motor Arranges; combines; composes;
acts or ways of manipulating materials out of constructs; creates; designs; refines;
understandings, abilities and skills developed. One acts originates; transcends
"without thinking."
EXPLAIN EXPLAINING ON THE ESTABLISHING OF LEARNING TARGETS

Activity No. 3- Let Me Share!

Instruction: From the concepts presented above, differentiate the types of learning targets. You may share
your answers during the online synchronous class schedule.
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EXTEND EXTENDING ON THE ESTABLISHING OF LEARNING TARGETS

Activity No. 4- Give Examples!

Instruction: Give concrete examples of the different learning targets.

EVALUATE EVALUATING ON THE ESTABLISHING OF LEARNING TARGETS

Activity No. 5- Let’s Evaluate!

Instruction: Think of one specific lesson in your field of specialization. Prepare a series of objectives
progressing from low-level cognitive domain up to the appropriate affective domain.

TOPIC SUMMARY

In this module, you learned that:

 ● Instructional goals and objectives provide direction for the instructional process by clarifying the
intended learning outcomes.
● Highly precise behavioral objectives include the following criteria: audience, behavior, criterion, and
condition.
● Types of learning targets are: knowledge, reasoning, skill, product, and affective.
● Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains includes: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
● In formulating cognitive learning targets, we have: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation.
● In formulating affective learning targets, we have: receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and
internalizing values.
● In formulating psychomotor learning targets, we have: imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation,
and naturalization.

POST-ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Complete the table below with the desired information.

What I Know about this What I want to know about What do I Learned from this
lesson? this lesson? lesson?

REFERENCES

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