INTRODUCTION

What are Angiosperms ?

Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade
Angiospermae, commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived
from the Greek words angeion and sperma, and refers to those plants that produce
their seeds enclosed within a fruit. 

Common characteristics of Angiosperms

1)The body of an angiosperm is distinctly differentiated into several organs such as
roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds.
2)There is a well-coordinated division of labor among these organs, and each organ is
uniquely specialized for specific functions.
3)Most of the angiosperms are herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, etc.
4)The chief water and mineral conducting Xylem element is a vessel.
5) The chief food conducting Phloem element is the sieve tube.
 Endosperm has triploid cells.
6)The angiosperms are divided into two groups, on the basis of the number of
cotyledons present in the seed. They are; Dicotyledonous or Dicot plants and
Monocotyledonous or Monocots Plants.

Dominance of Angiosperms in kingdom Plantae and their relative

abundance
Angiosperms evolved during the late Cretaceous Period, about 125-100 million years
ago.
Angiosperms have developed flowers and fruit as ways to attract pollinators and
protect their seeds, respectively.Flowers have a wide array of colors, shapes, and
smells, all of which are for the purpose of attracting pollinators.Once the egg is
fertilized, it grows into a seed that is protected by a fleshy fruit.

As angiosperms evolved in the Cretaceous period, many modern groups of insects

also appeared, including pollinating insects that drove the evolution of angiosperms;
in many instances, flowers and their pollinators have coevolved. (Darwin
hypothesized that one possible explanation for an evolutionary radiation associated
with the origin of angiosperms (if such a radiation must be accepted) was an elevated
evolutionary rate driven by coevolution with insect pollinators)
Angiosperms did not evolve from gymnosperms, but instead evolved in parallel with
the gymnosperms; however, it is unclear as to what type of plant actually gave rise to
angiosperms.
Angiosperms are the most dominant of plant groups. These are flowering plants
(Magnoliophyta) are the most successful of all plant groups in terms of their
diversity.The group includes more than 2,50,000 species and at least 12,000 genera.

The diversity of form within the angiosperms has contributed to their

successful colonization of more habitats than any other group of land plants. 
The angiosperms are so successful due to the following reason:
- These are most successful due to the presence of the fruit and Flowers. The Flowers
help to ensure the pollination in these plants and the fruit. Helping the seed dispersal
- They are most successful as they photosynthesize too much, so they are the most
successful photosynthesizing plants.
- These are successful because of the presence of the compact DNA in their cells.
- These are successful as they undergo the triple Fusion that is. They can produce the
Endosperm.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
OF ANGIOSPERMIC PLANTS

What is Phylogeny and Phylogenetic system of classification

Phylogeny can be described as the relationship between all the organisms on Earth
that have descended from a common ancestor, whether they are extinct or extant.
These relationships are determined by phylogenetic inference methods that focus on
observed heritable traits, such as DNA sequences, protein amino acid sequences, or
morphology.
The system of classification of angiosperm based on relative phylogeny of plant
species is called phylogenetic system of classification.
Some phyletic Systems for classification of Angiosperms are
Engler System
One of the prime systems of plant taxonomy, the Engler system was devised by Adolf
Engler (1844–1930), and is featured in two major taxonomic texts he authored or
coauthored.

His working pattern-

Plants were considered to form a number of divisions (Abteilung), the number of

which continually changed but initially (1886) was four and in 1919 was thirteen.
Many of these referred to lower life forms such as bacteria and algae that would not
necessarily be considered as plants today. Initially higher plants (Embryophyta or
terrestrial plants) were considered in two divisions, Embryophyta
Asiphonogama (bryophytes, pteridophytes) and Embryophyta
Siphonogama (Spermatophytes: gymnosperms, angiosperms), but were later
subdivided. Embryophyta Siphonogama replaced the older term Phanerogamae, and
the classes were further divided into groups of families, called orders. Engler followed
Eichler's phylogeny, placing the monocotyledons before the dicotyledons, and within
the latter the Archichlamydeae before the Metachlamydeae. While the groupings were
largely based on those of Bentham and Hooker, the ordering was very much based on
the concept of the primitive plant and those that were derived from these.

Engler's Botanical Ranks-

Division  Subdivision  Class  Order Suborder FamilySubfamily  Tribe 

Genus  Species

Hutchinson System
A system of plant taxonomy by John Hutchinson, the Hutchinson system, was
published as The families of flowering plants, arranged according to a new system
based on their probable phylogeny (two volumes) in three editions; 1st edition 1926–
1934; 2nd edition 1959; 3rd edition, 1973. This classification is according to the 1st
Edition Volume 1: Dicotyledonae 1926 and Volume 2:Monocotyledonae 1934.
His working pattern-
Hutchinson divided the Phylum Angiospermae into two Subphyla Dicotyledones and
Monocotyledones. The Dicotyledones are further divided into two divisions-Lignosae
(arboreal) and Herbaceae (herbaceous).
The Lignosae includes, fundamentally, the woody representatives derived from
Magnoliales and Herbaceae includes most of the predominantly herbaceous families
derived from Ranales. The subphylum Monocotyledones are divided into three
divisions — Calyciferae, Corolliferae and Glumiflorae.

APG (ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP )SYSTEM
The APG system (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system) of plant classification is
the first version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy.
Published in 1998 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, it was replaced by the
improved APG II in 2003, APG III system in 2009 and APG IV system in 2016.

The original APG system is unusual in being based, not on total evidence, but on
the cladistic analysis of the DNA sequences of three genes, two chloroplast genes and
one gene coding for ribosomes. Although based on molecular evidence only, its
constituent groups prove to be supported by other evidence as
well,example pollen morphology supports the split between the eudicots and the rest
of the former dicotyledons.

The system is rather controversial in its decisions at the family level, splitting a
number of long-established families and submerging some other families. It also is
unusual in not using botanical names above the level of order, that is, an order is the
highest rank that will have a formal botanical name in this system. Higher groups are
defined only as clades, with names such as monocots, eudicots, rosids, asterids.

APG I (1998)
The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of
organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic
characteristics. The paper explained the authors' view that there is a need for a
classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above, but
that existing classifications were "outdated". The main reason why existing systems
were rejected was because they were not phylogenetic.
Salient Features - :
1.Formal, scientific names are not used above the level of order, named clades being
used instead. Thus eudicots and monocots are not given a formal rank on the grounds
that "it is not yet clear at which level they should be recognized".
2.A substantial number of taxa whose classification had traditionally been uncertain
are given places, although there still remain 25 families of "uncertain position".
3.Alternative classifications are provided for some groups, in which a number of
families can either be regarded as separate or can be merged into a single larger
family.
APG II (2003)
Some of the main changes in APG II were:
1. New orders are proposed, particularly to accommodate the 'basal clades' left as
families in the first system.
2. Many of the previously unplaced families are now located within the system.
3. Several major families are re-structured
APG III (2009)
The third paper from the APG updates the system described in the 2003 paper. The
broad mber 2015 and outline of the system remains unchanged, but the number of
previously unplaced families and genera is significantly reduced. This requires the
recognition of both new orders and new families compared to the previous
classification.
A major change is that the paper discontinues the use of bracketed families in favour
of now includes larger, more inclusive families. As a result, the APG III system
contains only 415 families. rather than the 457 of APG II.

APG – IV (2016)
Further progress was made by the use of large banks of genes, including those of
plastid, mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal origin, such as that of Douglas Soltis and
colleagues (2011). The fourth version was finally published in 2016. It arose from an
international conference hosted at the Royal Botanical Gardens in September 2015
and also an online survey of botanists and other users.

The broad outline of the system remains unchanged but several new orders are
included (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), some
new families are recognised (Kewaceae, Macarthuriaceae, Maundiaceae, Mazaceae,
Microteaceae, Nyssaceae, Peraceae, Petenaeaceae and Petiveriaceae) and some
previously recognised families are lumped (Aristolochiaceae now includes
Lactoridaceae and Hydnoraceae: Restionaceae now re-includes Anarthriaceae and
Centrolepidaceae; and Buxaceae now includes Haptanthaceae). Due to nomenclatural
issues, the family name Asphodelaceae is used instead of Xanthorrhoeaceae, and
Francoaceae is used instead of Melianthaceae (and now also includes Vivianiaceae).
This brings the total number of orders and families recognized in the APG system to
64 and 416, respectively. Two additional informal major clades, superrosids and
superasterids, that each comprise the additional orders that are included in the larger
clades dominated by the rosids and asterids are also included.

What is Clade System ?

A clade is a piece of a phylogeny that includes an ancestral lineage and all the
descendants of that ancestor. This group of organisms has the property of monophyly
(from the Greek for "single clan"), so it may also be referred to as a monophyletic
group.
.
MAJOR CLADES OF APG IV SYSTEM
1. Basal angiosperms/ANA grade -The Basal Angiosperms are comprised of a
separate lineages that branched off from other flowering plants at successive
occasions before the appearance of the "true" dicots (Eudicots) in the fossil
record. Although "Dicots" and Monocots were traditionally defined by a
combination of characteristics (two seedling leaves vs. one, net vs. parallel leaf
veination, circularly arranged vs. scattered vascular bundles, flower parts in
multiples of 4 or 5 vs. multiples of 3, etc.), the basal angiosperms do not fit
perfectly into either category, although these lineages were once grouped with
dicots due to their leaf veination and possession of multiple seedling leaves
(cotyledons).
. It is called ANA grade as it orders namely-:  Amborellales, Nymphaeales,
and Austrobaileyales
2. Magnoliids -: Some members of the subclass are among the earliest
angiosperms and share anatomical similarities
with gymnosperms like stamens that resemble the male cone scales
of conifers and carpels found on the long flowering axis.
The group is characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and
usually branching-veined leaves. It consist of 4 orders namely-Canellales ,
Laurales,  Magnoliales,  Piperales
3. Monocots - : Monocotyledons commonly referred to as monocots,
are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which
typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. 
The monocotyledons include about 60,000 species, about a quarter of all
angiosperms. The largest family in this group (and in the flowering plants as a
whole) by number of species are the orchids (family Orchidaceae), with more
than 20,000 species. About half as many species belong to the true grasses
(Poaceae), which are economically the most important family of
monocotyledons. Often mistaken for grasses, sedges are also monocots.
 A. Commenlinds - Members of the commelinid clade have cell
walls containing UV-fluorescent ferulic acid. Includes 4 orders namely
-: Arecales ,Commelinales, Poales, Zingiberales 
4. Eudicots -The eudicots, Eudicotidae, or eudicotyledons are a clade of
flowering plants mainly characterized by having two seed leaves upon
germination. 
A. Basal Eudicots - Basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic
group. 
It includes 4 orders namely -: Ranunculales, Proteales,
Trochodendrales, and Buxales.
B. Core Eudicots - Monophyletic group consisting of order Gunnerales
and Pentapetalae clade.
#Pentapetalae clade -Flowers are pentamerous ,pollen tricolpate and
diplostemonous stamens.
i. Super rosids - Clade consisting of order Saxifragales and clade
Rosids.
# Rosids - Rosids have bitegmic, crassinucellate ovules.It has
two clades Fabids and Malvids.
(a). Fabids - It consists of N- fixing plant orders and COM
clade. They are generally polypetalous. It has 8 orders.
(b). Malvids - It consists of generally large embryo with scanty
endosperm. It has 8 orders.
ii. Super asteroids - The asterids, Berberidopsidales, Santalales, and
Caryophyllales form the superasterids clade. 
# Asterids - Unitegmic, tenuinucellate ovules. It has two clades,
Lamiids and Campanulids.
(a) Lamiids - Having late sympetaly. It includes 8 orders.
(b) Campanulids - Early sympetaly . It includes 7 orders.

CLASSIFICATION OF
MAINPURI’S FLORA
ACCORDING TO APG SYSTEM.
Location of collection -:
The plant species (Angiosperms) are collected mainly from 3 main regions. But
the collection also consists of some scattered location which cannot be
comprehended in definite zone. Zones are created by keeping a central point
(using latitude and longitude) and making a circle around it with respective
radius. Two Zones are sub- divided into two further divisions which represent
relative concentration of the collection of specimen. (Inner zones have large no.
of collection as compared to Outer zone)
Major Zones -:

S.No Latitude and Important places Range (distance from

. longitude includes. central point to
extension of maximum point of
centre. collection)
01. 27° 13' Telephone exchange Inner Outer
37.3548'' N region, Awas Zone Zone
79° 2' 33.4716'' Vikas(sector 2&3),
E District Women
hospital, Prithvi raj 0.2719 km 0.5082 km
marg, Uttam hospital,
Samajwadi party office
and bank colony.

02. 27° 13' Apex Pathology, Inner Outer

49.6812'' N Pathak hospital, Zone Zone
79° 2' 9.528'' E Ashram road, Dav
college Road and main 0.2738 km 0.4733 km
district hospital.

03. 27° 14' 28.464'' St thomas School, jail Single zone -0.6901 km
N chauraha , TV Station ,
79° 3' 39.6288'' ECHS hospital and
E phool bagh

Minor Zones -:
04. 27° 15' 32.5332'' Shivsinghpur , Sheetla Single zone – 0.2984
N Mata Mandir Km
79° 1' 56.8992'' E

05. 27° 15' 26.5'' N Police station Single zone – 0.2100

79° 10' 30.1'' E Bhongaon, Vishva Km
Vidya
Time taken for collection –
The net time taken is 9 months (from Feb 02, 2022 to Oct 05, 2022).
In which maximum collection was done in February , March and
April months which comes under the season of late winters and spring
.This is because most species blooms in this period.

The least collection was in months of May (late) and June (early) with
only few species like Gold mohar’ trees were blooming. This is
because of the harsh climatic condition with dry seasonal winds that
prevents the growth and blooming of non-woody plant species.

INVASIVE, NATURALIZED,
NATIVE, EXOTIC AND
CULTIVATED PLANT
SPECIES-:
A. Invasive Plant (Represented by Red color throughout the project)………
A plant that is both non-native and able to establish on many sites, grow
 quickly, and spread to the point of disrupting plant communities or ecosystems.
There are 24 species found during collection.

B. Naturalized Plant (Represented by Green color throughout the project)

.A non-native plant that does not need human help to reproduce and maintain
itself over time in an area where it is not native. There are 26 species found
during collection.

C. Native Plant (Represented by Blue color throughout the project)

A plant that is a part of the balance of nature that has developed over hundreds
. or thousands of years in a particular region or ecosystem. There are 63 species .
. found during collection.

D. Cultivated Plant (Represented by black or grey color throughout the

project)
A non-native plant that is non invasive but are being planted on large scale for
. cultivation and food production. There are 18 species found during collection.

E. Exotic Plant (Represented by Yellow color throughout the project.)

A plant not native to the continent on which it is now found. (Plants from . . .
.. Europe are exotic in North America; plants from North America are exotic in .
.. Japan). There are 21 species found during collection.

Relative percentage -:
Plant species Percentage
A. Invasive Plant 15.78%
B. Naturalized Plant 17.12%
C. Native Plant 41.44%
D. Cultivated Plant 11.84%
E. Exotic Plant 13.82%

DIVERSITY OF ORDERS
There are plants of total 28 different orders has collected been collected in a time
period of 9 months (from Feb 02, 2022 to Oct 05, 2022).

Some important points -:

A. Order with maximum different families plant species – Lamiales(9 families).
B. Order with maximum no. of native species – Cucuritales (7 species)
C. Order with maximum no. of exotic species – Asparagales (4 species)
D. Order with maximum no. of invasive species – Sonales and Asterales (4 species)
E. Order with maximum no. of cultivated species – Brassicales (3 species)
Diversity of Families
There are plants of total 53 different families has collected been collected in a time
period of 9 months (from Feb 02, 2022 to Oct 05, 2022).

Some important points - :

A. Family with maximum different plant species – Leguminosae (14 species)
B. Family with maximum no. of native species – Cucurbitaceae ( 7 species)
C. Family with maximum no. of exotic species – Areaceae and Arecaceae(3 species)
D. Family with maximum no. of invasive species – Asteraceae ( 4 species)
E. Family with maximum no. of cultivated species – Leguminosae (3 species)
F. Genus with maximum species -: Ficus and Cassia ( 6 species)
Why APG System is better than Bentham-Hooker System of
classification?
Because of the demerits of Bentham-Hooker System of classification as -:

1. The placement of Gymnospermae between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons is

highly controversial due to the fact that gymnosperms are an entirely different
group of plants.
2. Many other floral characters were not considered for the basis of classification.
3. It does not involve the concept of evolution.
4. The placement of families is based on single characters which wrongly places
closely related families far apart.

And the merits of APG system as -:

1.It adopts the phylogenetic principle of monophyly.

2. It has derived information from sources like morphology, embryology, molecular

biology, anatomy, palynology, and phytochemistry.

3. Formal names are given only where monophyly has been firmly established.

4. It is based on the recent advances in research and is gaining authority.

Conclusion of report -:
1. Phylogenetic system is better than natural system of
classification as it more arranged and with minimum error.

2. The number of native species found are approximately 2.5

times the number of invasive and naturalized species , therefore
the phylogenetic tree of this region may see new species and more
probably extinction of some native species due to introduction of
invasive species which ultimately contribute in the variation of
genetic pool.

3. Genus Ficus is highly diversified group in India with mostly

native roots of origin.

4. Order Lamiales found to have species belonging to maximum

different families .

5. Most abundant family is Asteraceae in the given area.

6.There are also some species whose origin is unknown(like Aloe

vera ).

7. Most of the collection is in month of February , March and

April .(late winter and Spring).
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF TRACHEOPHYTES
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF MONOCOTS -:

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF EUDICOTS -:

 Yhnjnj

CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER – 2
RESULT
CHAPTER – 3
CONCLUSION