Git For Devops Study Material

Git For
DevOps
Study
Material
INDEX
Topic-1: Introduction to Devops.........................................................................................8
Topic-2: Introduction to Version Control System..............................................................17
Topic-3: Features and Architecture of GIT.........................................................................24
Topic-4: Life Cycle of File in GIT.........................................................................................29
Topic-5: Git Installation On Windows...............................................................................31
Topic-6: Example-1 To Understand Working Directory, Staging Area and Local Repository
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 34
Topic-7: The 6 Git Commands With Example - init,status,add,commit,log and config ……. 40
Topic-8: The complete postmortem of git log command..................................................45
Topic-9: The Complete Story of git diff command............................................................51
Topic-10: Helix Visual Merge Tool(p4merge) For Checking Differences.............................61
Topic-11: Removing files by using git rm command..........................................................65
Topic-12: Undo changes with git checkout command.......................................................69
Topic-13: Git References (master and HEAD)....................................................................72
Topic-14: Git reset command...........................................................................................75
Topic-15: Git Aliases - Providing our own convenient names to git commands.................84
Topic-16: Ignoring unwanted files and directories by using .gitignore file.........................88
Topic-17: Any Special Treatment for directories by Git?...................................................91
Topic-18: Branching And Merging.....................................................................................93

Topic-19: Merging by using Rebase.................................................................................118
Topic-20: Stash in GIT.....................................................................................................128
Topic-21: Working with Remote Repositories.................................................................142
Topic-22: Git Tagging (git Tag Command)........................................................................159
Topic-23: git revert Command........................................................................................175
Topic-24: Cherry-Picking (git cherry-pick Command).......................................................183
Topic-25: git reflog Command.........................................................................................189

Detailed Index
Topic-1: Introduction to Devops
1.1. What is Devops?
1.2. Water Fall Model
1.3. Agile Model
1.4. Water fall vs Scrum
1.5. Devops vs Agile Models
1.6. Top Important points about DevOps
Topic-2: Introduction to Version Control System

2.1. Need of Version Control System?
2.2. How version control system will work?
2.3. The basic terminology of version control system
2.4. Benefits of Version Control System
2.5. Types of Version Control Systems
2.5.1. Centralized Version Control System
2.5.2. Distributed Version Control Systems
Topic-3: Features and Architecture of GIT

3.1 What is GIT?
3.2 Features of GIT
3.3 GIT Architecture
Topic-4: Life Cycle of File in GIT:

4.1 Untracked
4.2 Staged
4.3 In Repository/ Committed
4.4 Modified
Topic-5: Git Installation On Windows
Topic-6: Example-1 To Understand Working Directory, Staging Area and Local
Repository Topic-7: The 6 Git Commands With Example - init,status,add,commit,log and
config Topic-8: The complete postmortem of git log command

8.1 How to see history of all commits in local repository
8.2 How to see log information of a particular file
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Option-1: --oneline option to get brief log information
Option-2: -n option to limit the number of commits to display
Option-3: --grep option to search based on given pattern in commit message
Option-4: Show commits more recent than a specific time.
Option-5: Show commits older than a specific time
Option-6: Show commits based on author
Option-7: --decorate option to display extra information
Topic-9: The Complete Story of git diff command

Case-1: To see the difference in file content between working directory and staging
area
Case-2: To see the difference in file content between working directory and last
commit
Case-3: To see the difference in file content between staged copy and last commit
Case-4: To see the difference in file content between specific commit and working
directory copy
Case-5: To see the difference in file content between specific commit and staging
area copy
Case-6: To see the difference in file content between two specified commits
Case-7: To see the difference in file content between last commit and last butone
commit
Case-8: To see the differences in all files content between two specified commits
Case-9: To see the differences in content between two branches
Case-10: To see the differences in content between local and remote repositories
Topic-10: Helix Visual Merge Tool(p4merge) For Checking Differences
Topic-11: Removing files by using git rm command

Case-1: To remove files from working directory and staging area(git
rm) Case-2: To remove files Only from staging area (git rm --cached)
Case-3: To remove files Only from Working Directory (rm command)
Topic-12: Undo changes with git checkout command
Topic-13: Git References ( master and HEAD )
Topic-14: Git reset command

Utility-1: To remove changes from staging area
Utility-2: To undo commits at repository level(--mixed, --soft, --hard modes)
Topic-15: Git Aliases - Providing our own convenient names to git commands
Topic-16: Ignoring unwanted files and directories by using .gitignore file
Topic-17: Any Special Treatment for directories by Git ???
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Topic-18: Branching And Merging
18.1. What is branching?
18.2. Need of creating a new branch
18.3. Various Commands used in branching

1. To view branches
2. To create a new branch
3. To switch from one branch to another branch
4. Short-cut way to create a new branch and switch to that branch
18.4. Demo Example for branching
18.5. Multiple use cases where branching is required
18.6. Advantages of Branching
18.7. Merging of a Branch
18.8. What is Fast-forward Merge?
18.9. What is Three-Way Merge?
18.10. Differences between Fast-forward and Three-way Merges
18.11. Merge Conflicts and Resolution Process
18.12.How to Delete a Branch
Topic-19: Merging by using Rebase 115

19.1 Process of rebasing
19.2. Demo Example for rebasing
19.3. Advantages of rebasing
19.4. Disadvantages of rebasing
19.5 Differences between Merge and Rebase
Topic-20: Stash in GIT 125

20.1 What is git stash?
20.2 Demo Example for stashing
20.3 How to list all available stashes?
20.4 How to check the contents of stash?
20.5 How to perform unstash?
20.6 Partial Stash
20.7 How to delete the stash?
Topic-21: Working with Remote Repositories
21.1) Need of Remote Repositories
21.2) How to work with GitHub?
21.3) How to create account in GitHub?
21.4) How to create a new reposioty in Github?
21.5) How to work with Remote Repository?
1) git remote
2) git push
3) git clone
4) git pull
5) git fetch
Topic-22: Git Tagging (git Tag Command)

22.1) Introduction to Tagging
22.2) Creation of a Light Weight Tag
22.3) How to delete a tag?
22.4) Annotated Tags (Tags with Information)
22.5) How to tag a previous commit?
22.6) How to update an existing tag?
22.7) How to compare Tags
22.8) How to push tags to remote repository?
Topic-23: git revert Command

23.1) Need of revert command
23.2) Demo Example to revert last commit
23.3) Demo example to revert a particular commit
Topic-24: Cherry-Picking (git cherry-pick Command)

24.1) Need of Cherry-Picking
24.2) Use cases of cherry-pick
24.3) Demo Example for cherry-
picking Topic-25: git reflog Command

Topic - 1
Introduction
to DevOps
Topic - 1: Introduction
to DevOps
1.1) What is Devops?
1.2) Water Fall Model
1.3) Agile Model
1.4) Water fall vs Scrum
1.5) Devops vs Agile Models
1.6) Top Important points about DevOps
1.1) What is Devops?

 Devops is not a new tool/Technology in the market.
 It is a new culture or process to develop,release and maintain software

products/projects/applications with high quality in very faster way.
 We can achieve this in devops by using several automation tools.
 For any software development,release and maintenance, there are two groups of
engineers will work in the company.
1) Development Group
2) Non-Development Group or Operations Group or Administrators Group.
Again this classification can be divided into small sets of groups.
1)Development Group:
The people who are involving
1) planning
2) coding
3) build
4) Testing
are considered as Development Group.

Eg:
Business Analyst(BA)
System Analyst(SA)
Design Architech(DA)
Developers/coders
Build Engineer
Test Engineers/QA
2)Operations Group:
The people who are involving
1) Release
2) Deploy
3) Operate
4) Monitor
are considered as Operations Group.
Eg:
Release Engineers
Configuration Engineer
System Admin
Database Admin
Network Admin
etc
Devops is combination of development and operations.

The main objective of devops is to implement collaboration between development and
operations teams.
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To understand this new Devops culture, we have to aware already existing SDLC Models.
SDLC  Software Development Life Cycle
1) Waterfall Model
2) Prototype Model
3) Incremental/Iterative Model
4) Spiral Model
5) RAD Model
6) Big-Bang Model
7) Fish Model
8) V Model
9) Agile Model
10) Devops Culture
1.2) Water Fall Model:

 It is the oldest SDLC Model.
 It is also known as Linear sequential Model.
 In this model,each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and
there is no overlapping of phases. i.e all phases will be performed one by one just
like flowing of water fall downwards.
Requirement Gathering
Requirement Analysis
Design
Coding
Testing
Release
Maintenance
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Advantages:
1) It is very simple and easy to implement.
2) Phases won't be overlapped and hence there is no ambiguity.
3) All phases will be executed one by one which gives high visibility to the
project managers and clients about the progress of the project.
4) Best suitable if the requirements are fixed.
5) Best suitable for small projects.
Disadvantages:
1) It is very rigid model b'z it won't accept requirement changes in the middle.
2) Client satisfaction is very low because most of the times client will add new
requirements in the middle,which won't be supported.
3) Total project development time is more because testing should be done after
complementing development only.
4) The cost of bug fixing is very high because we cannot identify bugs in the early stages
of life cycle.
5) Not suitable if the requirements keep on changing.
6) Not suitable for large projects.
1.3) Agile Model:

This is the most frequently used and hot cake model for software development.
Agile Model is divided into several sub models
1) Rational Unify Process (RUP)

2) Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
3) Feature Driven Development (FDD)
4) Crystal Clear
5) Dynamic Software Development Method (DSDM)
6) Extream Programming (XP)
7) Scrum
etc
Among all these models Scrum model is the most popular and frequently used model.
Scrum is derived from Rugby Game.
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It is light weight process.
It is an iterative /incremental model and it accepts changes very easily.
It is people based model but not plan based model.
Team Collaboration and Continuous feedback are strengths of this model.
1.4) Water fall vs Scrum:

1) In water fall model ,before starting next phase,the previous phase should be
completed. It is very rigid model and won't accept requirement changes in the middle.
2) But scurm model is not linear sequential model. It is iterative model. Total software
will be developed increment by increment and each increment is called a sprint.
Sprint is a deliverable/shippable product in scrum model.
Points to Remember:
1) Scrum is an agile model that allows us focus on delivering highest quality software in
shortest time.
2) In this model software developement follows increment by increment
3) Each increment will take one to 3 weeks duration.
4) 7 to 9 members are responsible in every sprint.
The art of doing the twice work in half time is nothing but scrum model  Juff sutherland
Advantages of Scrum Model:

1) There is maximum chance for quality
2) It ensures effective use of time and money
3) Requirement changes will be accepted so that maximum chance for client satisfaction
4) There is a possibility for the client involvment in every stage.
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5) Project status Tracking is very easy
6) Team gets complete visibility through scrum meetings.
Limitations:
1) The chances of project failure is very high if individuals are not committed or
cooperative
2) Adapting scrum model for large teams is very big challenge
3) Must required experienced and efficient team members
4) If any team member leaves in the middle of project,it can have a huge negative impact
on the project.
1.5) Devops vs Agile Models:

Devops and Agile, both are not same.
Similarities:
1) Both are software development methodologies. Agile is there in the market for the
last 20 years, but devops is recent methodology.
2) Both models concentrating on rapid development of software project.
Differences:
1) The differences between these models will starts after development of the project.
Agile methodology always talks about software development,testing and deployment.
Once deployment completed agile methodology has no role.
But Devops model will continue after deployment also and it is also responsible for
operations and monitoring.
2) In Agile Model, separate people are responsible for developing, testing, and deploying
the software. But, in DevOps, the DevOps engineer is responsible for everything;
development to operations, and operations to development.
3) Agile model won't force us to use automation tools.

But devops model is completely based on
automation.
4) Agile model always giving highest priority for speed, where as Devops giving
proirity for both speed and automation.
5) In Agile, client is responsible to give the feedback for the sprint. But in
Devops, immediate feedback is available from the monitoring tools.
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What is Devops?
Devops is not a new Tool/Technology in the market.
It is a new culture or process to develop,release and maintain software

products/projects/applications with high quality in very faster way with automation
tools.
Devops is combination of development and operations.

The main objective of devops is to implement collaboration between development and
operations teams.
It is the process of continuous development, continuous build, continuous test,

continuous release of the software with high quality in very faster way with automation
tools.
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1.6) Top Important points about DevOps:
1) Devops is not a new Tool/Technology in the market.
2) It is a new culture or process to develop,release and maintain software products.
3) DevOps is combination of Development and Operations.
4) The main objective of devops is to implement collaboration between
development and operations teams.
5) The beauty of DevOps is everything is automated and we can use several
automation tools for development and operations.
6) Devops Engineer is All Rounder. He should aware everything. Hence his role
is considered as Devops Generalist.
7) Devops is not Agile model and it is more than that because it covers both
Development and operations, where as Agile covers only Development but not
operations.
8) Devops Cycle is an Infinite Loop where everything is continuous.
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TOPIC – 2
Introduction to
Version Control System
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Topic-2: Introduction
to Version Control
2.1) Need of Version Control System?
2.2) How version control system will work?
2.3) The basic terminology of version control system
2.4) Benefits of Version Control System
2.5) Types of Version Control Systems
2.5.1) Centralized Version Control System
2.5.2) Distributed Version Control Systems
Version Control System is also known as Software Configuration Management (SCM) OR

Source Code Management (SCM) System.
2.1) Need of Version Control System?

Being a developer we have to write several files which contains source code.
Developer  Write Code  Files
Client gave requirement to Durga to develop a project
client project
|--100 files developed
|- client suggested some changes
|- I changed some files source code to meet client requirement
|- I gave the demo and client suggested some more changes
|- I changed some files source code to meet client requirement
|- I gave demo 3rd time
|- Client asked for first version only
|- My Face with big ????
We should not overwrite our code.

Every version we have to maintain.
1) Maintaining multiple versions manually is very complex activity.

2) Dev-A and Dev-B working on the code. At last we have to merge the code developed
by both developers and we have to deliver to the client. If both developers
developed a file named with Util.java, then one copy will overwrite with another
copy, which creates abnormal behaviour. We should not overwrite our code.
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2) Every change should be tracked like
who did the change
when he did the change
which changes he did etc
and all changes should be maintained.
3) Overwriting of the code should not be happend.
4) Developers have to share their code to peer developers, so that multiple
developers will work in collaborative way.
5) Parallel development must be required
2.2) How Version Control System will work?

Version control system always talks about files which contain source code.
Everyone required version control system to maintain different versions of their
document.
tester  To maintain different versions of test script

Architect  To maintain different versions of Documents
Project Manager  To maintain different versions of Excel sheets
etc
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2.3) The Basic Terminology of Version Control System:
Working Directory:
Where developers are required to create/modify files.
Here version control is not applicable. Here we won't use the work like version-1, version-
2 etc
Repository:
Where we have to store files and metadata.
Here version control is applicable.
Here we can talk about versions like version-1, version-2 etc
Commit:
The process of sending files from working directory to the repository.
Checkout:
The process of sending files from repository to working directory.
2.4) Benefits of Version Control System:

1) We can maintain different versions and we can choose any version based on client
requirement.
2) With every version/commit we can maintain metadata
like commit message
who did changes
when he did the change
what changes he did
3) Developers can share the code to the peer developers in very easy way.
4) Multiple developers can work in collaborative way
5) Parallel development.
6) We can provide access control
like who can read code
who can modify code
2.5) Types of Version Control Systems:

There are 2 types of VCSs
1) Centralized Version Control System
2) De Centralized/Distributed Version Control System
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2.5.1) Centralized Version Control System:
The name itself indicates that, this type contains only one central repository and every
developer should be connected to that repository.
The total project code will be stored in the central
repository. If 4 developers are there, still we have only one
repository.
This type of VCS is very easy to setup and use.

Eg: CVS, SVN, Perforce, TFS, Clearcase etc
Problems with Centralized VCSs:

1) Central Repository is the only place where everything is stored, which causes
single point of failure. If something goes wrong to the central repository then
recovery is very difficult.
2) All commit and checkout operations should be performed by connecting to the

central repositoty via network. If network outage, then no version control to the
developer.
i.e in this type, developer work space and remote repository server should be
connected always.
3) All commit and checkout operations should be performed by connecting to the central
repositoty via network and hence these operations will become slow, which causes
performance issues. No local operations and every version control operation should
be remote operation.
4) Oranization of central repository is very complex if number of developers and files

increases.
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2.5.2) Distributed Version Control Systems:
The name itself indicates the respository is distributed and every developers workspace
contains a local copy of the repository. There is no question of central repository.
If 4 developers are there then 4 repositories will be there.
1) The checkout and commit operations will be performed locally. Hence performance
is more.
2) To perform checkout and commit operations network is not required. Hence if there
is any network outage, still version control is applicable.
3) If something goes wrong to any repository there is a chance to recover. There is no
question of single point of failure.
4) To perform push and pull operations network must be required, but these
operations are not most common operations and we are performing very rarely.
Note:
1) commit and checkout operations will be performed between workspace
and repository.
work space – commit  Repository
Repository – checkout 
workspace
2) push and pull operations will be performed between

repositories. one repository ---push  other
repository
one repository  pull- - -other repository
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Distributed VCS with Remote Repositoty:
Remote Repository is not Central Repository:

1) Every developer has his own local copy of repository. It is not centralized and it
is distributed only.
2) commit and checkout operations won't be performed on remote repository and
these will be performed on local repository only.
The main job of remote repository is just to share our work to peer developers.
High availability, Speed and there is no single point of failure are main reasons for
popularity of this model.
Eg: Git, Mercurial, Fossil
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TOPIC – 3
Features
And
Architecture
of
GIT
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Topic-3: Features and
Architecture of GIT
3.1) What is GIT?
3.2) Features of GIT
3.3) GIT Architecture
3.1) What is GIT?:

✽ Git is Distributed Version Control System Tool.
✽ Git is not acronym and hence no expansion.But most of the people abbreviated as
✽ "Global Information Tracker".
✽ GIT is developed by Linus Torvalds(Finnish software engineer), who also developed
Linux Kenel.
✽ Most of the companies like Microsoft,Facebook,Yahoo,LinkedIn,Intel using Git as
Version Control System Tool.
3.2) Features of GIT:

Git is very popular because of the following features:
1) Distributed
Git is developed based on Distributed Version Control System Architecture.
Because of Distributed Architecture it has several advantages:
A) Every Developer has his own local repository. All the operations can be performed
locally.Hence local repo and remote repo need not be connected always.
B) All operations will be performed locally, and hence peformance is high when
compared with other VCSs. i.e it is very speed
C) Most of operations are local. Hence we can work offline most of the times.
D) There is no single point failure as Every Developer has his own local repository.
E) It enables parellel development & automatic-backups.
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2) Staging Area:
It is also known as index area.
There is logical layer/virtual layer in git between working directory and local repository.
Working Directory  Staging Area  Local Repository
We cannot commit the files of working directory directly. First we have to add to the
staging area and then we have to commit.
This staging area is helpful to double check/cross-check our changes before commit.
This type of layer is not available in other Version Control Systsem Tools like CVS, SVN etc
Git stores files in repository in some hash form, which saves space.
GIT will uses internally snapshot mechanism for this. All these conversions and taking
snapshots of our data will be happened in staging area before commit.
Eg: If a sample repository takes around 12 GB space in SVN where as in GIT it takes hardly
420 MB.
Hence Staging Area is the most important Strength of GIT.
3) Branching and Merging:

We can create and work on multiple branches simultaneously and all these are branches
are isolated from each other. It enables multiple work flows.
We can merge multiple braches into a single brach. We can commit branch wise also.
4. Moving files in GIT is very easy as GIT automatically tracks the moves. Whereas in
other VCS we need to create a new file & then delete the old one.
5. Freeware and Open Source
6. It provides support for multiple platforms.
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3.3) GIT Architecture:
GIt contains 2 types of repositories:

1) Local Repository
2) Remote Repository
For every developer, a separate local repository is available. Developer can perform all
checkout and commit operations wrt local repository only.
To perform commit operation, first he has to add files to staging area by using git add
command, and then he has to commit those changes to the local repository by using git
commit command. Hence commit in GIT is a 2-step process.
commit is applicable only for staging area files but not for working directory files.
If the developer wants to share his work to the peer developers then he has to push his
local repository to the remote repository by using git push command.
Remote repository contains total project code, which can be accessible by all developers.
New developer can get local repository by cloning remote repository.For this we have to
use git clone command.
A developer can get updates from the remote repository to the local repository by using
git pull command.
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git add  To add files from working directory to staging area.
git commit  To commit changes from staging area to local repository.
git push  To move files from local repository to remote repository.
git clone  To create a new local repository from the remote repository.
git pull  To get updated files from remote repository to local
repository.
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TOPIC – 4
Life Cycle
of
File in GIT
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Topic - 4: Life Cycle of File
Every file in GIT is in one of the following states:
1)Untracked:
The files which are newly created in working directory and git does not aware of these
files are said to be in untracked state.
2)Staged:
✽ The files which are added to staging area are said to be in staged state.
✽ These files are ready for commit.
3)In Repository/ Committed:

Any file which is committed is said to be In Repository/Committed State.
4)Modified:
Any file which is already tracked by git, but it is modified in working directory is said to
be in Modified State.
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TOPIC - 5
Git Installation
On
Windows
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Topic-5: Git Installation On
Windows
https://git-scm.com/download/win
2.26.2
Git-2.26.2-64-bit.exe
Q) How to check git installed OR not?

$ git --version
git version 2.26.2.windows.1
If we just type git, then we will get complete options available with git
command. lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 ~

$ git
usage: git [--version] [--help] [-C <path>] [-c <name>=<value>]
[--exec-path[=<path>]] [--html-path] [--man-path] [--info-path]
[-p | --paginate | -P | --no-pager] [--no-replace-objects] [--
bare] [--git-dir=<path>] [--work-tree=<path>] [--
namespace=<name>]
<command> [<args>]
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These are common Git commands used in various situations:
start a working area (see also: git help tutorial)

clone Clone a repository into a new directory
init Create an empty Git repository or reinitialize an existing one
work on the current change (see also: git help

everyday) add Add file contents to the index
mv Move or rename a file, a directory, or a symlink
restore Restore working tree files
rm Remove files from the working tree and from the
index sparse-checkout Initialize and modify the sparse-checkout
examine the history and state (see also: git help revisions)
bisect Use binary search to find the commit that introduced a bug
diff Show changes between commits, commit and working tree,
etc grep Print lines matching a pattern
log Show commit logs
show Show various types of
objects status Show the working tree
status
grow, mark and tweak your common history

branch List, create, or delete branches
commit Record changes to the repository
merge Join two or more development histories together
rebase Reapply commits on top of another base tip
reset Reset current HEAD to the specified state
switch Switch branches
tag Create, list, delete or verify a tag object signed with GPG
collaborate (see also: git help workflows)

fetch Download objects and refs from another repository
pull Fetch from and integrate with another repository or a local
branch pushUpdate remote refs along with associated objects
'git help -a' and 'git help -g' list available subcommands and some
concept guides. See 'git help <command>' or 'git help <concept>'
to read about a specific subcommand or concept.
See 'git help git' for an overview of the system.
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TOPIC – 6
Example-1 To Understand
Working Directory,
Staging Area and
Local Repository
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Topic-6: Example-1 To Understand
Working Directory, Staging Area and Local
1) Creating workspace
2) git initialization
3) Creating files with some content in the working directory
4) Adding these files to staging area
5) Git Configurations before first commit
6) Commit those changes to local repository
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 ~
$ cd d:
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d
$ mkdir gitprojects
$ cd gitprojects
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects
$ mkdir project1
$ cd project1
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project1
Now project1 acts as working directory. We have to request git, to provide version control
for this directory. For this we have to use git init command.
git init  This command will provide empty repository for our working directory, so that
version control is applicable for our workspace.
The name of the empty directory is .git, which is hidden directory.

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/project1/.git/
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Note:
1) If our working directory contains any files, then these files won't be added to the local
repository bydefault, we have to add explicitly.
2) If our working directory already contains local repository(.git), still if we call git
init command, then there is no impact.
Creating Files with some Content and adding to staging Area

and then commit:
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project1 (master)
$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
nothing to commit (create/copy files and use "git add" to track)

$ cat > a.txt
First line in
a.txt

$ cat > b.txt
First line in
b.txt

$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Untracked files:
(use "git add <file>..." to include in what will be committed)
a.txt
b.txt
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to
track) lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project1
(master)
$ ls
a.txt b.txt
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$ git ls-files
$ git add a.txt b.txt

$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Changes to be committed:
(use "git rm --cached <file>..." to unstage)
new file: a.txt
new file: b.txt
Git Configurations before 1st Commit:

Before first commit, we have to configure user name and mail id, so that git can use this
information in the commit records. We can perform these configurations with the
following commands
git config --global user.email "durgasoftonline@gmail.com"

git config --global user.name "Durga"

$ git commit -m "Added two files a.txt and b.txt"
[master (root-commit) 9a33a5b] Added two files a.txt and b.txt
2 files changed, 2 insertions(+)
create mode 100644 a.txt
create mode 100644 b.txt

$ git status
On branch master
nothing to commit, working tree clean

$ git log
commit 9a33a5b2e0d1c90eff544a3710b599be3c22665e (HEAD -> master)
Author: Durga <durgaadvjava@gmail.com>
Date: Thu May 14 22:16:59 2020 +0530
Added two files a.txt and b.txt
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If we modify the Content in working Directory:
$ cat >> a.txt
Second Line

$ cat >> b.txt
Second Line

$ git status
On branch master
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git restore <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: a.txt
modified: b.txt
no changes added to commit (use "git add" and/or "git commit -a")
Adding these modified Files to the staging Area and

then commit:
git add a.txt b.txt
git commit -m "Both files modified"
We can combined these two commands into a single command

git commit -a -m "Both files modified"
But make sure this option will work only for modified files, but not for newly created files.

$ git commit -a -m "Both files modified"
[master df4bb05] Both files modified

$ git log
commit df4bb05e36e672698251e05e09d92ba45ea1fc47 (HEAD -> master)
Date: Thu May 14 22:31:17 2020 +0530
Both files modified
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commit 9a33a5b2e0d1c90eff544a3710b599be3c22665e
Date: Thu May 14 22:16:59 2020 +0530
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TOPIC – 7
The 6 Git Commands With Example
1) init
2) status
3) add
4) commit
5) log
6) config
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Topic-7: The 6 Git Commands With Example -
init, status, add, commit, log and config
1)git init
Once we creates workspace, if we want version control, then we require a local
repository. To create that local repository we have to use git init command.
$ git init
.git is an empty repository, which is hidden directory.
2)git status:
It shows the current status of all files in each area, like which files are untracked, which
are modified, which are staged etc.
$ git status
On branch master
modified: a.txt
modified: b.txt
Note: We can get concise information by using -s option.
$ git status -s
M a.txt
M b.txt
A c.txt
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3)git add:
To add files from working directory to staging area for tracking/commiting purpose, we
have to use git add command.
i) To add all files present in current working directory

git add .
ii) To add one or more specified files

git add a.txt
git add a.txt b.txt
iii) Even we can use pattern also

git add *.txt
git add *.java
4)git commit:
If we want to commit staged changes, then we have to use git commit command.
For every commit, a unique commit id will be generated. It is of 40-length hexadecimal
string.
$ echo -n "df4bb05e36e672698251e05e09d92ba45ea1fc47" | wc -c
40
The first 7 characters also unique, by using that also we can identify commit.
This unique id is considered as hash, which is generated based on content of files.
The advantages of this hash are

1) Data inside our local repository is more secure.
2) git requires less space to store contents of files.
(If SVN repository required 12GB, but for same content git requires 420MB)
while using git commit command, commit message is mandatory.
git commit -m "commit message"

$ git log
Author: Durga <durgasoftonline@gmail.com>
Date: Thu May 14 22:16:59 2020 +0530
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For every commit, git records author name,mail id, timestamp and commit message.
We can add files to staging area and we can commit changes by using a single
command git commit -a -m "commit message"
-a means adding files to staging area

-m means commit message
But this command will work only for tracked files but not for new files.
git commit -a -m "commit message"

git commit -am "commit message" Valid
git commit -ma "commit message" won't work, because order is important.
5)git log:
It shows history of all commits.
It provides commit id, author name,maild , timestamp and commit message.

$ git log
Date: Thu May 14 22:16:59 2020 +0530
There are multiple options available with git log command.

git log --help
6)git config:
We can use this command to configure git like user name, mail id etc
***Note:
global means these configurations are applicable for all repositories created by git. If we
are not using global then it is applicable only for current repository.
$ git config --list

To list out all git configurations
$ git config user.name
To display user name
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$ git config user.email
To display user email
We can change user name and mail id with the same commands

7)$git ls-files
This command will listout all files which are tracked by git.
8)$ls
This command will listout all files present in workspace
Q) What is create mode 100644 ?

The first 3 digits describe the type of file.
The next 3 digits describe the file permissions.
100  Means it is an ascii text file.
644  File permissions (rw-r--r--)
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TOPIC - 8
The Complete Postmortem
of
git log Command
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Topic-8: The Complete Postmortem of
git log Command
8.1) How to see History of all commits in
Local Repository:
If we want to see history of all commits in local repository, then we have to use git log
command. It is the most commonly used command in git.
git log and git log  Both are same
$ git log
commit 48437a7ad2ada6e18a26b127ca101c0ebf45b19e (HEAD -> master)
Date: Thu May 7 21:09:33 2020 +0530
This is 3rd commit for file2.txt
commit 3a8051f59110f9696f4e0f922f438cbb6bb7694d
Date: Thu May 7 21:06:58 2020 +0530
Second commit for file2.txt
commit 4b77312160c82d76395558da415a96b2a8b36072
Date: Thu May 7 21:05:25 2020 +0530
This is second commit related to file1.txt
commit 93d297b69e048046b8ff5dba140b5889f1b47500
Date: Thu May 7 20:59:22 2020 +0530
This is my second commit
commit d49f79120beecb2ea9e34b8398b4ee78bf662bf4
Date: Thu May 7 20:52:12 2020 +0530
This is my first commit
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8.2) How to see Log Information of a Particular File:
git log <filename>
git log file1.txt
$ git log file1.txt

commit 4b77312160c82d76395558da415a96b2a8b36072
Date: Thu May 7 21:05:25 2020 +0530
This is second commit related to file1.txt
commit d49f79120beecb2ea9e34b8398b4ee78bf662bf4
Date: Thu May 7 20:52:12 2020 +0530
This is my first commit
Note: There are multiple options are availble for git log command to see the history.
git log --help
Option-1: --oneline Option to get brief Log Information

Bydefault git log command will provide detailed output.
If we want concise output then we should go for --oneline option.
Output:
7 characters of commit id + commit message
$ git log --oneline
48437a7 (HEAD -> master) This is 3rd commit for file2.txt

3a8051f Second commit for file2.txt
4b77312 This is second commit related to file1.txt
93d297b This is my second commit
d49f791 This is my first commit
***This option is very helpful if we have lot of commits and to identify commit based on
message.
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Option-2: -n Option to Limit the Number of commits
to Display
We can limit the number of commits in the git log command output.
For this we have to use -n option.
Syntax:
-<number>
-n <number>
--max-count=<number>
Limit the number of commits to output.
$ git log -n 2
commit b7bd0cfecb7cd64128f209a1de4cc0ffefdd9310 (HEAD -> master)
Author: Ravi <durgasoftonline@gmail.com>
Date: Sat May 16 21:23:23 2020 +0530
new file added
commit 44fe2785f2e3f30ebcf733ffdc278ce240364488
Date: Sat May 16 21:05:07 2020 +0530
file1.txt got modified
Note: we can use -n and --oneline options together also.
$ git log -n 2 --oneline

b7bd0cf (HEAD -> master) new file added
44fe278 file1.txt got modified
Option-3: --grep Option to search based on given

Pattern in commit Message:
We can search based on given pattern in commit message.
git log --grep="pattern"
It shows all commits which has given pattern in the commit message.
git log --grep="added" --oneline
$ git log --grep="added" --oneline

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dcb4108 New files added
*** This option is very helpful if we follow a particular structure for the commit message.
We can use this option to find all commits related to a particular request number or
defect number etc.
git log --grep="defect_number" --oneline
Option-4: Show commits more recent than a specific Time

--since=<date>
--after=<date>
Show commits more recent than a specific date
git log --since="5 minutes ago"

git log --since="2020-05-17"
Option-5: Show commits Older than a specific Time

--until=<date>
--before=<date>
Show commits older than a specific date.
git log --until="5 minutes ago"

git log --before="2020-05-17"
display all commits on or before 17th.
Option-6: Show commits based on Author

--author=<pattern>
git log --author=Ravi --oneline
$ git log --author=Ravi

commit 73e3bc5c0dd6c17c76cc50adc322545b2ba1efab (HEAD -> master)
Author: Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com>
Date: Sun May 17 19:43:50 2020 +0530
commited a.txt
commit b7bd0cfecb7cd64128f209a1de4cc0ffefdd9310
Author: Ravi <durgasoftonline@gmail.com>
Date: Sat May 16 21:23:23 2020 +0530
new file added

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Option-7: --decorate Option to display extra Information
This option will print some extra information like branch information,head information,
tags information etc
$ git log --decorate --oneline

44fe278 file1.txt got modified
dcb4108 New files added
Note: There are multiple options are availble for git log command to see the history of all
commits.
git log --help
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TOPIC - 9
The Complete Story
of
git diff Command
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Topic-9: The Complete Story
of git diff Command
It is very common requirment to find differences between the content of a particular file
or all files
1) Between working directory and staging area

2) Between working directory and last commit
3) Between staged area and last commit
4) Between working directory and a particular commit
5) Between staged area and a particular commit
6) Between two specified commits
For this we required to use git diff command.

diff means difference.
Demo Example:
file1.txt
First line in file1.txt
Second line in file1.txt
file2.txt
first commit: 2 files and each file contains 2 lines
file1.txt
Third line in file1.txt
Fourth line in file1.txt
file2.txt
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2nd commit : 2 files and each file contains 4 lines.

Now we are adding new line in file1.txt in working directory
file1.txt
Fifth line in file1.txt
We are adding file1.txt to staging area

git add file1.txt
Again we are adding a new line in file1.txt of working directory
file1.txt
sixth line in file1.txt
Case-1: To see the difference in File Content between

Working Directory and staging Area
$ git diff file1.txt
diff --git a/file1.txt b/file1.txt
index 0e17c9d..e3e329f 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -3,3 +3,4 @@ Second line in file1.txt
+sixth line in file1.txt
1) diff --git a/file1.txt b/file1.txt

a/file1.txt means source copy which means staging area
b/file1.txt means destination copy which means working directory copy
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2) index 0e17c9d..e3e329f 100644
0e17c9d  hash of source file content
e3e329f  hash of destination file
content 100644  git file mode
First 3 characters(100) represents the type of file.
100 means ASCII text file.
Next 3 characters represents the file permissions.
644  rw-r--r--
3)--- a/file1.txt
--- means missing lines in staged copy
4) +++ b/file1.txt
+++ means new lines added in working directory version
5) @@ -3,3 +3,4 @@
-3,3
- means source version
from 3rd line onwards total 3 lines

+3,4
+ means destination version
from 3rd line onwards total 4 lines
If any line prefixed with space means it is unchanged.

If any line prefixed with + means it is added in destination copy.
If any line prefixed with - means it is removed in destination copy.
@@ -3,3 +3,4 @@
Clear indication that one line added in the working directory copy when compared with
staged copy.
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Working Directory and Last Commit
The last commit can be referenced by HEAD.
git diff HEAD file1.txt

It shows the differences between working copy and last commit copy.
$ git diff HEAD file1.txt

index cadd0e1..e3e329f 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -2,3 +2,5 @@ First line in file1.txt
+Fifth line in file1.txt

staged Copy and Last Commit
We have to use --staged option or --cached option.
git diff --staged HEAD file1.txt

It shows the differences between staged copy and last commit copy.
Here HEAD is optional. Hence the following 2 commands will produce same output

git diff --staged file1.txt
$ git diff --staged HEAD file1.txt

index cadd0e1..0e17c9d 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
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specific Commit and Working Directory Copy
git diff 7chracters_of_specified_commitid filename
$ git log --oneline

6745461 (HEAD -> master) 2 files and each file contains 4 lines
e5705a6 2 files and each file contains 2 lines
Eg:
$ git diff e5705a6 file1.txt
index d4effe0..e3e329f 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,6 @@
+Third line in file1.txt
+Fourth line in file1.txt
Case-5: To see the difference in file content between

specific commit and staging area copy:
git diff --staged e5705a6 file1.txt
$ git diff --staged e5705a6 file1.txt

index d4effe0..0e17c9d 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,5 @@
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Case-6: To see the difference in File Content between 2
specified Commits:
$ git log --oneline
6745461 (HEAD -> master) 2 files and each file contains 4 lines
$ git diff e5705a6 6745461 file1.txt

index d4effe0..cadd0e1 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,4 @@
$ git diff 6745461 e5705a6 file1.txt

index cadd0e1..d4effe0 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,4 +1,2 @@
-Third line in file1.txt
-Fourth line in file1.txt
Case-7: To see the difference in File Content between Last

Commit and Last butone Commit
git diff HEAD HEAD^ file1.txt
git diff HEAD HEAD^1 file1.txt
git diff HEAD HEAD~1 file1.txt
HEAD  Reference to last commit

HEAD^ or HEAD^1 or HEAD~1  Reference to last but one commit
$ git diff HEAD HEAD^ file1.txt

index cadd0e1..d4effe0 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,4 +1,2 @@
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Case-8: To see the differences in all Files Content between 2

specified Commits
$git commit -m '5th line added to file1.txt'
and removed 3rd and 4th line from file2.txt
$ git log --oneline

be5256c (HEAD -> master) 6th line added to file1, 3rd and 4th lines removed from file2
8ceda5e 5th line added to file1.txt
6745461 2 files and each file contains 4
lines e5705a6 2 files and each file contains 2
lines
$ git diff 6745461 be5256c

index cadd0e1..e3e329f 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
index ad87203..3495851 100644
--- a/file2.txt
+++ b/file2.txt
@@ -1,4 +1,2 @@
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Case-9: To see the differences in Content between 2
Branches
$ git diff master test
It shows all differences between master branch and test branch
Case-10: To see the differences in Content between Local

and Remote Repositories
$ git diff master origin/master
It shows all differences between master branch in local repository and master branch in
remote repository.
Summary:
git diff <path>
Shows the differences in the content of working directory, staging area and local
repostiory.
we can use in the following ways
1) git diff file1.txt

To compare working directory copy with staged copy
2) git diff HEAD file1.txt

To compare working directory copy with last commit copy
3) git diff --staged file1.txt

git diff --cached file1.txt

git diff --cached HEAD file1.txt
To compare staged copy with last commit copy
4) git diff <commit_id> file1.txt

To compare working directory copy with the specified commit copy.
5) git diff --staged <commit_id> file1.txt

To compare staged copy with the specified commit copy.
6) git diff <source_commit_id> <destination_commit_id> file1.txt

To compare content in the file between two commits
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7) git diff HEAD HEAD~1 file1.txt
To compare content in the file between last commit and last but one commit.
8) git diff <source_commit_id> <destination_commit_id>

To compare content of all files between two commits.
9) git diff master test

It shows all differences between master branch and test branch
10) git diff master origin/master

It shows all differences between master branch in local repository and master
branch in remote repository.
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TOPIC - 10
Helix Visual Merge Tool
(p4merge)
For
Checking Differences
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Topic-10: Helix Visual Merge Tool
(p4merge) For Checking
There are multiple tools are available like Helix Visual Merge Tool (P4Merge), meld etc.
How to download and install P4Merge:
We can use P4Merge tool for both comparison and merging purposes.
https://www.perforce.com/
downloads
Helix Visual Merge Tool (P4Merge)
Select our required platform

Windows 64-bit
skip registration
We will get the following exe file.

p4vinst64.exe file
P4MERGE will provide multiple utilities, But we require only Merge and Diff Tool.
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Select only Merge and Diff Tool.
$ p4merge
bash: p4merge: command not found
We have to set path explicitly.

C:\Program Files\Perforce
This location contains our required p4merge application: p4merge.exe
How to Connect p4merge with git:

Difftool Configurations:
git config --global diff.tool p4merge
git config --global difftool.p4merge.path "C:\Program Files\Perforce\p4merge.exe"
git config --global difftool.prompt false
Mergetool Configurations:
git config --global merge.tool p4merge
git config --global mergetool.p4merge.path "C:\Program Files\Perforce\p4merge.exe"
git config --global mergetool.prompt false
$ git config --global --list

user.name=Ravi
user.email=durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com
core.autocrlf=true
diff.tool=p4merge
difftool.p4merge.path=C:\Program Files\Perforce\p4merge.exe
difftool.prompt=false
merge.tool=p4merge
mergetool.p4merge.path=C:\Program Files\Perforce\p4merge.exe
mergetool.prompt=false
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Continuition of Our Previous Example:
file1.txt  7th line added and staged
file1.txt  8th line added in working directory
Eg 1: Working Directory vs Staging Area

git diff file1.txt
git difftool file1.txt
Eg 2: Staging Area vs Last Commit

git difftool --staged HEAD file1.txt
Eg 3: Between 2 specified Commits

$ git log --oneline
be5256c (HEAD -> master) 6th line added to file1, 3rd and 4th lines removed from file2
8ceda5e 5th line added to file1.txt
6745461 2 files and each file contains 4 lines
git diff 6745461 be5256c file1.txt

git difftool 6745461 be5256c file1.txt
Note: p4merge tool can be used to compare only one file at a time.
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TOPIC - 11
Removing Files
by
using git rm Command
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Topic-11: Removing Files by
using git rm Command
It is very common requirement to remove files from working directory and staging area.
For these removals we can use the following commands
git rm file1.txt
git rm --cached file1.txt
General Linux rm command
Case-1: To Remove Files from Working Directory and

staging Area (git rm)
If we want to remove a file from working directory and from staging area then we should
go for gir rm command.
git rm file1.txt
file1.txt will be removed from staging area and from working directory
Note: for git rm command argument is mandatory

$ git rm
fatal: No pathspec was given. Which files should I remove?
$ git rm .
fatal: not removing '.' recursively without -r
It won't work because we didn't use -r option.
$ git rm -r .
It will remove all files
Case-2: To Remove Files Only from staging Area

(git rm --cached)
If we want to remove the file only from staging area but not from working directory then
we should use git rm --cached command.

file4.txt will be removed only from staging area but not from working directory
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$ ls
file4.txt file5.txt

$ git ls-files
file4.txt
file5.txt
$ git rm --cached file4.txt

rm 'file4.txt'

$ ls
file4.txt file5.txt

$ git ls-files
file5.txt
Note: If we are not passing any argument,

$ git rm --cached
fatal: No pathspec was given. Which files should I remove?
Case-3: To Remove Files Only from Working Directory

(rm Command)
We can use general linux command rm to remove files from working directory.
$ ls
file1.txt file2.txt

$ git ls-files
file1.txt
file2.txt
$ rm file1.txt

$ ls
file2.txt

$ git ls-files
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file1.txt
file2.txt
Note:
1) git rm file1.txt  It will remove file from both working directory and staging area
2) git rm --cached file1.txt  It will remove file only from staging area but not
from working directory
3) rm file1.txt It will remove file only from working directory but not from staging area.
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TOPIC - 12
Undo Changes
with
git Checkout Command
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Topic-12: Undo Changes with
git Checkout Command
We can use checkout command to discard unstanged changes in the tracked files of
working directory.
Observe the 3 words:

1) Only for working directory
2) To discard unstaged changes(The changes which are not added to staging area)
3) In the tracked files (The files which are already added to staging area/commit)
It is something like undo operation. It will copy contents of the file from index
area(staging area) to working directory.
git checkout -- filename
Eg:
$ git checkout -- file1.txt
It will discard any unstaged changes made in file1.txt.
After executing this command, staged copy content and working directory content is
same.
$ cat file1.txt
first line in file1.txt
second line in file1.txt
This is third line in
file1.txt
This is fourth line in file1.txt
$ git diff file1.txt

index f718d29..862edcf 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,5 @@
+This is third line in file1.txt
+This is fourth line in file1.txt

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$ cat file1.txt
Note: git checkout is applicable only for the files which are already tracked by git. It is not
applicable for new files.

error: pathspec 'file4.txt' did not match any file(s) known to git
Summary:
git checkout -- file.txt
To discard changes in working directory copy.
git checkout
To discard changes in all tracked files of working directory.
git checkout
If we are not passing any argument, then this command will show the list of eligible files
for checkout.
Note: git checkout command can be used in branching also.
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TOPIC – 13
Git References
(master and HEAD)
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Topic-13: Git References
(master and HEAD)
For most of the commands (like git log, git diff etc) we have to provide commit id as
argument. But remembering commit id is very difficult, even 7 characters also.
Git provides some sample names for these commit ids. We can use these names directly.
These are just pointers to commit ids. These sample names are called references or refs.
References are stored in .git/refs directory as text files.
There are multiple types of references like heads,tags and remotes.
Eg:
$pwd
/d/gitprojects/project6/.git/refs/heads
$ cat master
49aa8d79a9bab4c0d72dec217c0c6d5d96d604ce
Most of the times, we have to use the most recent commit id.
For such type of most commonly used commit ids git provides default references.
What is master?
$ git status
On branch master
1) master is the name of the branch.

2) It is a reference(pointer) to last commit id. Hence where ever we required to use
last commit id, simply we can use reference master.
3) This information is available in .git/refs/heads/master file.
The following two commands will produce same output.

$ git show 49aa8d7
$ git show master
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What is HEAD?
HEAD is a reference to master.
If any reference pointing to another reference, such type of reference is called symbolic
reference. Hence HEAD is symbolic reference.
Bydefault HEAD is always pointing to branch(master).
$ git log --oneline

49aa8d7 (HEAD -> master) both files added
HEAD is stored in root of .git directory but not in .git/refs directory.
$ cat HEAD
ref: refs/heads/master
Detached HEAD:
Sometimes HEAD is not pointing to the branch name, such type of head is considered as
Detached HEAD.
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TOPIC - 14
Git reset
Command
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75
Topic-14: Git reset Comm
git reset command is just like reset settings in our mobile.
There are 2 utilities of git reset command.
Utility-1: To remove changes from staging

area Utility-2: To undo commits at repository
level
Utility-1: To Remove Changes from staging Area

We can use git reset to remove changes from staging area.
Changes already added to staging area, but if we don't want to commit, then to remove
such type of changes from staging area, then we should go for git reset.
It will bring the changes from staging area back to working directory.
It is opposite to git add command.
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$ vi file1.txt

$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Untracked files:
file1.txt
track) lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project7
(master)
$ git add file1.txt

$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
(use "git rm --cached <file>..." to unstage)
new file: file1.txt

$ git reset file1.txt

$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Untracked files:
file1.txt
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to track)
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git rm --cached vs git reset:
The file will be removed completely from staging area.
git reset file1.txt
The file won't be removed from staging area, but reset to previous state(one step back).
We can see difference by using ls and git ls-files

$ ls
file1.txt

$ git ls-files
file1.txt
Q) We modified the content of the file1.txt and added to staging area. But we
want to ignore those changes in staging area and in working directory. For
this requirement which commands we required to use?
git reset file1.txt

To ignore changes in staging area
git checkout -- file1.txt
To ignore changes in working directory
Utility-2: To undo Commits at Repository Level

We can also use reset to undo commits at repository level.
Syntax:
git reset <mode> <commitid>
Moves the HEAD to the specified commit, and all remaining recent commits will be
removed.
mode will decide whether these changes are going t0 remove from staging area and
working directory or not.
The allowed values for the mode are:

--mixed
--soft
--hard
--keep
--merge
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1)--mixed Mode:
It is the default mode.
To discard commits in the local repository and to discard changes in staging area we
should use reset with --mixed option.
It won't touch working directory.
Example:
vi file1.txt
git add file1.txt; git commit -m 'file1 added'
vi file2.txt
vi file3.txt

$ git log --oneline
6fcc300 (HEAD -> master) file3.txt added
86d0ca3 file2 added
9165d34 file1 added
To discard commit-3:
git reset --mixed
86d0ca3 git reset --
mixed HEAD~1 git reset
HEAD~1
Now HEAD pointing to 86d0ca3
After undo commit-3:

The changes will be there in working directory.
option-1: To discard changes in working directory
also
git checkout -- filename
But make sure this file should not be new file and should be already tracked by git.
option-2: If we want those changes to local repository
git add file3.txt;DURGASOFT,
git commit# -m
202,'file3
nd added again'
2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
79
$ git log --oneline
59e6cd7 (HEAD -> master) file3 added again
86d0ca3 file2 added
9165d34 file1 added
To discard commit-2 and commit-3:

git reset --mixed 9165d34
git reset --mixed HEAD~2
git reset HEAD~2
$ git log --oneline

9165d34 (HEAD -> master) file1 added

$ git ls-files
file1.txt

$ ls
file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt
$ git status
On branch master
Untracked files:
file2.txt
file3.txt
Note:
1) It is not possible to remove random commits.
2) --mixed will work only on repository and staging area but not on working directory.
3) whenever we are using --mixed, we can revert the changes, because changes
are available in working directory.
2)reset with --soft Option:

It is exactly same as --mixed option, but changes are available in working directory as well
as in staging area.
It won't touch staging area and working directory.
As changes already present in staging area, just we have to use commit to revert back.
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$ git log --oneline
1979e61 (HEAD -> master) file3 added again
4d32eb3 file2 added again
9165d34 file1 added
To discard the latest commit:

git reset --soft 4d32eb3
git reset --soft HEAD~1
Now HEAD is pointing to 4d32eb3
The commits will be discarded only in local repository, but changes will be there in
working directory and staging area
$ git ls-files
file1.txt
file2.txt
file3.txt

$ ls
To Revert Changes we have to do Just

git commit -m "added again"
Use Cases:
1) If some files are missing in the last commit, then add those files and commit again.
2) We forgot to add defect number in commit message.
reset with --hard:

It is exactly same as --mixed except that Changes will be removed from everywhere (local
repository,staging area,working directory)
It is more dangerous command and it is destructive command.
It is impossible to revert back and hence while using hard reset we have to take special
care.
$ git log --oneline

3d7d370 (HEAD -> master) file3 added again
4d32eb3 file2 added again
9165d34 file1 added
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To remove recent two commits permanently:
git reset --hard 9165d34

git reset --hard HEAD~2
Now changes will be removed from everywhere.

$ git log --oneline
9165d34 (HEAD -> master) file1 added

$ git ls-files
file1.txt

$ ls
file1.txt
--mixed vs --soft vs --hard

1. --mixed:
changes will be discarded in local repo and staging area.
It won't touch working directoy.
Working tree won't be clean.
But we can revert with
git add .
git commit
2. --soft
Changes will be discarded only in local repository.
It won't touch staging area and working
directory. Working tree won't be clean.
But we can revert
with git commit
3. --hard
Changes will be discarded everywhere.
Working tree won't be clean.
No way to revert.
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Note:
If the commits are confirmed to local repository and to discard those commits we can use
reset command.
But if the commits are confirmed to remote repository then not recommended to use
reset command and we have to use revert command.
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TOPIC - 15
Git Aliases –
Providing our own Convenient Names
to
git Commands
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Topic-15: Git Aliases - Providing our own
Convenient Names to git Commands
Alias means nickname or short name or other alternative name.
In Git we can create our own commands by using aliasing concept. This is something like
alias command in Linux.
If any git command is lengthy and repeatedly required, then for that command we can
give our own convenient alias name and we can use that alias name every time.
Q1) Create alias Name 'one' to the following git Command?

git log --oneline
Test whether alias Name already used OR not?

First we have to check whether the name 'one' is already used or not.
$ git one
git: 'one' is not a git command. See 'git --help'.
We can use 'one' as alias name.
Creating alias Name:

We can create alias name by using git config command.
Syntax: git config --global alias.aliasname "original command without git"
Eg: git config --global alias.one "log --oneline"
Using alias Name:

$ git one
bb26af3 (HEAD -> master) two files we added
257073d file1 added
Note: After creating alias name, we can use either alias name or original name.
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Q2) Create alias Name 's' to the following git Command?
git status
$ git s
git: 's' is not a git command. See 'git --help'.
$ git config --global alias.s "status"
$ git s
On branch master
Note: If we use git in original command while creating alias name, what will happend?
$ git config --global alias.ss "git status"

$ ss
bash: ss: command not found
Where these aliases will be stored?

All alias names will be stored inside .gitconfig file.
This file will be available in user's home directory.
In the windows it will be available in C:\Users\lenovo
.gitconfig:
[user]
name = Ravi
email = durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com
[core]
autocrlf = true
[diff]
tool = p4merge
[difftool "p4merge"]
path = C:\\Program Files\\Perforce\\p4merge.exe
[difftool]
prompt = false
[merge]
tool = p4merge
[mergetool "p4merge"]
path = C:\\Program Files\\Perforce\\p4merge.exe
[mergetool]
prompt = false
[alias]
one = log --oneline
s = status
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We can perform any changes in alias commands based on requirement.
one = log
$ git one
commit bb26af3c6875a480ee0f92883ba85af5048eec6f (HEAD -> master)
Date: Tue May 26 19:40:13 2020 +0530
two files we added
commit 257073dcecf4364b77e8c64dbd7386a71f4071a2
Date: Tue May 26 12:38:38 2020 +0530
file1 added
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TOPIC – 16
Ignoring unwanted Files
And
Directories by using .gitignore File
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Topic-16: Ignoring unwanted Files and
Directories by using .gitignore File
It is very common requirement that we are not required to store everything in the
repository. We have to store only source code files like .java files etc.
README.txt  Not required to store

log files  Not required to store
We can request git, not to consider a particular file or directory.

We have to provide these files and directories information inside a special file .gitignore
.gitignore File:
We have to create this file in working directory.
# Don't track abc.txt file

abc.txt
# Don't track all .txt files
*.txt
# Don't track logs directory
logs/
#Don't track any hidden file
.*

$ touch a.txt b.txt Customer.java

$ mkdir logs

$ touch logs/server.log logs/access.log
$ git status
On branch master
Untracked files:
Customer.java
a.txt
b.txt
logs/
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.gitignore:
# Don't track a.txt
a.txt
#Don't track all .txt files
*.txt
#Don't track log files
logs/
#Don't track any hidden file
.*
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TOPIC – 17
Any Special Treatment
For
Directories by Git?
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Topic-17: Any Special Treatment for
Directories by Git?
No special treatement for directories.
Git always consider only files but not directories.
Git never give any importance for the directories.
Whenever we are adding files from the directory, implicitly directory also will be added.
$ git status
On branch master
$ mkdir dir1
Even though we created dir1, GIT won't give any importance for this directory because it
does not contain any files.
$ git status
On branch master
$ touch dir1/{a..d}.py
$ git status
On branch master
Untracked files:
dir1/
$ git add .
$ git status
On branch master
(use "git restore --staged <file>..." to unstage)
new file: dir1/a.py
new file: dir1/b.py
new file: dir1/c.py
new file: dir1/d.py
$git commit -m 'all python files added'
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Topic-18
Branching
And
Merging
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18.1. What is branching?
18.2. Need of creating a new branch:
18.3. Various Commands used in branching

1. To view branches
2. To create a new branch
3. To switch from one branch to another branch
4. Short-cut way to create a new branch and switch to that branch
18.4. Demo Example for branching
18.5. Multiple use cases where branching is required
18.6. Advantages of Branching
18.7. Merging of a Branch
18.8. What is Fast-forward Merge?
18.9. What is Three-Way Merge?
18.10. Differences between Fast-forward and Three-way Merges
18.11. Merge Conflicts and Resolution Process:
18.12.How to Delete a Branch
18.1) What is Branching?

Branching is one of very important concept in version control systems.
While working on real time projects code base, branching is one of mandatory and
unavoidable concept.
Till now whatever files created and whatever commits we did, all these happend in master
branch.
master branch is the default branch/ main branch in git.
Generally main source code will be placed in master branch.
18.2) Need of creating a New Branch:

Assume we required to work on new requirements independently, then instead of
working in the master branch, we can create a seperate branch and we can work in that
branch, related to that new requirement without affecting main branch.
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master branch  devlop web application
branch-1  develop Android compatibility
work branch-2  develop iOS compatibility
work
A Branch is nothing but an independent flow of development and by using branching

concept, we can create multiple work flows.
Based on our requirement, we can create any number of branches.
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Conclusions:
1. Once we creates a branch all files and commits will be inherited from parent branch
to child branch. Branching is a logical way of duplicating files and commits. In the child
branch we can create new files and we can perform new commits based on our
requirements.
2. All branches are isolated to each other. The changes performed in master branch
are not visible to the new branch and the changes performed in the new branch are
not visible to the master branch.
3. Once the work completed in new branch then we can merge that new brach to
the main branch or we can push that branch directly to the remote repository.
18.3) Various Commands used in branching:
1) To View Branches:
To know all available branches in our local repository, we have to use git branch
command.
git branch
- It will show all branches in our local repository.
- By default we have only one branch: master
- master is the default name provided by GIT.
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$ git branch
* master
* indicates that master is current active branch.
Note:
There is another way to check on which branch currently we are working, for this we have
to use git status command.
$ git status
On branch master
2) How to Create a New Branch:

We can create a new branch by using git branch command.
Syntax: git branch brach_name
Eg:
$ git branch new1branch
It will create a new branch: new1branch
$ git branch
* master
new1branch
3) How to Switch from one Branch to another Branch?

We have to use git checkout command. We used git checkout command already to discard
unstaged changes in working directory.
git checkout brach_name
Eg:
$ git checkout new1branch
Switched to branch 'new1branch'
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project6 (new1branch)

$ git branch
master
* new1branch
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project6 (new1branch)

$ git status
On branch new1branch
nothing to commit, working tree clean.
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***4) Short-cut Way to Create a New Branch and switch to
that Branch:
We have to use -b option with checkout command.
git checkout -b new2branch
$ git checkout -b new2branch

Switched to a new branch 'new2branch'
$ git branch
master
new1branch
* new2branch
18.4) Demo Example for branching:

$ touch a.txt b.txt c.txt

$ git add a.txt;git commit -m 'a.txt added'
[master (root-commit) e74f011] a.txt added
1 file changed, 0 insertions(+), 0 deletions(-)

$ git add b.txt;git commit -m 'b.txt added'
[master 68e47e4] b.txt added

$ git add c.txt;git commit -m 'c.txt added'
[master 78e7f07] c.txt added
create mode 100644 c.txt

$ git status
On branch master

$ git log --oneline
78e7f07 (HEAD -> master) c.txt added
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68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitproject

$ git checkout -b test
Switched to a new branch 'test'
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project8 (test)

$ git status
On branch test
$ ls
a.txt b.txt c.txt
$ git log --oneline

78e7f07 (HEAD -> test, master) c.txt added
68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added

$ touch x.txt y.txt z.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'new files added'
[test 5a63a15] new files added
3 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 0 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 x.txt
create mode 100644 y.txt
create mode 100644 z.txt

$ git log --oneline
5a63a15 (HEAD -> test) new files added
78e7f07 (master) c.txt added
68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added

$ git checkout master
Switched to branch 'master'

$ ls
a.txt b.txt c.txt
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$ git log --oneline
78e7f07 (HEAD -> master) c.txt added
68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added

$ touch d.txt

$ git add d.txt;git commit -m 'd.txt added'
[master d8009dd] d.txt added
create mode 100644 d.txt

$ ls
a.txt b.txt c.txt d.txt

$ git log --oneline
d8009dd (HEAD -> master) d.txt added
78e7f07 c.txt added
68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added

$ git checkout test
Switched to branch 'test'

$ ls
a.txt b.txt c.txt x.txt y.txt z.txt

$ git log --oneline
5a63a15 (HEAD -> test) new files added
78e7f07 c.txt added
68e47e4 b.txt added
e74f011 a.txt added
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Important Conclusions:
1. All branches are isolated to each other. The changes performed in master branch
are not visible to the new branch and the changes performed in the new branch are
not visible to the master branch.
2. In GIT branching, logical duplication of files will be

happend. For every branch, new directory won't be created.
But in other version control systems like SVN, if we want to create a branch, first we have
to create a new directory and we have to copy all files manually to that directory which is
very difficult job and time consuming job.
3. In Git, if we switch from one branch to another branch just HEAD pointer will be
moved, beyond that no other work will be happend. Hence implementing branching
concept is very easy and very speed.

$ cat .git/HEAD
ref: refs/heads/master
$ git checkout test
Switched to branch 'test'

$ cat .git/HEAD
ref: refs/heads/test
Note: In GIT Branching, new directory won't be created and files won't be copied and just
HEAD pointer will be changed. Hence to implement branching zero affort is required in
GIT.
18.5) Multiple Use Cases where branching is required:

1. If we are working on a new feature of the project, and if it is required longer time then
we can use branching. We can create a separate branch for Implementing new feature. It
won't affect main code (master branch).
2. If we required to work on hot fixes of production code, then we can create branch for
the production code base and we can work on that branch. Once work completed then
we can push the fixed code to the production.
Most of the real time projects have a separate production branch to handle this type of
requirements.
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3. To support multiple versions of same code base, branching is required.
For every version, a separate branch will be there. If we want to fix any bugs or
performance issues or any changes in a particular version, then we can work in that
branch and we can push changes to the production.
4. To test new technologies or new ideas without effecting main code base, branching
is the best choice.
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18.6) Advantages of Branching:
1. We can enable Parallel development.
2. We can work on multiple flows in isolated way.
3. We can organize source code in clean way.
4. Implementing new features will become easy
5. Bug fixing will become easy.
6. Testing new ideas or new technologies will become easy.
18.7) Merging of a Branch:

We created a branch to implement some new feature and we did some new changes in
that branch, once work completed we have to merge that branch back to parent branch.
We can perform merge operation by using git merge command.

We have to execute this command from parent branch.
Demo Example:

$ touch a.txt b.txt
$ git add a.txt; git commit -m 'c1m'
[master (root-commit) 2164c45] c1m

$ git add b.txt; git commit -m 'c2m'
[master 99d500e] c2m
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$ git log --oneline
99d500e (HEAD -> master) c2m
2164c45 c1m

$ git branch
* master

$ git checkout -b feature
Switched to a new branch 'feature'
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project9 (feature)

$ git branch
* feature
master

$ touch z.txt

$ git add z.txt;git commit -m 'c1f'
[feature 87701ef] c1f

$ touch x.txt

$ git add x.txt;git commit -m 'c2f'
[feature 85d15fd] c2f
$ git log --oneline master

99d500e (master) c2m
2164c45 c1m

$ git log --oneline feature
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85d15fd (HEAD -> feature) c2f
87701ef c1f
99d500e (master) c2m
2164c45 c1m
Assume new feature implemented properly, We want to merge feature branch with
master branch.


$ git merge feature
Updating 99d500e..85d15fd
Fast-forward
x.txt | 0
z.txt | 0

$ ls
a.txt b.txt x.txt z.txt

$ git log --oneline
85d15fd (HEAD -> master, feature) c2f
87701ef c1f
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99d500e c2m
2164c45 c1m
18.8) What is Fast-forward Merge?

After creating child branch, if we are not doing any new commits in the parent branch,
then git will perform fast-forward merge. i.e updations(new commits) happened only in
child branch but not in parent branch.
In the fast-forward merge, git simply moves parent branch and points to the last commit
of the child branch.
Demo Example to Demonstrate no Chance of raising

conflicts in fast-forward Merge:
$ touch a.txt

$ echo "first line" > a.txt

$ git add a.txt ; git commit -m 'c1m'
[master (root-commit) f127932] c1m
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

$ echo "secon line" >> a.txt

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[master 5aebe46] c2m

$ git checkout -b 'feature'
Switched to a new branch
'feature'

$ ls
a.txt

$ echo "third line" >> a.txt

$ git add a.txt ; git commit -m 'c1f'
warning: LF will be replaced by CRLF in a.txt.
The file will have its original line endings in your working directory
[feature edd47fd] c1f


$ git merge feature
Updating
5aebe46..edd47fd Fast-
forward
a.txt | 1 +

$ cat a.txt
first line
secon line
third line
If same file modified by both parent and child branches then conflicts will be raised. In
fast-forward merge there is no chance of any conflicts, because updations happened
only in child branch and we didn't touch parent branch.
Note: After creating child branch if parent branch also contains some new commits,
then fast-forward merge won't
DURGASOFT, # 202,be
2 happend
nd and
Floor, HUDA Three-way
Maitrivanam, merge will
Ameerpet, be happed.
Hyderabad - 500038,
107
18.9) What is Three-Way Merge?
If changes present in both parent and child branches and if we are trying to perform
merge operation, then git will do three-way merge.
Demo Example To Demonstrate Three-way Merge:

$ touch a.txt b.txt

$ git add a.txt;git commit -m 'c1m'
[master (root-commit) 9e65e9f] c1m

$ git add b.txt;git commit -m 'c2m'
[master 56e0980] c2m

$ ls
a.txt b.txt

$ git log --oneline
56e0980 (HEAD -> master) c2m
9e65e9f c1m


$ touch x.txt z.txt

$ git add x.txt ; git commit -m 'c1f'
[feature 488588b] c1f
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$ git add z.txt ; git commit -m 'c2f'
[feature 6a9b808] c2f

$ git branch
* feature
master

56e0980 (master) c2m
9e65e9f c1m

6a9b808 (HEAD -> feature) c2f
488588b c1f
56e0980 (master) c2m
9e65e9f c1m
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$ touch c.txt

$ git add c.txt ; git commit -m 'c3m'
[master 56fccfa] c3m
In this case new commits are available in both parent and child branches.
If we are trying to perform merge operation, git will do three-way merge.

$ git merge feature
Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy.
x.txt | 0
z.txt | 0
Three-way merge creates a new commit which is also known as merge commit.
Parent branch will pointing to the newly created merge commit.
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$ git log --oneline --graph
* 65afca1 (HEAD -> master) Merge branch 'feature'
|\
| * 6a9b808 (feature) c2f
| * 488588b c1f
* | 56fccfa c3m
|/
* 56e0980 c2m
* 9e65e9f c1m

$ git log --oneline --graph feature
* 6a9b808 (feature) c2f
* 488588b c1f
* 56e0980 c2m
* 9e65e9f c1m
18.10) Differences between Fast-forward and Three-way

Merges
Fast-forward Three-way Merge
1. After creating child branch, if updates are
1. After creating child branch, if updates are
available only in the child branch but not in
available in both Parent and child
the parent branch, then GIT will perform branches, then GIT will perform Three-way
Fast-Forward Merge. Merge.
2. It does not require any additional commit
2. It requires a new commit which is also
known as Merge commit.
3. There is no chance of conflicts because 3. There may be a chance of conflicts
new commits are available only in child because new commits are available in both
branch but not in parent branch. parent and child branches.
4. Fast-forward merge is fully handled by 4. If there is a conflict, we may required to
GIT. handle manually.
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18.11) Merge Conflicts and Resolution Process
In the case of 3-way merge, if the same file updated by both Parent and child branches
then may be a chance of merge conflict.
If there is a conflict then GIT stops the merge process and provides conflict message.
We have to resolve the conflict manually by editing the file.
Git will markup both branches content in the file to resolve the conflict very easily.
Once we completed editing of the file with required final content, then we have to add to
the staging area followed by commit. With that merging process will be completed.
Demo Example:
$ mkdir project12

$ cd project12

$ git init

$ echo "First Line Added" > a.txt

[master (root-commit) dd727c4] c1m

$ echo "Second Line Added" >> a.txt

[master 1a42e6d] c2m

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$ echo "New Data Added By Feature Branch" >> a.txt

$ git add a.txt ; git commit -m 'c1f'
[feature c5bf898] c1f


$ echo "New Data Added By Master Branch" >> a.txt

[master 603072f] c3m

$ git diff master feature
diff --git a/a.txt b/a.txt
index adefdaf..044a856 100644
--- a/a.txt
+++ b/a.txt
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
First Line Added
Second Line Added
-New Data Added By Master Branch
+New Data Added By Feature Branch

$ git merge
feature Auto-
merging a.txt
CONFLICT (content): Merge conflict in a.txt
Automatic merge failed; fix conflicts and then commit the result.
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project12 (master|MERGING)

$ git status
On branch master
You have unmerged paths.
(fix conflicts and run "git commit")
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113
(use "git merge --abort" to abort the merge)
Unmerged paths:
(use "git add <file>..." to mark resolution)
both modified: a.txt
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/project12 (master|
MERGING)
$ cat a.txt
First Line Added
Second Line Added
<<<<<<< HEAD
New Data Added By Master Branch
=======
New Data Added By Feature Branch
>>>>>>> feature

$ git mergetool

$ vi a.txt
We have to edit a.txt to decide final content.

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$ git add a.txt ; git commit -m 'Resolved Merge Conflicts'
[master 63f541a] Resolved Merge Conflicts

$ git status
On branch master

* 63f541a (HEAD -> master) Resolved Merge Conflicts
|\
| * c5bf898 (feature) c1f
* | 603072f c3m
|/
* 1a42e6d c2m
* dd727c4 c1m

$ cat a.txt
First Line Added
Second Line Added
New Data Added By Master Branch
New Data Added By Feature Branch
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18.12) How to Delete a Branch?
Once we completed our work we can delete the branch.
Deletion of the branch is optional.
The main objective of deleting branch is to keep our repository clean.
We can delete a branch by using git branch command with -d option.
Syntax: $ git branch -d <branch_name>
Eg:
$ git branch
feature
* master

$ git branch -d feature
Deleted branch feature (was c5bf898).

$ git branch
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116
* master
After deleting the branch, still files and commits are available because the changes are
merged to master branch.

* 63f541a (HEAD -> master) Resolved Merge Conflicts
|\
| * c5bf898 c1f
* | 603072f c3m
|/
* 1a42e6d c2m
* dd727c4 c1m
Note:
If we want to combine all commits of feature branch into a single commit and merge that
commit to the master branch, then we should go for squash option.
git merge --squash feature
nd
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Topic-19
Merging
By using
Rebase
nd
118
19.1 Process of rebasing
19.2. Demo Example for rebasing
19.3. Advantages of rebasing
19.4. Disadvantages of rebasing
19.5 Differences between Merge and Rebase
Rebase is alternative way to merge changes of two branches togther.

rebase = re + base  re arrange base
19.1) Process of rebasing:

It is a two step process.
Step-1: We have to rebase feature branch on top of master branch.
A. Checkout feature
branch git checkout
feature
B. Rebase feature branch on top of master
branch git rebase master
Step-2: We have to merge feature branch into the master branch(fast-forwar merge will
be happend)
A. checkout master
branch git checkout
master
B. Merge feature branch into master
branch git merge feature
nd
119
git checkout feature

git rebase master
Whatever new commits are there in the feature branch will be duplicated by git.
Here everything(like commit message,timestamp,author name and mail) is same except
that commit ids will be changed.
The base commit of the feature branch(duplicate copy) will be updated as last commit of
parent branch(master branch).
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Step-2: We have to merge feature branch into the master branch (fast-forwar merge will
be happend)
git checkout master

git merge feature
The master branch pointer will be changed to last commit(duplicate copy) of the feature
branch. In this case Fast-forward merge will be happend.
nd
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19.2) Demo Example for rebasing:
$ mkdir rebasing

$ cd rebasing
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/rebasing

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/rebasing/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/rebasing (master)

$ touch a.txt b.txt

$ git add a.txt;git commit -m 'c1m'
[master (root-commit) 27458a4] c1m

$ git add b.txt;git commit -m 'c2m'
[master d2369f5] c2m

lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/rebasing (feature)

$ touch x.txt y.txt

$ git add x.txt;git commit -m 'c1f'
[feature a7de761] c1f

$ git add y.txt;git commit -m 'c2f'
[feature 56661b6] c2f
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$ touch c.txt

$ git add c.txt;git commit -m 'c3m'
[master 76f925d] c3m

$ git log master
commit 76f925d5bc1f019c0d37aeb2019428c02a1bd9a2 (HEAD -> master)
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:41:39 2020 +0530
c3m
commit d2369f5d777eff029551b018fd4800d3471fbebf
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:44 2020 +0530
c2m
commit 27458a4980b808ac346efa86ede08ea49c3f1719
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:33 2020 +0530
c1m
$ git log feature
commit 56661b62bd8b81cbe5347ac4e6bc9cc57a8850d8 (feature)
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:40:59 2020 +0530
c2f
commit a7de761b18a07f44c34cd88a01c204d4c68df697
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:40:39 2020 +0530
c1f
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:44 2020 +0530
nd
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c2m
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:33 2020 +0530
c1m
76f925d (HEAD -> master) c3m
d2369f5 c2m
27458a4 c1m

56661b6 (feature) c2f
a7de761 c1f
d2369f5 c2m
27458a4 c1m

git checkout feature
git rebase master

$ git checkout feature
Switched to branch 'feature'

$ git rebase master
Successfully rebased and updated refs/heads/feature.

d00c558 (HEAD -> feature) c2f
d96d3ae c1f
76f925d (master) c3m
d2369f5 c2m
27458a4 c1m
$ git log feature

commit d00c5589350abc457fd511c560ee24dad2ed12a3 (HEAD -> feature)
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:40:59 2020 +0530
nd
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c2f
commit d96d3ae369b5d9394615baa4ea5fd1393016cc04
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:40:39 2020 +0530
c1f
commit 76f925d5bc1f019c0d37aeb2019428c02a1bd9a2
(master) Author: Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com>
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:41:39 2020 +0530
c3m
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:44 2020 +0530
c2m
Date: Wed Jun 3 12:39:33 2020 +0530
c1m
Step-2: We have to merge feature branch into the master branch (fast-forwar merge
will be happend)
git checkout master

git merge feature


$ git merge feature
Updating 76f925d..d00c558
Fast-forward
x.txt | 0
y.txt | 0
create mode 100644 y.txt

$ git log --oneline --graph master
* d00c558 (HEAD -> master, feature) c2f
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* d96d3ae c1f
* 76f925d c3m
* d2369f5 c2m
* 27458a4 c1m

$ git branch -d feature
Deleted branch feature (was d00c558).

$ git log --oneline --graph master
* d00c558 (HEAD -> master) c2f
* d96d3ae c1f
* 76f925d c3m
* d2369f5 c2m
* 27458a4 c1m
19.3) Advantages of rebasing:

1. Rebase keeps history linear.
In 3-way merge, a commit can have multiple parents. But in Rebase every commit has a
single parent only. Hence history will be liner.
2. Clear work flow (Linear) will there. Hence easy to understand for the developers.
3. Internally git performs Fast-forward merge and hence there is no chance of conflicts.
4. No extra commit like merge commit.
19.4) Disadvantages of rebasing:

1. It rewrites history.
We cannot see history of commits what we did in feature branches
2. We does not aware which changes are coming from which
branch.
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19.5) Differences between Merge and Rebase
Merg Rebas
e e
1. It is a single step process 1. It is a two-step process
git checkout master git checkout feature
git merge feature git rebase master
git checkout master
git merge feature
2. Merge preserves history of all commits. 2. Rebase clears history of feature branch.
3. The commits can have more than one 3. Every commit has only one parent and
parent and history is non-linear. history is linear.
4. In merge, there may be a chance of 4. In Rebase, there is no chance of conflicts.
conflicts.
5. We can aware which changes are coming 5. We can not aware which changes are
from which branch. coming from which branch.
6. We can use merge on public repositories. 6. It is not recommended to use rebase on
public repositories.
Note:
Rebase is very dangerous operation and it is never recommended to use on public
repositories because it rewrites history.
nd
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Topic-20
Stas
h in
GIT
nd
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20.1 What is git stash?
20.2 Demo Example for stashing
20.3 How to list all available stashes?
20.4 How to check the contents of stash?
20.5 How to perform unstash?
20.6 Partial Stash
20.7 How to delete the stash?
Stashing is a bit advanced concept in GIT.

Most of the people may not aware about this topic.
Eg-1:
Stash  Store (something) safely in a hidden or secret place.
Eg: Most of billionaire shashed their welath in Swiss banks"
Eg-2:
Doctor  op is going on (6PM to 9PM)
An urgent case came  Doctor will pause op and then he look into urgent case
20.1) What is git stash:

The git stash command takes our uncommitted changes (both staged and unstaged), saves
in some temporary location.
After completing our urgent work, we can bring these stashed changes to our current
working directory.
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Note:
1. Stashing concept is applicable only for tracked files but not for newly created files.
2. To perform stashing, atleast one commit must be completed.
$ git stash
You do not have the initial commit yet
$ git stash
No local changes to save
20.2) Demo Example for stashing:

$ mkdir stashing

$ cd stashing
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashing

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/stashing/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashing (master)

$ echo "First Line in File1" > file1.txt

$ echo "First Line in File2" > file2.txt
$ git add file1.txt file2.txt;git commit -m '2 files added'
[master (root-commit) 0323e16] 2 files added
create mode 100644 file1.txt

$ vim file1.txt
First Line in File1
Work is going on...

$ vim file2.txt
First Line in File2

Work is going on ...
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$ git add file2.txt

$ git status
On branch master
modified: file2.txt

modified: file1.txt
Assume we required to create and work on file3.txt and and this file changes needs to be
committed immediately.
To work on file3.txt, we have to save uncommitted changes of file1.txt and file2.txt to

some temporary location, because we don't want to include these changes in the current
commit. For this we should go for git stash command.

$ git stash
Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 0323e16 2 files added

$ git status
On branch master

$ cat file1.txt
First Line in File1

$ cat file2.txt
First Line in File2
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20.3) How to list all available stashes:
$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: 0323e16 2 files added
20.4) How to check the contents of stash:

git show stash@{0}

$ git show stash@{0}
commit f4777b1cf3f5d182a5a85b0041bcfc512f0c22a6 (refs/stash)
Merge: 0323e16 474e39d
Date: Wed Jun 10 20:47:46 2020 +0530
WIP on master: 0323e16 2 files added
diff --cc file1.txt

index 5fd239d,5fd239d..2a0ac40
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@@ -1,1 -1,1 +1,2 @@@
First Line in File1
++Work is going on...
Now we can work on our urgent requirement..

---------------------------------------------------------------
$ echo "Urgent work needs to be committed immediately"> file3.txt

$ git status
On branch master
Untracked files:
file3.txt
track) lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashing
(master)
$ git add file3.txt; git commit -m 'urgent work completed'
[master e92524a] urgent work completed
1 file changed,DURGASOFT,
1 insertion(+) nd
# 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
132
20.5) How to perform unstash?
We have to bring files from temporary location to our working directory. For this we have
to perform unstash operation.
We can perform unstashing in 2 ways:
1. by using git stash pop

2. by using git stash apply
1. by using git stash pop:

git stash pop stash@{0}
It will bring stashed changes from temporary location to working directory.

The corresponding entry will be deleted.
2. by using git stash apply:

git stash apply stash@{0}
It will bring stashed changes from temporary location to working directory.

But, the corresponding entry won't be deleted, so that we can use this stash in other
branches to continue their work.

$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: 7548594 2 files added

$ git stash pop stash@{0}
On branch master
modified: file1.txt
modified: file2.txt
Dropped stash@{0}
(775eb1616fe54fec28cd0e0a3a7b52fabba34d21)

$ git stash list

$ git status
On branch master
DURGASOFT,
nd
# 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
133
modified: file1.txt
modified: file2.txt
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashing
(master)
$ cat file1.txt
First Line in File1
Work is going on...

$ cat file2.txt
First Line in File2
Work is going on...

$ git add file1.txt file2.txt ; git commit -m '2 files added'
[master 8bac6b1] 2 files added

$ echo "Some more work is going on" >> file1.txt

$ echo "Some more work is going on" >> file2.txt

$ git stash
Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 8bac6b1 2 files added

$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: 8bac6b1 2 files added

$ git stash apply stash@{0}
On branch master
modified: file1.txt
modified: file2.txt
no changes added to commit (usend"git add" and/or "git commit -a")

134
$ git stash list
It is empty
20.6) Partial Stash:

Assume we have multiple files, but we want stash only for some files. It is possible and
this concept is called partial stash.
We can perform partial stash by using the following command:

$ git stash -p
Demo Exaample for Partial Stash:

$ mkdir partialstash

$ cd partialstash
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/partialstash

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/partialstash/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/partialstash (master)

$ echo 'First Line' > file1.txt


$ git add .;git commit -m 'first commit'
[master (root-commit) 9484eab] first commit

$ echo "work is going on" >> file1.txt

$ echo "work is going on" >> file2.txt

$ git status
On branch master
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modified: file1.txt
modified: file2.txt
Partial Stash of only file1.txt:

$ git stash -p
index 603cb1b..0ac9556 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1 +1,2 @@
First Line
+work is going on
(1/1) Stash this hunk [y,n,q,a,d,e,?]? y

index 603cb1b..0ac9556 100644
--- a/file2.txt
+++ b/file2.txt
@@ -1 +1,2 @@
First Line
+work is going on
(1/1) Stash this hunk [y,n,q,a,d,e,?]? n
Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 9484eab first
commit lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/partialstash
(master)
$ git status
On branch master
modified: file2.txt
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/partialstash

nd
(master) DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
136
$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: 9484eab first commit
commit 76459eecb1b350caf56349b94cb2f091a371a7d0 (refs/stash)
Merge: 9484eab 30f190a
Date: Thu Jul 16 20:32:05 2020 +0530
WIP on master: 9484eab first commit
diff --cc file1.txt

index 603cb1b,603cb1b..0ac9556
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@@ -1,1 -1,1 +1,2 @@@
First Line
++work is going on
We can continue our urgent work

$ echo 'urgent work' > file3.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'commit related to urgent work'
[master 5e040c2] commit related to urgent work
$ git status
On branch master

$ git stash pop stash@{0}
On branch master
modified: file1.txt
Dropped refs/stash@{0} (76459eecb1b350caf56349b94cb2f091a371a7d0)
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20.7) How to delete the stash:
We can have any number of stashes.
Based on our requirement, we can delete all stashes or a particular stash.
git stash clear

To delete all stashes
git stash drop stashid

To delete a particular stash
Demo Example:
$ mkdir stashdelete

$ cd stashdelete
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashdelete

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/stashdelete/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/stashdelete (master)

$ echo 'First Line'> file1.txt



$ git add .;git commit -m '3 files added'
[master (root-commit) df0ba71] 3 files added

$ git status
On branch master
nd
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modified: file1.txt
(master)
$ git stash
Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: df0ba71 3 files added

$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: df0ba71 3 files added

commit 9632ddb69d4aa33e7b804a38f39032c3f657a461
(refs/stash) Merge: df0ba71 2bd956b
Date: Thu Jul 16 20:42:44 2020 +0530
WIP on master: df0ba71 3 files added
diff --cc file1.txt

index 603cb1b,603cb1b..b4660ea
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@@ -1,1 -1,1 +1,2 @@@
First Line
++Work is going on

$ git status
On branch master

$ echo 'urgent work is going on file2' >> file2.txt

$ git status
On branch master
modified: file2.txt nd
139

$ git stash

$ git status
On branch master

$ git stash list

$ echo 'more urgent work on file3' >> file3.txt

$ git status
On branch master
modified: file3.txt
(master)
$ git stash
warning: LF will be replaced by CRLF in file3.txt.
The file will have its original line endings in your working directory

$ git stash list
stash@{0}: WIP on master: df0ba71 3 files
added stash@{1}: WIP on master: df0ba71 3
files added stash@{2}: WIP on master: df0ba71
3 files added

$ git stash drop stash@{1} nd
140
Dropped stash@{1} (33f3c2b23ae7f4b9df5979d898b5fbbe7b93e272)
$ git stash list

$ git stash clear

$ git stash list
FAQs:
1) What is stash?
2) How to perform stash?
3) How to perform unstash?
4) What is the Difference between pop and apply?
5) what is partial stash?
6) How to delete all stashes?
7) How to delete a particular stash?
nd
141
Topic-21
Working
with
Remote Repositories
nd
142
Topic-21: Working with Remote Repositories
21.1) Need of Remote Repositories
21.3) How to create account in GitHub?
21.4) How to create a new reposioty in Github?
21.5) How to work with Remote Repository?
1) git remote
2) git push
3) git clone
4) git pull
5) git fetch
21.1) Need of Remote Repositories:

Upto this we created multiple files and we did several changes. We used multiple git
commands. All these operations happend in local repository.
If we required to share our code to the peer developers/team members then the remote
repository concept will come in the picture.
As GIT is distributed version control system, every developer has his own local repository.
Every developer can share his code to the peer developers/team members.
By using push operation, developer can share his code the peer developer.
By using pull operation, developer can get the code of peer developer.
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The Problems if Developer communicates directly with other Developers:
1. On every developer's machine we have to install Git Server.
2. Every developer should aware hostname and port number of all remaining
developers, then only he can share the code.
3. If there is any change in port number of any developer's machine, intimating this for
all developers every time is very difficult task.
We can solve these problems with common remote repository.
Note: It is not centralized version control system
The Advantages of Common Remote Repositories:

1. On the developer's machine, we are not required to install GIT
server. GIT Server is available on common remote repository.
2. Developer should aware only url of the common remote repository and he is not
required to aware all hostnames and port numbers of all remaining developer's
machines.
Note:
1. Using common remote repository is best practice in real time.
2. The most common service providers of remote
repositories Github,Gitlab,Bitbucket etc
3. Some big companies may use their own common remote repository instead of using
3rd party repositories.
4. Sometimes in Real time we may required to work with multiple remote
repositories also. nd
144
1. How to create account in the Github
2. How to create Remote Repository in the Github
3. Various Git commands to work with remote
repository git remote
git push
git clone
git pull
git fetch
Github is an online repository store/remote repository service provider.

We can store our repositories in github so that our code is available for the remaining
team members.
21.3) How to Create Account in GitHub?

https://github.com
We have to signup with our mail id. We should use valid mail id only because we have to
verify that mail id to create account successfully.
github requires email verification.
nd
145
21.4) How to Create a New Reposioty in Github:
nd
146
Repository Name is the name of the project folder. We have to choose meaningfull name.
This is the url of the remote repository

https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git
By using this url only we can communicate with remote repository.
Note:
1. The max allowed file size in Github public repository: 100MB
2. The max allowed repo size in Github public repository: 2GB
21.5) How to work with Remote Repository:

To work with remote repository we have to use the following commands
1. git remote
2. git push
3. git clone
4. git pull
5. git fetch
nd
147
1)git remote:
We can use git remote command to configure remote repository to our local repository.
$ git remote add <alias_name> remote_repository_url
Eg:
$ git remote add origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git
Here, origin is alias name of the remote_repository_url. By using this alias name only we
can communicate with remote repository.
Instead of origin we can use any name, but it is convention to use origin.
By using git remote command we can also view remote repository information.
$ git remote
It just provides the alias names of remote repositories
$ git remote -v
It provides remote repository urls also.
2)git push:
We can use git push command to send our changes from local repository to remote
repository. ie to push our changes from local repo to remote repo.
git push <remote_name> <branch_name>
Eg: git push origin master
Demo Example:
$ mkdir remoterepo

$ cd remoterepo
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/remoterepo

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/remoterepo/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/remoterepo (master)


nd
148
$ git add . ; git commit -m 'first commit'
[master (root-commit) 0741376] first commit


$ git add .;git commit -m 'second commit'
[master 553dc63] second commit

$ git status
On branch master

$ git log --oneline
553dc63 (HEAD -> master) second commit
0741376 first commit

$ git log
commit 553dc63d050c6ef6bd4567fddb6903510c47cb28 (HEAD -> master)
Date: Sun Jul 19 20:28:47 2020 +0530
second commit
commit 074137633893c093572e4a35923579ac9dbf61be
Date: Sun Jul 19 20:27:53 2020 +0530
first commit
Being a Developer, i want to share to this code to my peer developers. We have to send
this code to the remote repository, so that it is available for them.
We have to configure remote repository to our local repository. For this we have to use git
remote command.

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$ git remote add origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git
We can check whether it is configured or not by using git remote command.

$ git remote
origin

$ git remote -v
origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git (fetch)
origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git (push)
We have to push our changes from local repository to remote repository.

For this we have to use git push command.

$ git push origin master
Enumerating objects: 5, done.
Counting objects: 100% (5/5), done.
Delta compression using up to 8 threads
Compressing objects: 100% (3/3), done.
Writing objects: 100% (5/5), 441 bytes | 441.00 KiB/s, done.
Total 5 (delta 0), reused 0 (delta 0), pack-reused 0
To https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git
* [new branch] master -> master
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Note: Whenever we are using remote repository the communication will be happend
between local and remote repositories only.
Q) Is it possible to have multiple Remote Repositories?

Yes
Assume we created a new repository named with github_project2 and its url is
https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project2.git
We have to send the files of local repository to this remote repository also.
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/remoterepo
(master)
$ git remote add my_remote https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project2.git

$ git remote
my_remote
origin

$ git remote -v
my_remote https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project2.git (fetch)
my_remote https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project2.git (push)
origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git (fetch)
origin https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project.git (push)

$ git push my_remote master
To https://github.com/durgadevops88/github_project2.git
Note: By using settings tab of remote repository we can perform multiple activities
like changing ownership,delete repository etc.
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3)git clone:
cloning means creating exactly duplicate copy.
Already there is a project on remote repository.

Being a new team member, we may required complete remote repository into our local
repository. For this purpose we have to use git clone command.
i.e we can use git clone command to create local repository with remote repository files.
All the files and commit history will be copied from remote repository into local
repository.
Syntax: git clone <remote_repo_url>
Eg:
git clone https://github.com/durgadevops777/github_project.git
Now the project name will become repository project name.
Note: Based on our requirement we can provide a new name for the project.
git clone <remote_repo_url> <new_project_name>
Eg: git clone https://github.com/durgadevops777/github_project.git my_project
Demo Example-1 :
$ mkdir newdeveloper
$ cd newdeveloper/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/newdeveloper

$ ls

$ git clone https://github.com/durgadevops777/github_project.git
Cloning into 'github_project'...
remote: Enumerating objects: 5, done.
remote: Counting objects: 100% (5/5), done.
remote: Compressing objects: 100% (3/3), done.
remote: Total 5 (delta 0), reused 5 (delta 0), pack-reused 0
Receiving objects: 100% (5/5), done.

$ ls
github_project/
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$ cd github_project/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/newdeveloper/github_project (master)

$ ls -la
total 6
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:43 ./
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:43 ../
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:43 .git/
-rw-r--r-- 1 lenovo 197121 12 Jul 22 20:43 file1.txt
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/newdeveloper/github_project (master)

$ git log
commit b918d0d3d2560e53e6260f838a882b87a8ec45ee (HEAD -> master, origin/master,
origin/HEAD)
Date: Sun Jul 19 21:51:35 2020 +0530
second commit
commit dc9556591b99a10a7e0d99a8ae88b9fe99db1edf
Date: Sun Jul 19 21:51:05 2020 +0530
first commit
Demo Example -2: With our own customized Project Folder Name
$ git clone https://github.com/durgadevops777/github_project.git my_project
Cloning into 'my_project'...

$ ls
github_project/ my_project/

$ cd my_project/
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lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/newdeveloper/my_project (master)
$ ls -la
total 7
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:52 ./
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:52 ../
drwxr-xr-x 1 lenovo 197121 0 Jul 22 20:52 .git/
-rw-r--r-- 1 lenovo 197121 25 Jul 22 20:52 _config.yml
Q1) Before using git clone command is it required to use git

init command?
Ans: No
git clone command itself will create local repository and hence we are not required to use
git init command explicitly.
Q2) In how many ways we can create a new local repository?

Ans: In 2 ways
1. By using git init command to create empty local repository.

2. By using git clone command to create local repository with the files of remote
repository.
4)git fetch Command:

We can use get fetch command to check whether any updates available at remote
repository or not. This command will retrieve only latest meta-data info from the remote
repository. It won't download updates from remote repository into local repository.
Syntax: $ git fetch origin
5)git pull Command:

We can use git pull command to download and merge updates from remote repository
into local repository.
git pull = fetch+merge
Syntax:
$ git pull <remote> <branch>
$ git pull origin master
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Demo Example:
On Developer A Machine:
$ mkdir dev_A_work_space
$ cd dev_A_work_space/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/dev_A_work_space

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/dev_A_work_space/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/dev_A_work_space (master)

$ echo 'First line by Dev A' > file1.txt

[master (root-commit) cc73176] first commit
Now we have to create a remote repository in the github named with remote_repo.
The corresponding url is:
https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo.git
push the changes from local repository to remote repository.

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$ git remote add origin https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo.git

To https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo.git
On Developer B Machine:
Developer B is responsible to clone this remote repository into local repository and he
can do some updates.
$ mkdir dev_B_work_space
$ cd dev_B_work_space/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/dev_B_work_space

$ git clone https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo.git
Cloning into 'remote_repo'...

$ ls
remote_repo/

$ cd remote_repo/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/dev_B_work_space/remote_repo (master)

$ ls
file1.txt

$ git log --oneline
cc73176 (HEAD -> master, origin/master, origin/HEAD) first commit
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$ echo 'Line 2 added by Dev B' >> file1.txt

$ echo "First line" > file2.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'commit by devB'
[master 47eae54] commit by devB
DevB has to update these changes to the remote repository by using git push
command. lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/dev_B_work_space/remote_repo
(master)
$ git push
To https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo.git
cc73176..47eae54 master -> master
Now updates are available on Remote repository.
How Developer A will get these updates from Remote repo?

Developer has to use git fetch and git pull commands.
git fetch  To check whether updates are available or not
git pull  To download and merge those updates with local

repo. We can use directly git pull without using git fetch.

$ git fetch origin
Unpacking objects: 100% (4/4), 312 bytes | 1024 bytes/s, done.
From https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo
cc73176..47eae54 master -> origin/master
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$ ls
file1.txt

$ git pull origin master
From https://github.com/durgadevops777/remote_repo
* branch master -> FETCH_HEAD
Updating cc73176..47eae54
Fast-forward
file1.txt | 1 +
file2.txt | 1 +

$ ls
file1.txt file2.txt

$ cat file1.txt
First line by Dev A
Line 2 added by Dev B

$ git log --oneline
47eae54 (HEAD -> master, origin/master) commit by devB
cc73176 first commit
Note:
1. To perform push operation, local repository and remote repository should be in sync.
ie the local repository should be upto date to the remote repository.
If any updates in remote repo, git push is not allowed. It will ask us to pull first.
2. If any conflicts are there, we have to sit with peer developer to resolve the conflicts.
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Topic-22
Git Tagging
(git Tag Command)
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Topic-22: Git Tagging
(git Tag Command)
22.1) Introduction to Tagging
22.2) Creation of a Light Weight Tag
22.3) How to delete a tag?
22.5) How to tag a previous commit?
22.6) How to update an existing tag?
22.7) How to compare Tags
22.8) How to push tags to remote repository?
22.1) Introduction to Tagging:

In our repository there may be a chance of multiple commits. HEAD/Branch is always
pointing to latest commit and its value keep on changing as new commits happend.
Sometimes, we have to mark significant events or mile stones(like version numbering)

with some label in our repository commits. We can do this labeling by using git tag
command.
Tag is nothing but a label or mark to a particular commit in our repository.

Tag is static and permanent reference to a particular commit where as HEAD/Branch is a
dynamic reference.
In general Tags can be used for release verions.
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There are two types of tags
1) Light Weight/Simple Tags
2) Annotated Tags [Tags with Information]
22.2) Creation of a Light Weight Tag:

We have to use git tag command.
Syntax: $ git tag <tag_name>
Eg: $ git tag V-1.0.0.0
V-1.0.0.0 tag acts as a permanent reference to the current latest commit. But based on our
requirement we can define a tag for old commits also.
The tags will be stored in our repository inside tags folder(.git/refs/tags).
We can list available tags by using -l or --list option.

$ git tab -l
$ git tab --list
We can use tag directly where ever commit id is required in our commands.
Eg: git show <commitid>
For the specified commitid, if any tag is defined then we can use directly that tag instead
of commit id.
git show tag_name
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Demo Example:
$ mkdir tagging

$ cd tagging
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/tagging

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/tagging/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/tagging (master)

[master (root-commit) 009784d] first commit


[master 322d0ab] second commit


$ git add .;git commit -m 'third commit'
[master a927d06] third commit


$ git add .;git commit -m 'fourth commit'
[master 3350c49] fourth commit
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$ git log --oneline
3350c49 (HEAD -> master) fourth commit
a927d06 third commit
322d0ab second commit
009784d first commit

$ git tag V-1.0.0

$ git log --oneline
3350c49 (HEAD -> master, tag: V-1.0.0) fourth commit


$ git add .;git commit -m 'fifth commit'
[master 7e6aada] fifth commit

$ git log --oneline
7e6aada (HEAD -> master) fifth commit
3350c49 (tag: V-1.0.0) fourth commit

$ git tag --list
V-1.0.0
Instead of using commit id we can use the corresponding tag in our
commands. lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/tagging
(master) nd
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$ git log --oneline
3350c49 (tag: V-1.0.0) fourth commit

$ git show 3350c49
commit 3350c492538f826818aab0f590146012d123f117 (tag: V-1.0.0)
Date: Fri Jul 24 21:11:55 2020 +0530
fourth commit

new file mode 100644
index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/file4.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line

$ git show V-1.0.0
commit 3350c492538f826818aab0f590146012d123f117 (tag: V-1.0.0)
Date: Fri Jul 24 21:11:55 2020 +0530
fourth commit

index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/file4.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line
All tags information will be stored in .git/refs/tags/ folder.

(master)
$ cd .git/refs/tags/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/tagging/.git/refs/tags (GIT_DIR!)

$ ls
V-1.0.0 nd
164
$ cat V-1.0.0
3350c492538f826818aab0f590146012d123f117
22.3) How to delete a Tag?

We have to use git tag command with -d or --delete option.
git tag -d <tagname>

$ git tag --list
V-1.0.0

$ git tag --delete V-1.0.0
Deleted tag 'V-1.0.0' (was 3350c49)

$ git tag --list

$ git log --oneline
3350c49 fourth commit
Summary:
git tag <tagname>
git tag --list
git tag --delete <tagname>
Note: Within the repository, tag name should be unique.

$ git tag V-1.0.0
fatal: tag 'V-1.0.0' already exists
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Symantic Versioning:
Almost all software products follow Symantic Versioning.
V 1.2.12
Where 1 is considered as Major version.
2 is considered as Minor version.
12 is considered as Patch version.
We can get more info on semantic versioning from the following url: https://semver.org/
Note: First Alpha Release and then Beta Release and then finally original major version
release.
Limitation of LightWeight Tags:

LightWeight Tag is simply text reference to the specified commit. It won't maintain any
information like tagger name, date of creation, message etc.
If we want maintain such type of information, we should go for Annotated Tags.

Annotated Tag is exactly same as Light weight tag except that it maintains information like
tagger name, date of creation, description etc.
Annotated Tag internally maintained as object form in git repository.
Annotated tags will be stored in .git/refs/tags folder and .git/objects folder.
We can create annotated tag by using git tag command with -a option.
$ git tag -a <tagname>
Here -a indicates that it is annotated tag.
Now default editor will be opened for tag message.
$ git tag -a <tagname> -m <tag_message>
Demo Example:
$ git log --oneline
f7ec107 (HEAD -> master) fifth commit
2a1c1f4 (tag: V-1.0.0) fourth commit
b83ee22 third commit
ce4a690 second commit
121a2cb first commit

$ git tag -a V-1.1.0 -m 'Release 1.1.0'
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$ git log --oneline
f7ec107 (HEAD -> master, tag: V-1.1.0) fifth commit
For light weight tag(V-1.0.0), no extra information available.

But for Annotated tag(V-1.1.0) extra information is avaialble.

$ git show V-1.0.0
commit 2a1c1f405542d19565a46481ec7f18f3a9c4cb86 (tag: V-1.0.0)
Date: Sun Jul 26 21:46:58 2020 +0530
fourth commit

index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/file4.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line

$ git show V-1.1.0
tag V-1.1.0
Tagger: Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com>
Date: Wed Jul 29 20:43:43 2020 +0530
Release 1.1.0
commit f7ec10796b2c55f59dbfd1722e529127956025af (HEAD -> master, tag: V-1.1.0)

Date: Sun Jul 26 21:51:08 2020 +0530
fifth commit

index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
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+++ b/file5.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line
LightWeight tag is not implemented as object but Annotated tag implemented as
object. lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/tagging (master)

$ git tag -v V-1.0.0
error: V-1.0.0: cannot verify a non-tag object of type commit.

$ git tag -v V-1.1.0
object f7ec10796b2c55f59dbfd1722e529127956025af
type commit
tag V-1.1.0
tagger Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com> 1596035623 +0530
Release 1.1.0
error: no signature found
Annotated tag information will be stored in .git/refs/tags folder and .git/objects folder.
$ cat .git/refs/tags/V-1.1.0
378a767274b8e2991b6fcfa9d987fe6ec25fd34b
This is hash of tag object.
$ cat
.git/objects/37/8a767274b8e2991b6fcfa9d987fe6ec25fd34b x
%▒A
▒0=▒▒▒%‫ٲ‬ ▒Ѓ▒m▒ ▒6)▒*▒{+▒▒23BY[▒SE'▒▒1a▒▒4Y▒▒▒
%%▒▒ul▒RD▒▒x\lg;▒▒r▒]▒uzm▒▒▒▒չT▒▒J-
5▒▒Be▒▒v▒▒3=:▒▒▒`o▒xf▒Y▒{_*▒/▒
To know the type of object, we have to use -t option with cat-file command.

$ git cat-file -t 378a767274b8e2991b6fcfa9d987fe6ec25fd34b
tag
To print the information of object, we have to use -p option with cat-file command.

$ git cat-file -p 378a767274b8e2991b6fcfa9d987fe6ec25fd34b
object f7ec10796b2c55f59dbfd1722e529127956025af
type commit
tag V-1.1.0 nd
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tagger Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com> 1596035623 +0530
Release 1.1.0
Note: Extra information maintained by Annotated Tag when compared with Light Weight
tag and hence it is recommended to use Annotated Tag.
Light Weight Tag vs Annotated Tag

Light Weight Tag Annotated Tag
1) git tag <tagname> 1) git tag -a <tagname> -m <tagmessage>
2) It is just text label and not implemented 2) It is implemented as object

as object
3) It is stored in .git/refs/tags folder 3) It is stored in both .git/refs/tags and
.git/objects folders.
4) No extra information stored. 4) It stores tag message, tagger name, date
of creation etc.
22.5) How to Tag a previous Commit?

Sometimes we may forgot to tag a particular commit. It is possible to tag for previous
commits.
$ git tag -a <tagname> <commitid> -m <tagmessage>
(master)
$ git log --oneline

$ git tag -a V-1.0.0-beta ce4a690 -m '1.0.0 Beta Release'

$ git log --oneline
ce4a690 (tag: V-1.0.0-beta) second commit
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$ git tag --list
V-1.0.0
V-1.0.0-beta
V-1.1.0
22.6) How to update an existing Tag?

Sometimes we tag for a wrong commit. It is possible to update the tag to the correct
commit.
We can do this by using the following 2 ways.

1) Delete the tag and Recreate tag with corresponding correct commit id.
2) By using -f or --force option to replace an existing tag without deleting.
$ git tag -a <tagname> -f <newcommitid> -m <tagmessage>
(master)
$ git log --oneline
ce4a690 (tag: V-1.0.0-beta) second commit

$ git tag -a V-1.0.0-beta -f b83ee22 -m 'Release 1.0.0 Beta Corrected'
Updated tag 'V-1.0.0-beta' (was 0466c7c)

$ git log --oneline
b83ee22 (tag: V-1.0.0-beta) third commit

$ git show V-1.0.0-beta
tag V-1.0.0-beta
Tagger: Ravi <durgasoftonlinetraining@gmail.com>
Date: Thu Jul 30 20:28:35 2020 +0530
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Release 1.0.0 Beta Corrected
commit b83ee2279d28490fcdc5f8cb3592b9014355c8cd (tag: V-1.0.0-beta)

Date: Sun Jul 26 21:46:43 2020 +0530
third commit

index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/file3.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line
Note: For the same commit we can define multiple tags also based on our requirement.
$ git log --oneline

7e6aada (HEAD -> master, tag: V-1.0.0) fifth commit
a927d06 (tag: V-0.9-beta) third commit

$ git tag V-0.9-b a927d06

$ git log --oneline
a927d06 (tag: V-0.9-beta, tag: V-0.9-b) third commit
For the commit id a927d06, two tags are defined.
Q) Is it Possible to use same Tag for multiple Commits?

Not possible
$ git log --oneline
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a927d06 (tag: V-0.9-beta, tag: V-0.9-b) third commit

$ git tag V-1.0.0 322d0ab
fatal: tag 'V-1.0.0' already exists
22.7) How to compare Tags:

Tags are nothing but just references to our commits. Hence we can compare two tags.

$ git diff V-1.0.0 V-1.1.0
index 0000000..603cb1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/file5.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+First Line
Note: We can use difftool command also.

$ git difftool V-0.9-beta V-0.9-b
22.8) How to Push Tags to remote Repository?

Bydefault push command wont push tags to the remote repository. We have to push tags
separately.

$ git remote add origin https://github.com/durgadevops777/tagging.git

remote: Resolving deltas: 100% (3/3), done.
To https://github.com/durgadevops777/tagging.git
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Whenever we are using push command, only code pushed to the remote repository but
not tags.
tag-2.JPG
Observe releases link in github repository page.
How to push a Single Tag?

git push origin <tagname>

$ git push origin V-1.0.0-beta
* [new tag] V-1.0.0-beta -> V-1.0.0-beta
Observe releases link in github repository page, you can see this tag.
From there, you can download complete source code upto that release.
How to push all Tags?

We have to use --tags option with git push command.
$ git push origin master --tags

$ git push origin master --tags
* [new tag] V-1.0.0 -> V-1.0.0
* [new tag] V-1.1.0 -> V-1.1.0
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How to delete a Tag from the Remote Repository?
git push origin :V-1.0.0-beta

$ git push origin :V-1.0.0-beta
- [deleted] V-1.0.0-beta
Now, the tag V-1.0.0-beta deleted from the remote repository, but not from local
repository.

$ git tag --list
V-1.0.0
V-1.0.0-beta
V-1.1.0
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Topic-23
git revert
Command
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Topic-23: git revert Command
23.1) Need of revert command
23.2) Demo Example to revert last commit
23.3) Demo example to revert a particular commit
23.1) Need of revert Command:

In the last videos we covered already git reset command.
$ git reset c2
After c2, all the next commits will be deleted.
Suppose if this code already pushed to the remote repository and already several people
pulled this code and starts working on that code,git reset command may create big
problem.
git reset command deletes commit history and hence it is destructive command and not
recommended to use on public repositories.
To overcome this problem we have to go for git revert command.

git revert command won't delete commit history. It reverts the required commit by
creating a new commit. i.e it will undo a particular commit without deleting
commit history.
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$ git revert C3
git will revert the changes of C3, means with state of C2, a new commit will be created.
In git revert, commit history won't be deleted and hence there is no effect on peer
developers. It is safe operation.
23.2) Demo Example to revert last commit:

$ mkdir revertdemo

$ cd revertdemo
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/revertdemo/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo (master)


[master (root-commit) 794f9c4] first commit

$ echo 'Second Line' >> file1.txt
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$ git commit -am 'second commit'
[master 44cec33] second commit

$ echo 'Third Line' >> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'third commit'
[master f6f93c8] third commit


$ echo 'Fourth Line' >> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'fourth commit'
[master b2abe3a] fourth commit

$ cat file1.txt
First Line
Second Line
Third Line
Fourth Line

$ git log --oneline
b2abe3a (HEAD -> master) fourth commit
f6f93c8 third commit
44cec33 second commit
794f9c4 first commit

$ git revert b2abe3a
[master a295e3d] Revert "fourth commit"
1 file changed, 1 deletion(-)

$ git log --oneline
a295e3d (HEAD -> master) Revert "fourth
commit" b2abe3a fourth commit
f6f93c8 third commit
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44cec33 second commit
794f9c4 first commit

$ cat file1.txt
First Line
Second Line
Third Line

$ git diff f6f93c8 a295e3d
There is no difference because both commits are showing same state.
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo
(master)
$ git diff b2abe3a a295e3d
index 79cdfbb..b0d816c 100644
--- a/file1.txt
+++ b/file1.txt
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
First Line
Second Line
Third Line
-Fourth Line
There is difference in the last commit and last but one commit.
Note: We can revert any commit, need not be last commit.
23.3) Demo Example to revert a Particular Commit
nd
179
$ mkdir revertdemo2

$ cd revertdemo2
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo2

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/revertdemo2/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo2 (master)


[master (root-commit) 2d87928] first commit

$ echo 'Second Line' >> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'second commit'
[master 6fa1d8e] second commit

$ echo 'Third Line' >> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'third
commit' [master 3589136]
third commit 1 file changed, 1
insertion(+)

$ echo 'Fourth Line' >> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'fourth commit'
[master 85f0294] fourth commit

$ cat file1.txt nd
180
First Line
Second Line
Third Line
Fourth Line

$ git log --oneline
85f0294 (HEAD -> master) fourth commit
3589136 third commit
6fa1d8e second commit
2d87928 first commit

$ git revert 6fa1d8e
Auto-merging file1.txt
CONFLICT (content): Merge conflict in file1.txt
error: could not revert 6fa1d8e... second
commit
hint: after resolving the conflicts, mark the corrected paths
hint: with 'git add <paths>' or 'git rm <paths>'
hint: and commit the result with 'git commit'
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/revertdemo2 (master|REVERTING)

$ vi file1.txt
We have to edit the file to resolve merge conflict

$ git status
On branch master
You are currently reverting commit 6fa1d8e.
(fix conflicts and run "git revert --continue")
(use "git revert --skip" to skip this patch)
(use "git revert --abort" to cancel the revert operation)
Unmerged paths:
(use "git add <file>..." to mark resolution)
both modified: file1.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'second commit reverted'
[master f37578f] second commit reverted
1 file changed, 3 deletions(-) nd
181
$ cat file1.txt
First Line

$ git log --oneline
f37578f (HEAD -> master) second commit reverted
85f0294 fourth commit
3589136 third commit
6fa1d8e second commit
2d87928 first commit
Note:
With git revert we can use -n option also.
-n or --no-commit
Usually the git revert command automatically creates some commits with commit log
messages stating which commits were reverted. This flag applies the changes necessary to
revert the named commits to your working tree and the index, but does not make the
commits. In addition, when this option is used, your index does not have to match the
HEAD commit. The revert is done against the beginning state of your index.
This is useful when reverting more than one commits' effect to your index in a row.
file1.txt
git add file1.txt
file2.txt
git add file2.txt
file3.txt
git add file3.txt
git commit '3 files modified'
nd
182
Topic-24
Cherry-Picking
(git cherry-pick Command)
nd
183
Topic-24: Cherry-Picking
(git cherry-pick Command)
24.1) Need of Cherry-Picking
24.2) Use cases of cherry-pick
24.3) Demo Example for cherry-picking
24.1) Need of Cherry-Picking:

Assume that we have two branches are there like master and feature. If we merge feature
branch to the master branch, then all commits and the corresponding changes will be
added to master branch. Insted of all commits, we can pick an arbitraty commit of the
feature branch and we can append that commit to the master branch. It is possible by
using cherry-pick command.
24.2) Use cases of cherry-pick:

1. Cherry-pick allows to share code between branches.
2. We can use for bug hot fixes.
Assume that a developer has started working on a new feature. During that new feature
development he identify a pre-existing bug. The developer creates an explicit commit
patching this bug. This new patch commit can be cherry-picked directly to the master
branch to fix the bug before it effects more users.
24.3) Demo Example for cherry-picking
nd
184
$ mkdir cherrypick

$ cd cherrypick/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/cherrypick

$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/cherrypick/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/cherrypick (master)

$ echo 'First line' > file1.txt

[master (root-commit) 3bbcfa0] first commit

$ echo 'Second line' >> file1.txt

[master c1d9b78] second commit
nd
185
$ git log --oneline
c1d9b78 (HEAD -> master) second commit
3bbcfa0 first commit

$ cat file1.txt
First line
Second line

lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/cherrypick (feature)

$ ls
file1.txt

$ git log --oneline
c1d9b78 (HEAD -> feature, master) second commit

$ echo 'Third Line by feature branch'>> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'third commit by
feature' [feature 2ca8bd2] third commit
by feature 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

$ echo 'Fourth Line by feature branch'>> file1.txt

$ git commit -am 'fourth commit by
feature' [feature 3b8f8b8] fourth commit
by feature 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

$ cat file1.txt
First line
Second line
Third Line by feature branch
Fourth Line by feature branch
nd
186
Git For DevOps
$ git log --oneline
3b8f8b8 (HEAD -> feature) fourth commit by feature
2ca8bd2 third commit by feature
c1d9b78 (master) second commit


$ cat file1.txt
First line
Second line

$ git log --oneline
c1d9b78 (HEAD -> master) second commit

$ git cherry-pick 2ca8bd2
[master cceff21] third commit by feature
Date: Tue Aug 4 20:54:40 2020 +0530

$ git log --oneline
cceff21 (HEAD -> master) third commit by feature
c1d9b78 second commit

$ cat file1.txt
First line
Second line
Third Line by feature branch
Note:
1. When every we are using cherry-pick command, a brand new commit object will
be created but with same changes of the picked commit of feature branch.
2. Cherry-pick may cause duplicate commits and hence in most of the scenarios we
can use merge operation instead of cherry-pick.
nd
187  88 85 25 26 27, 72 07 21 24 27/28 | www.durgasoftonline.com
Maii: durgasoftonline@gmail.com
Git For DevOps
3. We can use -n or --no-commit option with cherry-pick, in that case new commit won't
be created. This is helpful whenever we are doing cherry-picking multiple commits.
With all these changes we can create a single commit.

$ git cherry-pick -n commitid1
$ git add .;git commit -m 'single commit for multiple cherry-pick options'
nd
Git For DevOps
Topic-25
git reflog
Command
nd
Git For DevOps
Topic-25: git reflog Command

reflog  means reference log
We can use git reflog command to display all git operations what ever we performed on
local repository.
We can use git reflog command to know only local repository operations but not remote
repository operations.
Syntax:
$ git reflog
It will show all git operations performed on local repository.
$ git reflog <branch_name>

It will show all git operations performed on local repository related to that particular
branch.
Note: reflog will maintain 90 days git operations history bydefault.

We can use reflog command to go to specific state of the repository.
By mistake if we did any unwanted destruction operation( like git reset --hard), still we
can recover by using git reflog command.
Demo Example:
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/reflogdemo
$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository in D:/gitprojects/reflogdemo/.git/
lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/reflogdemo (master)


$ git add .; git commit -m 'first commit'
[master (root-commit) cdd9f31] first commit

$ git add .; git commit -m 'second commit'
nd
Git For DevOps
[master 9f6864b] second commit


$ git add .; git commit -m 'third commit'
[master 8c37a9b] third commit

$ git reflog
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{0}: commit: third commit
9f6864b HEAD@{1}: commit: second commit
cdd9f31 HEAD@{2}: commit (initial): first commit

lenovo@DESKTOP-ECE8V3R MINGW64 /d/gitprojects/reflogdemo (feature)

$ echo 'first line' > a.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'first commit by feature'
[feature 051e1be] first commit by feature

$ echo 'first line' > b.txt

$ git add .;git commit -m 'second commit by feature'
[feature b5d2b02] second commit by feature
$ git reflog
b5d2b02 (HEAD -> feature) HEAD@{0}: commit: second commit by feature
051e1be HEAD@{1}: commit: first commit by feature
8c37a9b (master) HEAD@{2}: checkout: moving from master to feature
nd
Git For DevOps
8c37a9b (master) HEAD@{3}: commit: third commit

$ git reflog master
8c37a9b (master) master@{0}: commit: third commit
9f6864b master@{1}: commit: second commit
cdd9f31 master@{2}: commit (initial): first commit

$ git reflog feature
b5d2b02 (HEAD -> feature) feature@{0}: commit: second commit by feature
051e1be feature@{1}: commit: first commit by feature
8c37a9b (master) feature@{2}: branch: Created from HEAD


$ git reset --hard cdd9f31
HEAD is now at cdd9f31 first commit

$ git log --oneline
cdd9f31 (HEAD -> master) first commit

$ git reflog
cdd9f31 (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{0}: reset: moving to cdd9f31
8c37a9b HEAD@{1}: checkout: moving from feature to master
b5d2b02 (feature) HEAD@{2}: commit: second commit by feature
8c37a9b HEAD@{4}: checkout: moving from master to feature
8c37a9b HEAD@{5}: commit: third commit
cdd9f31 (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{7}: commit (initial): first commit

$ git reset --hard 8c37a9b
HEAD is now at 8c37a9b third commit

$ git log --oneline
nd
Git For DevOps
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) third commit
9f6864b second commit
cdd9f31 first commit

$ ls

$ git reflog --stat
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{0}: reset: moving to 8c37a9b
file3.txt | 1 +
cdd9f31 HEAD@{1}: reset: moving to cdd9f31
file1.txt | 1 +
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{2}: checkout: moving from feature to master
file3.txt | 1 +
b.txt | 1 +
a.txt | 1 +
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{5}: checkout: moving from master to feature
file3.txt | 1 +
file3.txt | 1 +
file2.txt | 1 +
file1.txt | 1 +
$ git reflog --oneline

8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{0}: reset: moving to 8c37a9b
cdd9f31 HEAD@{1}: reset: moving to cdd9f31
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{2}: checkout: moving from feature to master
8c37a9b (HEAD -> master) HEAD@{5}: checkout: moving from master to feature
nd
Git For DevOps
Note: Whatever options we can use with log command, all those options can be used for
reflog also.
Q) By Mistake if we did git reset --hard Command and some Files got removed from Local
Repository. Is it possible to recover those changes OR not?
Yes. For this purpose we can use git reflog command.
nd

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Topic-2: Introduction to Version Control System..............................................................17

Topic-3: Features and Architecture of GIT.........................................................................24

Topic-4: Life Cycle of File in GIT.........................................................................................29

Topic-5: Git Installation On Windows...............................................................................31

Topic-8: The complete postmortem of git log command..................................................45

Topic-9: The Complete Story of git diff command............................................................51

Topic-10: Helix Visual Merge Tool(p4merge) For Checking Differences.............................61

Topic-11: Removing files by using git rm command..........................................................65

Topic-12: Undo changes with git checkout command.......................................................69

Topic-13: Git References (master and HEAD)....................................................................72

Topic-14: Git reset command...........................................................................................75

Topic-16: Ignoring unwanted files and directories by using .gitignore file.........................88

Topic-17: Any Special Treatment for directories by Git?...................................................91

Topic-18: Branching And Merging.....................................................................................93

Topic-20: Stash in GIT.....................................................................................................128

Topic-21: Working with Remote Repositories.................................................................142

Topic-22: Git Tagging (git Tag Command)........................................................................159

Topic-23: git revert Command........................................................................................175

Topic-24: Cherry-Picking (git cherry-pick Command).......................................................183

Topic-25: git reflog Command.........................................................................................189

Topic-2: Introduction to Version Control System

Topic-3: Features and Architecture of GIT

Topic-4: Life Cycle of File in GIT:

Topic-5: Git Installation On Windows

Topic-6: Example-1 To Understand Working Directory, Staging Area and Local

Repository Topic-7: The 6 Git Commands With Example - init,status,add,commit,log and

config Topic-8: The complete postmortem of git log command

Topic-9: The Complete Story of git diff command

Topic-10: Helix Visual Merge Tool(p4merge) For Checking Differences

Topic-11: Removing files by using git rm command

Topic-12: Undo changes with git checkout command

Topic-13: Git References ( master and HEAD )

Topic-14: Git reset command

18.3. Various Commands used in branching

18.4. Demo Example for branching

18.5. Multiple use cases where branching is required

18.6. Advantages of Branching

18.7. Merging of a Branch

18.8. What is Fast-forward Merge?

18.9. What is Three-Way Merge?

18.10. Differences between Fast-forward and Three-way Merges

18.11. Merge Conflicts and Resolution Process

18.12.How to Delete a Branch

Topic-19: Merging by using Rebase 115

Topic-20: Stash in GIT 125

Topic-22: Git Tagging (git Tag Command)

Topic-23: git revert Command

Topic-24: Cherry-Picking (git cherry-pick Command)

picking Topic-25: git reflog Command

1.1) What is Devops?

 It is a new culture or process to develop,release and maintain software

 We can achieve this in devops by using several automation tools.

Again this classification can be divided into small sets of groups.

are considered as Development Group.

are considered as Operations Group.

Devops is combination of development and operations.

SDLC  Software Development Life Cycle

10) Devops Culture