Earth’s internal structure

3 distinct divisions:

crust Oceanic 0-6 km (“young”, < 180 m.y.)

Continental 0-34 km (older, up to 3.8 b.y.)

mantle Upper 34-670 km

Lower 670-2900 km

Outer (liquid) 2900-5160 km

core Inner (solid) 5160-6370 km

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Earth’s layered structure

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Earth Materials: Minerals

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Atomic Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Example: Table Salt: Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl)

Sodium gives up an Chlorine picks up an electron

electron becoming becoming a negatively charged
a positively-charged anion.
charged cation.
Bonding between sodium and chlorine in halite
is based on these charge differences. iyte.edu.tr
Sharing Electrons: Covalent Bonding

Nucleus

Shared electrons

iyte.edu.tr
 Factors that determine the internal
structure of minerals:
1) Composition of magma or fluids from which the
minerals form.

2) Conditions under which the mineral forms:

 Temperature
 Pressure
Minerals comprised of the same elements in the
same proportions can possess markedly
different internal structures.

For example:
Higher pressure -> Denser packing of atoms -> Different mineral

iyte.edu.tr
 Mineral Structure & Conditions of Formation
Different minerals w/ same chemical composition ,
but differing structures, are called “polymorphs”

Graphite (a form of pure carbon)

 Soft gray material, e.g., pencil lead
 Crystal structure: sheets of carbon

Diamond (also pure carbon)

 Forms deep in Earth at high pressures,
& is hardest substance known to humans
 Crystal structure: dense & compact

iyte.edu.tr
 Identifying Minerals
To identify minerals, we use their physical and optical
properties. Some properties are more diagnostic than
others, so we try to use a combination when making a
determination. Useful properties include:

 Color  Reaction to acid

 Luster  Taste
 Hardness  Smell
 Streak  Magnetization
 Crystal form  Optical properties
 Cleavage  Elasticity
 Fracture  Specific gravity
iyte.edu.tr
 Physical properties of minerals
 Color
Obvious, but often misleading. Slight impurities in a mineral
can change its color.

Example: Quartz (when pure it is colorless), but there are

many color varieties which result from small amounts of other
elements.

iyte.edu.tr
Physical properties of minerals

 Luster
The appearance of light reflected from minerals.

Examples:

Metallic luster vs. nonmetallic luster

Glassy (vitreous) luster

Resinous luster

iyte.edu.tr
Physical properties of minerals
 Hardness
Very useful!
Measures a
mineral’s
resistance to
scratching.

We use Moh’s
hardness scale
(below) for
comparisons.

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Crystal Form Reflects the Internal Arrangement of Atoms

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Crystal form in halite
(salt; NaCl) is cubic

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 A law of mineralogy:
Constancy of angles between crystal faces

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  Crystal Form
The shape of a well-
Quartz
formed crystal reflects (SiO2)
directly the orderly
internal arrangement of
Its constituent atoms.

Well-formed crystals
that grow without
interference are called
“euhedral”.

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iyte.edu.tr
 Anhedral crystals form when
crystals don’t have room
to grow and bump into each other
feldspar in an igneous rock

Irregular boundaries between crystals

due to interference during growth

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 Anhedral crystals
formed by crowding
during growth

Quartz geode
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Crystal terminations of
euhedral quartz

Anhedral quartz crystals

formed by crowding
during growth

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Euhedral crystals of amphibole in a volcanic rock

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Cleavage: Tendency to break along
preferred planes of weakness.

Cleavages represent directions of

weaker bonding between atoms. iyte.edu.tr
2-directional cleavage in mica

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In mica, atoms are arranged in
weakly-connected sheets

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 Asbestos

-group of silicate minerals that readily separate into fibers

that are: thin, flexible, heat resistant, chemically inert

=> many uses

- mainly three types:

chrysotile (“white asbestos”)

crocidolite (“blue asbestos”)
amosite (“brown asbestos”)

iyte.edu.tr
 3-directional
cleavage
Cleavage in both Halite
(salt) & calcite (lime)
is in three directions.
But the angles between
cleavages are different
for these minerals.
 Halite has a cubic
cleavage.
Calcite cleaves into
rhombohedra.

Can you spot which is

which in the samples
to the left?
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Conchoidal Fracture in Quartz Bond strengths
are equal in all
directions.
No preferred
directions of
weakness.
Quartz does not
cleave, but breaks
along smooth,
curved, glassy
surfaces.
Called
“conchoidal”
(glassy)
fracture
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Streak: Color of mineral in its powdered form

Hematite: Iron oxide

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 Carbonate minerals, like calcite, dissolve
“The Acid Test” in acid and release carbon dioxide

CO2 bubbles

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Important Non-silicate Minerals
Halides
Halite (Na, Cl: NaCl)
-> common table salt

Sulfates
Gypsum (Ca,S,O,H: CaSO4-H2O)
-> calcium sulfate + water, main ingredient of
plaster & other building materials
Oxides
Hematite (Fe, O: Fe2O3)
-> steel
iyte.edu.tr
 Important Non-silicate Minerals
Carbonates

Calcite (Ca, C, O: CaCO3)

Dolomite (Ca, Mg,C, O: CaMg(CO3)2

 Found together in sedimentary rock limestone.

 Main ingredient to cement, roads & building stones.

iyte.edu.tr
The Common Rock-forming Minerals
Over 4000 minerals: only few dozen are abundant,
making up most rocks of Earth’s crust
=> rock-forming minerals

Only 8 elements make up most of crust’s minerals &

represent over 98% of the continental crust

The two most abundant elements:

 Silicon (Si)
 Oxygen (O)
iyte.edu.tr
 Question: What minerals would
you expect to be most abundant on Earth?
Percent of elements by WEIGHT

Average composition of the Earth’s crust.iyte.edu.tr

 The Common Rock-forming Minerals
Earth’s Crust
Primarily Si & O followed in abundance by
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, etc.

Dark colored (mantle and oceanic crust)

Olivine (Si, O, Fe, Mg)
Pyroxene (Si, O, Fe, Mg, Ca)
Amphibole (Si, O, Fe, Mg)

Light colored (crust, esp. continental crust)

Quartz (SiO2) - Hard, transparent
Feldspar (Si, O, Al, K, Na, Ca) - Hard, white, gray, pink
Clay (Mostly come from weathering feldspar)
Calcite (CaCO3, shells) Limestone - Used for cement
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Basic Building Block of Silicate Minerals:
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron
An anion with charge of -4

1 silicon (Si) atom

2- 4 oxygen (O) atoms
O

4+
Si 4-
O
2- SiO4
2-
O
2-
O
Silicon tetrahedron has
An overall charge of -4

iyte.edu.tr
 Silicates: The Common Rock-forming Minerals
Basic Building Block:
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron
Tetrahedra link up by forming
covalent bonds between oxygen atoms:

Single silicon tetrahedron: Two tetrahedra can join

A silicon atom covalently- by sharing an electron
bonded to four oxygens. between adjacent oxygen
atoms
Oxygen atom

Silicon atom
iyte.edu.tr
 The Common rock-forming minerals
Silicates
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedra can be arranged into:

Double chains: Amphibole

Single chains: Pyroxene Sheets: Micas
iyte.edu.tr
Balancing Charges in Silicates: Role of Metal Cations
Silicate chains and sheets
Not electrically neutral! Unsatisfied
negative charges
of oxygens
located at the
edges of chains,
or between
sheets are
Iron (Fe) neutralized by
Magnesium (Mg) coordinating
Potassium (K) metallic ions at
Sodium (Na) those sites.
Aluminum (Al)
Calcium (Ca) iyte.edu.tr
 Ionic Substitution
Ions of similar size (ionic radius) and charge
can substitute for one another in a mineral.

iyte.edu.tr
Rocks
Definition of a rock:

A rock is:
1) Comprised of one or more minerals

2) Naturally occurring

There are three types of rocks:

Igneous (formed by cooling from magma)
Sedimentary (formed by the breakdown of other rocks)
Metamorphic (formed when preexisting rocks
are heated under pressure.
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Rocks

rock

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Rocks
collection of
rock one or more
minerals

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Rocks

rock minerals
mineral

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 Rocks
So far we have:
rock minerals
mineral

collection of
one or more
minerals
A collection
of one or more
types of atoms

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 Rocks

Example:
Granite & its
constituent
minerals:
Quartz
Amphibole (hornblende)
Feldspar

iyte.edu.tr
 Rocks
Rocks and minerals

 Some rocks composed entirely of one

mineral
limestone (calcite)

 Most rocks have more than one kind of

mineral
granite

 Some rocks contain non-mineral matter

coal (has organic debris)
obsidian (volcanic glassy rock -> not crystalline)
iyte.edu.tr
THANK YOU

iyte.edu.tr
Rocks
A rock is:

1) Comprised of one or more minerals

2) Naturally occurring

There are three types of rocks:

Igneous (formed by cooling from magma)
Sedimentary (formed by the breakdown of other rocks)
Metamorphic (formed when preexisting rocks
are heated under pressure.
 Rocks and minerals
 Some rocks composed entirely of one
mineral
limestone (calcite)

 Most rocks have more than one kind of

mineral
granite

 Some rocks contain non-mineral matter

coal (has organic debris)
obsidian (volcanic glassy rock -> not crystalline)
Rocks

rock
Rocks
collection of
one or more
rock minerals
Rocks

rock minerals
mineral
So far we have:
rock minerals
mineral

collection of
one or more
minerals
A collection
of one or more
types of atoms
Example:

Granite & its

constituent
minerals:
Quartz
Amphibole (hornblende)
Feldspar
 The Rock Cycle
Rocks may be classified into three types:

Igneous:
Formed by the crystallization of molten rock material called magma
Sedimentary:
Formed from pre-existing rocks by weathering
(chemical and physical breakup) and erosion (transport).
Metamorphic:
Formed by textural and compositional changes that occur
when pre-existing rocks are buried
and subjected to increased temperatures and pressures.
Rock Cycle (see accompanying slide/MOV):
Connects the three rock groups to each other by process.
The rock cycle is embedded within the hydrological and
the plate cycles discussed previously,
Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks
Molten rock

 In the Earth is called magma.

Magma is buoyant, rises to surface,

& sometimes breaks through as
volcanic eruptions.

 When magma reaches the surface it

 is called lava.
Igneous Rocks

An igneous rock is formed when magma or

lava cools and solidifies.
Igneous rocks
 Igneous rocks make up bulk of Earth’s crust.

 Earth’s mantle is composed entirely of igneous rock!

 Igneous rocks are important economically as building

stones and as host rocks for a variety of mineral (ore)
deposits.

 Volcanic activity is a well-known geological hazard,

and the associated igneous rocks hold the secrets
for understanding both the nature of past volcanic
eruptions and the potential for future eruption hazards.
Volcanic Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks that
form by the eruption
of magma at the
surface are called
volcanic (or
extrusive).
Magma erupted at
the surface is called
lava.
Fragmented
materials are called
pyroclastic and
consist of ash &
cinders.
In igneous rocks, texture is controlled by the
cooling rate of the magma.

Cooling Rate Crystal Size

Slow cooling larger crystals

Fast cooling small or no crystals

Plutonic Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks that
form deep below the
surface are called
plutonic (intrusive)
igneous rocks.

To see them, they

must be uplifted to
surface
and the overlying rock
eroded away.
As a magma cools, atoms arrange themselves
into orderly crystalline structures called
minerals. This process is called:
Crystallization
Again, the rate of cooling controls the grain
size of the rock formed.
Plutonic igneous rocks cool slowly at
depth and are therefore coarser grained!

Microscopic views of plutonic igneous rocks

 Subsurface
intrusion called
a dike
ALL ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR:
TEXTURE AND MINERAL COMPOSITION

Texture involves
a consideration of :

a. Size
of the minerals
b. Shape
making up a rock.
c. Arrangement
Types of Igneous Textures

Fine-grained Coarse-grained

Porphyritic Glassy
Types of Igneous Textures
 fast cooling magma/lava  forms deep
 forms at or near surface below the surface
 sometimes gas holes present  slow cooling

 hard to see individual crystals crystals are corase

and intergrown


Fine-grained Coarse-grained

 magma cooled slowly for a  rapid cooling

while then erupted (quenching) at
 minerals crystallized at surface
different temperatures and  amorphous:
or rates over a period of time atoms unable to
form orderly
crystalline
Porphyritic Glassy
structures
Devil’s Postpile
 Plutonic or volcanic?

A C

B D
Sedimentary Rocks
 Derived through the weathering and erosion of pre-existing
rocks.

 Form by the transport and accumulation of fragmental

materials (sediments) or dissolved products, from a source
region to a site of deposition.

 Sediments are constantly being produced at the Earth’s
surface

 and sedimentary deposits are widespread.

 75% of all rock outcrops on continents are sedimentary.
 - Provide a record of past events and environments.
 - Very important economically!
Sedimentary Processes
Two basic environments:

 On-land (continental)

 In the ocean (marine)

Shorelines = “transitional” environments.

 Physical &
chemical weathering
at source.

Erosion (transport)
& local deposition.

Sedimentary Deposition,
environments & burial,
processes. lithification.
Sedimentary Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Older sedimentary rocks

(conglomerate)
being recycled into
new sediments
 Clasts of many different types
of older rocks in a conglomerate.
Sedimentary Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Volcanic rocks
(basalt flows on Hawaii)
being turned
into sediments.

Basalt flows

Basalt gravels
Older sedimentary rocks

Younger dune
sands

Dune sands derived

from nearby outcrops
of older sedimentary rocks.
Black Sand Beach, Hawaii

Basalt flows

Basalt sands
 Mechanical Weathering:
Factors affecting the physical break-up of rocks
1. Frost wedging
freeze/thaw cycle (ice expands)

2. Unloading
remove overlying rock: less pressure

3. Thermal Expansion
hot/cold = expand/shrink

4. Organic Activity
plants/animals/humans
FIG. 7.05A
© Martın Mıller

Sheeting and exfoliation in granite

FIG. 7.05B
Stephen Marshak

Joints (natural fractures)

 Physical processes work hand in hand
with chemical to accelerate weathering.

FIG. 7.08
W. W. Norton
Thermal Expansion

Temperature
changes (day-night
cycles) produces
differential expansion
& contraction of the
minerals in a rock.

This loosens
grain boundaries,
causing a rock
to literally fall apart.
Chemical Weathering
Hydrolysis:
K-Feldspar + water
(carbonic acid)

Kaolinite clay +
ions in solution
(silica, potassium, etc.)

Oxidation:
Ferric iron + Oxygen

Hematite
(iron oxide or “rust”)
Weathered
granite
 Carbon dioxide dissolves
in water to make
a weak acid
Dissolution (carbonic)

of Attacks & dissolves

limestone rocks.

Carbonate is especially
vulnerable.
FIG. 7.10C
Stephen Marshak

Spheroidal weathering of granite

 Fate of Weathering
Products

W. W. Norton
Products of long-term weathering and erosion:
Quartz and clay
Soils
Factors that Control Rates of weathering
1. Rock characteristics composition, physical features
2. Climate temperature, moisture
3. Differential weathering non-uniform weathering

Factors that control soil formation

1. Parent material parent type, consolidated material?
2. Time longer time = thicker soils
3. Climate (most important): affects temperature/rain
4. Plants/animals source of organic material, acids
5. Slope best if flat or mildly undulating
 “good soil:”
Soil = Decomposed rock 45%
+
decayed animal/plant life (“humus”) 5%
+
water 25%
+
air 25%
Different Parent Climates Produce Different Soil Types
Temperate Tropical
Desert

FIG. 7.13ABC
W. W. Norton

Pedalfer Pedocal Laterite

 Different Climates
Produce Different Soils

FIG. 7.13D
W. W. Norton

Soils are thickest in tropical

and temperate climates
Sedimentary rocks
Two Basic Types:

 Detrital (“Clastic) sedimentary rocks

 Mechanical/chemical breakup of rocks (weathering)
produces by-products (sediment grains and dissolved
salts) that are then moved (transported or eroded)
to new location (a site of deposition).
 Chemical sedimentary rocks
 Materials dissolved by chemical weathering,
eventually precipitate out by either organic or
inorganic processes, forming chemical sediments.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
 Derived from material carried in solution to lakes/seas.

Precipitation from solution forms “chemical sediments”

 Two types of precipitation:


 - inorganic

 - biological
 Halite

Dissolved materials derived

Chemical Sediments: by chemical weathering
precipitate as “salts”.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Evaporites
 Water evaporates and dissolved materials are deposited.
 Common environments: Arid marine shorelines, lakes/playas
 Examples: Salt, gypsum, potash

Salt Lake, Turkey

 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Chert Agate (hot subsurface water)

 Very fine-grained silica.

 Also called flint, jasper, agate.

 Deposited on the floor of lakes

and the ocean, or from
hot, subsurface waters.

 Marine creatures remove silica from sea water and

make shells which sink to seafloor or lake bottom.

 Also occurs inorganically

as layers (beds) & as nodules in limestone.
 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone
 10% of all sedimentary rocks (by volume)

 Most abundant chemical sedimentary rock

 Composed primarily of calcite (calcium carbonate CaCO3)

 Formed by marine organisms (corals, clams, algae)

 Some deposited directly out of ocean or other waters

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone: A chemical sedimentary
rock of “biochemical” origin

 Example: Coquina (rock of shell fragments)

 Sedimentary rocks contain fossils,
the remains of once living organisms.

Much of our understanding of the evolution

of our planet’s biosphere is based on this record.
FIG. 7.31B
W. W. Norton
Coal seams
 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Coal
 Made up of buried and compacted plant materials.
 Different “grades” of coal, depending on burial pressure.
 Metamorphic rocks
1) Classification metamorphic rocks
Texture & Composition
2) Contact metamorphism
3) Metamorphism along faults
4) Regional metamorphism
5) Metamorphism & plate tectonics
Agents of metamorphism

 Heat
 Pressure (stress)
 Chemical activity (fluids)
Metamorphic environments
 Contact
 Cataclastic
 Regional
 Common metamorphic rocks
gneiss

mica schist slate

quartzite marble
 Common metamorphic rocks
 Foliated rocks
 Common metamorphic rocks

 Foliated rocks
slate

Slate
FIG. 8.13
W. W. Norton
FIG. 8.10
W. W. Norton
Common metamorphic rocks
 Foliated rocks
Slate
Very fine-grained,
Platy minerals
(Clays, Micas)

COLORS: CONTAINS:
black slate organic material
red slate iron oxide
green slate chlorite
Common metamorphic rocks
Original shale

Slate

TILTING
 Common metamorphic rocks
Slate
 Common metamorphic rocks

Slate

Original
sedimentary
layering
FIG. 8.12A
W. W. Norton
Veins developed
in slate
 Common metamorphic rocks
 Foliated rocks
phyllite

Phyllite

Fine- to medium-grained Phyllite Slate

 Platy minerals(e.g.

muscovite or chlorite
Common metamorphic rocks

Phyllite
Biotite Mica
 Common metamorphic rocks

Original
sedimentary
layers

Phyllite
 Common metamorphic rocks

 Foliated rocks
schist

Schist

Coarser-grained
 Strongly foliated

 Easy to split in

slabs

Pioneer Range, Idaho

 Common metamorphic rocks

Mica Schist

Rock name:
Composition plus texture
 Common metamorphic rocks

Schist

Segregation
of minerals
into bands

Quartz

Micas
Schist
Quartz

Mica
 Common metamorphic rocks

Schist

Segregation
of minerals
into bands
Begins.
 Common metamorphic rocks

Schist

Appearance
of new minerals
Amphibole
 Foliated Rocks: Schist
Garnet

Mica
 Common metamorphic rocks

Garnet-Mica Schist
schist
 coarse-grained,
 strongly foliated,

 easy to split in

flakes/slabs
FIG. 8.08
W. W. Norton
 Common metamorphic rocks
 Foliated rocks
gneiss

Gneiss
FIG. 8.04
W. W. Norton
 feldspar

quartz

biotite
 Metamorphic minerals

Gneiss

Garnet

FIG. 8.03B
Courtesy Carlo Gıovanella
 Common metamorphic rocks

 Foliated rocks gneiss

Metamorphic Textures: Foliated Rocks
 Textural categories and the
concept of metamorphic
grade
low-grade

slaty cleavage Alignment of platy minerals

schistosity Crystals grow larger

gniessic Mineral segregation, banding

high-grade

Partial melting, formation of magma

Migmatites: Formed
by partial melting
 Common metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated
rocks

Marble
Coarse grained,
 Parent: limestone

(calcite)
 Color varies,

depending on the
presence of other
minerals.
FIG. 8.01A
Courtesy of Yong II Lee, School of Earth
and Envıronmental Scıences, Seoul
Natıonal Unıversıty

Fossil-bearing limestone
 Calcite

Marble
 Metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated rocks
Marble
Uses include:

Ornamental
building stone

Sculpture
 Metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated rocks
Quartzite
Derived from
quartz-rich
sandstones.
 Hard, dense rock.

Color varies,

depending on other
minerals present.
 Metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated rocks
Quartzite
Fused quartz
grains
 Coarsening of

grain size during

metamorphism
 Quartz grains

develop interlocking
boundaries.
 Metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated rocks

Quartzite

 Sedimentary
layering.
 Relict

sedimentary
structures.
 Common metamorphic rocks
 Non-foliated rocks Meta-Conglomerate

Stretched pebbles
in a quartzite matrix.
 Dynamic Metamorphism
 Occurs along faults:
(surfaces where
slip occurs)

 Movement grinds
 rock at the contact,
 metamorphosing it.

Rocks are called

“cataclastic”.
Dynamic Metamorphism Along Faults
Grinding of rock
In fault zone

 Creates fault breccias

 Cataclastic textures.
P.218-219C
Mylonites Deep fault zone foliated rocks
FIG. 8.14
Stephen Marshak
 Regional metamorphism

 Most common
type
Associated w/
mountain building
 Intense within
deep “roots” of
mountains
 Regional metamorphism

 Low- to high-
grade zones
 Index minerals:
Changes in mineralogy
going from low to high
grade metamorphism
 Grades of Metamorphism

FIG. 8.18
W. W. Norton
Textural Grades of Metamorphism
 Mineral Grades

FIG. 8.22
W. W. Norton
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
 Continental Cratons: Ancient metamorphic environments
Relatively flat expanses of metamorphic rocks &
associated igneous plutons: “shields”.
FIG. 08.29A
W. W. Norton
Metamorphism and plate tectonics
 Most metamorphism associated w/ convergent plate
boundaries
 Compressional forces deform plate edges
 Subduction zones: two linear belts of metamorphic
rocks
(1) cool slab subducts: low temperature/ high pressures:
makes blueschist
(2) magma rises: high temperature/low pressure contact
metamorphism inland
Metamorphism and plate tectonics
 Hydrothermal vents at mid-ocean ridges
FIG. 08.27
W. W. Norton
FIG. 08.28
W. W. Norton
Metamorphism and plate tectonics

Subduction zones:

Copper deposits
Metamorphism and plate tectonics

Subduction zones:

Serpentinite
FIG. 8.00
Stephen Marshak
FIG. 8.21
W. W. Norton
THANK YOU

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