Chloroplasts in Archaeplastida

GENESIS LOOR GROUP 1E
COLON LOOR
CARLOS DIAZ
CHLOROPLASTS IN
ARCHAEPLASTIDA
CHLOROPLAST
A chloroplast is an organelle within the cells of plants and certain algae that is the site of
photosynthesis, which is the process by which energy from the Sun is converted into chemical
energy for growth. A chloroplast is a type of plastid (a saclike organelle with a double
membrane) that contains chlorophyll to absorb light energy.
Chloroplasts are present in

the cells of all green tissues
of Archaplastida or
Primoplantae is one of the
main groups of Eukarya as
it encompasses green algae
and land plants
(Viridizlantae), red algae
(Rhodophyta), a small-
known group of unicellular
algae called Glaucophyta
and Rhodelphis a recently
discovered proto-algae
genus. It is usually awarded
category of kingdom and is
equivalent to the plant to
plant in some classification
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systems.plants and algae. Chloroplasts are also found in photosynthetic tissues that do not
appear green, such as the
brown blades of giant kelp or the red leaves of certain plants. In plants, chloroplasts are
concentrated particularly in the parenchyma cells of the leaf mesophyll (the internal cell
layers of a leaf).
The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesise food by the process of
photosynthesis.
 Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy.

 In particular, organelles called chloroplasts allow plants to capture the energy of the
Sun in energy-rich molecules; cell walls allow plants to have rigid structures as varied
as wood trunks and supple leaves; and vacuoles allow plant cells to change size.
The parts of a chloroplast such as the inner membrane, outer membrane, intermembrane
space, thylakoid membrane, stroma and lamella can be clearly marked out.
There are two distinct regions in a chloroplast.

THE STROMA AND THE GRANA.
1. The stroma is a fluid-filled space. The fluid contains the enzymes necessary for the
first stage of photosynthesis, which means the first stage (the light-independent
stage) occurs in thestroma.
2. The grana are stacks of flattened membrane, called thylakoids. This is where the light
is absorbed and ATP is synthesised in the light-dependent stage. Thylakoids can only
be seen with an electron microscope.
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Chloroplasts are distinguished from other types of plastids by their green colour, which results
from the presence of two pigments, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
 Most chloroplasts are disc shape.
• They are usually between 2 – 10 µm
• Each chloroplast has a double membrane; an outer and an inner membrane
• Between the double membrane, there is an inner membrane space
• The outer membrane is permeable to many small ions
• The inner membrane has transport membranes embedded in it
Chloroplasts are highly dynamicthey circulate and are moved around within plant cells, and
occasionally pinch in two to reproduce. Their behavior is strongly influenced by
environmental factors like light color and intensity.
ARCHAEPLASTIDA
Archaplastida or Primoplantae is one of the main groups of Eukarya as it encompasses green
algae and land plants (Viridizlantae), red algae (Rhodophyta), a small-known group of
unicellular algae called Glaucophyta and Rhodelphis a recently discovered proto-algae genus.
It is usually awarded category of kingdom and is equivalent to the plant to plant in some
classification systems.
FUNCTIONS
These were able to invade land and set the stage for the evolutionary movement onto land of
many animal groups.
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CHARACTERISTICS
Primoplantae includes autotrophic organisms that contain chloroplasts and obtain the energy
they need through photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes,
suggesting that they are the result of primary endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium. In other
words, the predecessor of this group was a phagotrophic organism that ingested a
cyanobacterium, which was not completely digested, but instead colonized the predator's cell,
subsequently giving rise to chloroplasts.
The two membranes that surround the chloroplast come from the original membranes of the
cyanobacterial cell. Precisely for this reason Archaeplastida is an alternative name of this
group.
Archaeplastida cells typically lack centrioles and have mitochondria with flat cristae. They
generally have a cell wall that includes cellulose in its composition and the food is stored in
the form of starch. However, these characters are shared with other eukaryotes. The main
evidence that the group is monophyletic comes from genetic studies, which suggest that the
plastids probably have a single origin.
CLASSIFICATION
ARCHAEPLASTIDA INCLUDES FOUR QUITE DIFFERENT GROUPS:

 Green algae and land plants (Viridiplantae) are pigmented with chlorophylls a and b,
but lack phycobiliproteins.
 The glaucophytes (Glaucophyta) have an uncertain phylogenetic position: they have

primitive plastids, called cyanelles, which retain typical characteristics of
cyanobacteria. Thus, they present the typical cyanobacterial pigments, a residual wall
COLON LOOR
CARLOS DIAZ
of peptidoglycan between the two membranes and carboxysomes, which are
considered to come from the bacterial endosymbiont.
 Red algae (Rhodophyta) have chlorophyll a and a phycobiliprotein as pigments, like

most cyanobacteria. The pigments that give them the characteristic reddish color
allow these algae to take advantage of the light deep enough in the sea.
 Rhodelphis: is a genus of proto-algae or archeoplastid that contains a chloroplast

that cannot carry out photosynthesis, so it is heterotrophic. It is closely related to red
algae and could be an intermediate link in the origin of Archaeplastida.
The four groups that derive from Archaeplastida are well defined: Glaucophyta,
Rhodophyta, Viridiplantae or Chloroplastida, and Rhodelphis; however, the phylogenetic
relationships between these groups have not been able to agree, so we have three possible
scenarios:
PHYLOGENY
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 Basal Glaucophyta and Metabionta. It is the best known hypothesis, with a
phylogeny based on protein-coding genes (1998). This scheme is supported by
molecular biology studies, by the presence of a peptidoglycan wall and carboxysomes
in glaucophyte chloroplasts and by the loss of cyanobacterial enzymes in Metabionta.
The clade formed by Glaucophyta and Rhodophyta has been called Metabionta due to
the presence of multicellular groups.
 Basal Rhodophyta. Protein phylogenetic studies reveal that Rhodophyta could be

basal, however, the percentages of probability are not high, so that the basal position
of Glaucophyta is also possible. This position of Rhodophyta is also supported by
phylogenetic studies of plastid genes and was supported by the discovery of
Rhodelphis as its sister group, in addition to sharing homologous genes in the
chloroplast.
 Basal Viridiplantae and Biliphyta. This scheme has been strongly supported more
recently on the basis of phylogenomic studies on proteins transferred from the
chloroplast to the cell nucleus and on chloroplast gene sequences; as well as complete
sequences of the chloroplast genome. Also due to the presence of phycobilisomes and
aspects related to the thylakoid membrane.
 No consensus. On the other hand, plastid multigene analysis does not rule out any of
these three hypotheses.
Thylakoid structure and disposition

in Archaeplastida chloroplasts:
 Chloroplast of Rhodobionta.
Note the absence of a true
thylakoid lumen;
 (b) chloroplast of
Chlorobionta.
Note the presence of a
lumen, i.e., a continuous
aqueous phase enclosed by
the thylakoid membrane

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GENESIS LOOR GROUP 1E

Chloroplasts are present in

 Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy.

There are two distinct regions in a chloroplast.

 Most chloroplasts are disc shape.

• They are usually between 2 – 10 µm

• Each chloroplast has a double membrane; an outer and an inner membrane

• Between the double membrane, there is an inner membrane space

• The outer membrane is permeable to many small ions

• The inner membrane has transport membranes embedded in it

ARCHAEPLASTIDA INCLUDES FOUR QUITE DIFFERENT GROUPS:

 The glaucophytes (Glaucophyta) have an uncertain phylogenetic position: they have

 Red algae (Rhodophyta) have chlorophyll a and a phycobiliprotein as pigments, like

 Rhodelphis: is a genus of proto-algae or archeoplastid that contains a chloroplast

 Basal Rhodophyta. Protein phylogenetic studies reveal that Rhodophyta could be

Thylakoid structure and disposition

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