CHAPTER 3

Plant Kingdom
Syllabus
Salient features and classification of plants into major groups-Algae, Bryophytes,
Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (three to five salient and distinguishing
features and at least two examples of each category); Angiosperms- classification up to class,
characteristic features and examples).

Chapter Index

 Plant Classification systems  Bryophyta

 Early attempts for classification  Pteridophyta

 Artificial system of classification  Gymnosperms
 Natural system of classification  Angiosperms (Flowering plants or

anthophytes)
 Phylogenetic system of classification
 Branches of taxonomy  Plant life cycles and alternation of

 Algae generations

Red Algae - Rhodophyceae Haplontic

Brown Algae - Phaeophyceae Diplo-haplontic or Haplo-diplontic

Green Algae – Chlorophyceae Diplontic

Life cycle patterns of Chlamydomonas,  Summary

Ulothrix and Spirogyra

PLANT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

 Traditionally plant kingdom has been divided into two sub-kingdoms named as
phanerogamae and cryptogamae.
(a) Cryptogamae (kryptos-concealed, gamos-marriage) :
 All non flowering plants such as algae, fungi, lichen, mosses and ferns are included in this sub-
kingdom.
 The cryptogams are further classified into three divisions-thallophyta, bryophyta and
pteridophyta.
(b) Phanerogamae (phaneros-visible, gamos-marriage) :
 All flowering plants which bear seeds are included in this group. They are also known as
spermatophytes (sperma-seed, phyton-plant), since they produce seeds.
  These seed bearing plants are further divided into two divisions gymnospermae and
angiospermae.
 Gymnosperms have naked ovules or seeds. The angiosperms (covered seed) include all the
flowering plants which produce seed and have ovules enclosed in ovary or fruit.

Classification of Plants

A. EARLY ATTEMPTS FOR CLASSIFICATION

 Aristotle and other Greek philosophers divided living organisms into two groups: plants and
animals. Aristotle also divided plants into 3 groups-herbs, shrubs and trees.
 Charaka (the father of Ayurveda), in 1 st century A.D., listed 200 kinds of animals and 340
kinds of plants in his book 'Charaka Samhita'.

B. Artificial System of Classification

 It is based on a few morphological characters of vegetative nature for grouping of organisms,
e.g., early systems of classifications by Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pliny, Bauhin, Linnaeus etc.
 Theophrastus proposed the first system of artificial classification of plants on the basis of
habit and classified plants into herbs, shrubs, undershrubs and trees.
 Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) proposed the artificial system of classification based
exclusively on nature and number of stamens and carpels. It was called as Sexual System of
Classification.
 Classification by Linnaeus consisted of 24 classes, in which 23 classes were of flowering
plants (Phanerogamia) and 24th class had flowerless plants (Cryptogamia). Details of this
classification were published in Genera Plantarum (1737).
  Total 24 classes given by Linnaeus were: Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria,
Pentandria, Hexandria, Heptandria, Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Dodecandria,
Icosandria, Polyandria, Didynamia, Tetradynamia, Monadelphia, Diadelphia, Polyadelphia,
Syngenesia, Gynandria, Monoecia, Dioecia, Polygamia and Cryptogamia.
Drawbacks:
(i) This system was based on one or a few characters, hence the diverse animals or plants were
placed into limited number of groups.
(ii) Natural affinities and phylogenetic relationships were not considered.
(iii) The artificial system gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characters; this is not
acceptable and since we know that often the vegetative characters are more easily affected
by environment.

C. Natural System of Classification

 Also known as horizontal system of classification or 2 D system. Organisms in this system
are classified on the basis of natural affinities. This system uses as many taxonomic characters
as possible to group organisms.
 This classification is mainly based on forms, relationship realising all information available at
the time of collection of plants. This also considers internal features like ultrastructure,
anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry .
 Common natural systems were proposed by -John Ray, de Jussiaeu, de Candolle, Bentham and
Hooker etc.
 George Bentham and J.D. Hooker gave most important natural system of classification of
angiosperms and published it in three volumes of 'Genera Plantarum'. They described 202
families. In this system, description of plants was based on their detailed studies and
dissections. This system is followed in all British Common wealth countries including India.

D. Phylogenetic System of Classification

 The term phylogeny was given by Lamarck and concept of phylogeny by E. Haeckel.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of the organism. This system is also called '3D' or
vertical system.
 In this system, plants are classified according to their evolutionary and genetic affinities.
Organisms belonging to same taxa are believed to have a common ancestor and may be
represented in the form of family tree called Cladogram.
 A.W. Eichler modified Bentham and Hooker's system of classification by placing
gymnosperms in the beginning. He is also called as the pioneer in phylogenetic system of
classification.
 Adolph Engler and Karl A.E. Prantl, two german botanists, adopted their system in "Die
naturalichen Pflanzen famhien" (1887-1915). It was a German work which was later
translated in English. The work had 23 volumes.
 An outline of Engler and Prantl's System of Classification

 Merits: In this system families are arranged according to increasing complexity of flowers.
 Demerits: Monocots were considered primitive to dicots.
According to this system, primitive forms having naked flowers were kept in the beginning.
The more advanced families have distinct perianth while the highly evolved families have
fused perianth.
Hutchinson, Oswald Tippo, Takhtajan and Cronquist also proposed phylogenetic systems of
classification.
 John Hutchinson, an English botanist, proposed phylogenetic classification in his famous
book 'Famillies of Flowering plants' in 1959.
 In Hutchinson's classification:
(i) Trees and shrubs are considered to be more primitive than herbs
(ii) Dicots have been considered more primitive than monocots.
(iii) Polypetalous, actinomorphic and solitary flowers are considered more primitive than
gamopetalous, zygomorphic and inflorescence respectively.
 An outline of Hutchinson's System of Classification

 The divisions include orders that include families. Division does not include classes.
 Takhtajan classified Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae) into two classes-Magnoliopsida
(dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (Monocotyledons).
BRANCHES OF TAXONOMY
1. Classical Taxonomy:
 In this taxonomy, organisms are classified on the basis of natural affinities. These affinities or
relationships realise all informations available at the time of collection of plant, e.g., natural
systems of classification.
2. Numerical Taxonomy/Phenetics/Taximetrics/Adansonian Taxonomy:
 In this taxonomy, there is use of numerical methods for the evaluation of similarities and
differences between the species. Firstly, number and codes are assigned to all the characters.
 Then, all possible characters are compared by sophisticated calculating machines and
computers without giving emphasis on a particular character.
 All characters considered for analysis are given equal importance. The organization and
analysis of data forms the core of this taxonomy.
 The family tree prepared on the basis of phenetics is called dendrogram.
3. Cytotaxonomy/Karyotaxonomy :
 It is based on cytological informations of the cell, chromosome number, structure and
behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis.
4. Biochemical (Chemotaxonomy) :
 It is related with the chemical properties of plant, for example, fragrance by the presence of
any aromatic compound, presence of specific crystal structures of calcium oxalate (raphides) or
calcium carbonate (cystolith).
 The sequencing of DNA and chemical nature of proteins have also been used in this taxonomy.
 Taxonomy is divided into three types by Turril.
1. (Alpha) Taxonomy: It deals with the collection and identification of organism on the basis of
gross morphology.
2. (Beta) Taxonomy : It deals with the collection and identification of organism on the basis of
morphology and all possible evidences from cytology, anatomy, physiology and genetics.
3. (Omega) Taxonomy : It is based on microscopic observations and biochemical evidences.

Conceptual Questions
1. Provide one word for the taxonomic study that uses chemical constituent of the plants to
resolve confusion.
2. is based upon natural affinities among the organisms.
3. system of plant classification was based on androecium structure.
4. The book "Families of Flowering Plants" was written by .
Ans. (1) Chemotaxonomy, (2) Natural classification system,
(3) Linnaeus, (4) Hutchinson
Self Assessment

Subkingdom Cryptogamia in classification system given by Linnaeus includes

(1) Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Gymnosperms
(2) Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta
(3) Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
(4) Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Find odd one out w.r.t. natural classification systems
(1) Bentham and Hooker's system (2) de Candolle system
(3) John Ray's system (4) Eichler's system
(A) Number and codes are assigned to few of the selected characters in numerical taxonomy
(B) Phylogenetic classification systems are based on evolutionary relationships between the
various organisms
(C) Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure &
behaviour
(1) A and B are incorrect (2) Only C is correct
(3) Only A is incorrect (4) Band C are incorrect
Q.4 Each character is given equal Importance and at the same time hundreds of characters can be
considered in
(1) Cladistics (2) Phenetics (3) Chemotaxonomy (4) Cytotaxonomy
Q.5 Which of the following type of taxonomy deals with the collection and identification of
organism on the basis of gross morphology?
(1) Alpha taxonomy (2) Beta taxonomy (3) Omega taxonomy (4) Karyotaxonomy

Ans. Q.1 (2), Q.2 (4), Q.3 (3), Q.4 (2), Q.5 (1)

ALGAE
 Algae are chlorophyll containing thallophytes and are characterised by the absence of embryo
stage and presence of unicelled non-jacketed gametangia. The study of algae is called algology
or phycology.
 The main characteristics of algae are:
1. Algae are usually aquatic, either marine or fresh water, or may occur in a variety of habitats
like moist stones, soil and wood.
2. Reserve food is mainly starch.
3. Vascular tissues are absent. Being aquatic, water conduction is not required even in giant
forms.
4. Nutrition is autotrophic.
5. Vegetative reproduction by means of fragmentation.
6. Asexual modes of reproduction by means of Mitospores like -Zoospores, Aplanospores,
Hypnospores, Akinetes, Palmella stage, etc.
 7. Sex organs are non-jacketed. They are unicellular. In case the sex organs are multicellular
(e.g., Chara), every cell is fertile.
8. Sexual reproduction involves gametic fusion, that may be isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy in
different groups.
9. Life cycle is of various types such as haplontic, diplontic or diplohaplontic.

Concept Builder
1. Algae shows a wide range of forms like -unicellular (e.g., Chlamydomonas), colonial (e.g.,
Volvox), palmelloid (e.g., Tetraspora), dendroid (e.g., Prasinocladus), filamentous unbranched
(e.g., Spirogyra) or branched (e.g, Cladophora), heterotrichous (e.g., Fritschiella, Coleochaete,
Stigeoclonium), siphonaceous (e.g., Vaucheria), parenchymatous (e.g., Ulva).
2. F.E. Fritsch (1935) in his book Structure and Reproduction In Algae proposed a practical
and sound classification of algae. He divided algae in 11 classes on the basis of pigmentation,
reserve food, flagellation, thallus structure and mode of reproduction.
3. Kingdom Plantae of Whittaker (1969) includes mainly three types of algae -red algae,
brown algae and green algae.

Comparison of Some Characteristics of Algae

Photosynthetic pigments Type of
Name of algae Cell wall Flagella
Chlorophyll Other reserve food
Red algae a+d Phycobilins Cellulose and Floridean absent
(Rhodophyceae) (phycoerythrin agar starch
&
Phycocyanin)
Brown algae a+c Fucoxanthin Cellulose and Laminarian 2, Heterokont,
(Phaeophyceae) algin starch, laterally
mannitol inserted
Green algae a+b -carotene and Cellulose Starch 2-8, Isokont
(Chlorophyceae) other and anterior
carotenoids position

I. Red Algae -Rhodophyceae

 They are mostly marine (in warmer areas) occur in both well-lighted regions close to the
surface of water and at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
 Red algae are autotrophic.
 Motile or flagellate stage is absent throughout the life cycle.
 The plant body varies from unicellular (e.g., Porphyridium), filamentous (e.g., Asterocystis),
parenchymatous sheets (e.g., Porphyra), ribbons (e.g., Chondrus) to graceful lace-like sea
weeds (e.g., Gelidium).
 Cell wall possesses cellulose, pectic compounds and sulphated polysaccharides called
phycocolloids. The important phycocolloids of rhodophytes are agar and carrageenin.

Red Algae : (a) Porphyra, (b) Polysiphonia

 The photosynthetic organelles are called chromatophores. They have unstacked or single
thylakoids.
 Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, d, carotenoids and phycobilins. Phycobilins
are water soluble pigments namely, red coloured phycoerythrin, blue coloured phycocyanin
and allophycocyanin (similar pigments also occur in blue green algae).
 Reserve food is floridean starch (in constitution, it is very much similar to glycogen). Another
soluble sugar fluoridoside (a galactoside of glycerol) is also found.
 The red colour of red algae is due to abundant formation of phycoerythrin. Phycoerythrin is
able to absorb blue green wavelengths of light. Being shorter, these wavelengths are able to
reach the maximum depth in water. Therefore, red algae reach the maximum depth in sea
where no other type of photosynthetic organisms grow. However, rhodophytes living in
shallower water do not appear reddish due to lesser synthesis of phycoerythrin. They are
greenish, violet or purplish (e.g., Batrac hospermum is bluish green in colour).
 Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation.
 Asexual reproduction takes place through a variety of non-motile spores -neutral spores,
monospores, tetraspores, carpospores etc.
 Sexual reproduction is highly advanced and oogamous. It is accompanied by complex post
fertilization changes. The male sex organ is called spermatangium or antheridium. It
produces nonflagellate male gamete known as spermatium. The female sex organ is flask-
shaped and is termed carpogonium. Carpogonium possesses an elongated receptive neck like
trichogyne. Spermatia are carried by water currents to trichogyne tips for affecting
fertilization.
 Alternation of haploid and diploid multicellular generations occur in many algae.
 Economic importance
(i) Phycocolloids:
 A number of phycocolloids are extracted for commercial use. They include agar, carrageenin
and funori.
 Agar is used in solidifying laboratory culture media for microbes and is added as stabilliser or
thickener in the preparation of jellies, puddings, creams, cheese, bakery, etc.
 Agar is obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria. Carrageenin is used as a clearing agent in
liquors, leather finishing and as emulsifier in chocolates, ice-creams, toothpastes, paints etc.
 It is extracted from Chondrus. Funori is a glue, used as adhesive and in sizing textiles, paper
etc. It is obtained from Gloiopeltis.
(ii) Food:
 A number of red algae are edible, e.g., Porphyra (Laver), Rhodymenia (Dulse), Chondrus
(Irish Moss). Rhodymenia (also called sheep's weed) is also used as fodder. Porphyra is
cultivated in Japan for commercial exploitation.

Concept Builder

(1) Batrachospermum is a fresh water red alga.

(2) Some red algae have deposits of CaCO3 on their body surface, like Corallina, these contribute
to coral reef formation.
(3) Harveyella is a parasitic, colourless red algae.

II. Brown Algae -Phaeophyceae

 Found primarily in marine habitats.
 The body shows great variation of size and form. It may consist of a branched filamentous
structure in lower forms (e.g., Ectocarpus) and parenchymatous structure in higher forms (e.g.,
Sargassum, Laminaria, Fucus, Macrocystis). No unicellular forms are known.
 Brown algae include the largest algae. The giant brown algae are called kelps which may reach
a height of 100 m. The largest kelps are Macrocystis and Nereocystis.

Brown algae: (a) Laminaria, (b) Fucus, (c) Dictyota

  The plant body is often differentiated into holdfast (for attachment), stipe (stalk) and lamina
(frond -leaf like photosynthetic organ). A few species of Sargassum and Fucus are free
floating.
 Free floating forms are menace to shipping industry, as they get attached to the bottom of the
ships. The large forms often possess air vesicles or bladders for providing buoyancy.

Concept Builder
Sargassum species (Gulf weed) floating on the sea surface cover a large area in parts of North
Atlantic ocean. The area is popularly called Sargasso sea.

 Cell wall contains inner cellulose layer and outer mucilagenous layer, and phycocolloid like
algin which forms a gelatinous layer.
 Phycocolloids of brown algae are nonsulphated polysaccharides. The common ones are alginic
acid, fucoidin and fucin.
 They are copious in species dwelling in tidal areas. Phycocolloids prevent desiccation during
low tide, freezing under low temperature and injury when beaten against rocks.
 The brown colour of algae is due to the presence of large amount of xanthophyll called
fucoxanthin.
 Photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll a and c. Food reserve is laminarin starch and
mannitol.
 Cells possess refractile vesicles called fucosan vesicles. The vesicles contain a phenolic
chemical named fucosan. Fucosan is colourless inside water but becomes brown or black on
exposure to air.
 Conducting tubes or trumpet hyphae to transfer food from lamina to holdfast are present in
larger brown algae or kelps .
 Vegetative reproduction occurs through fragmentation (e.g., Sargassum) , adventitious
branches, stolons (e.g., Dictyota) etc.
 Asexual reproduction occurs with the help of both motile and non-motile spores. The motile
spores or zoospores are pear shaped having heterokont flagellation with one smooth whiplash
flagellum and other of tinsel type (hairy) . These are laterally inserted. Spores in phaeophyceae
are produced in different types of sporangia :
(i) Unilocular sporangia-In this sporangia, biflagellate zoospores are meiotically produced.
These zoospores (n) gives rise to haploid plant or gametophyte on germination.
(ii) Plurilocular or neutral sporangia-These multicellular sporangia are produced on the diploid
plants. Zoospores (2n) are formed by mitosis in large number and on germination gives rise to
diploid plants.
 Sexual reproduction varies from isogamy, anisogamy to oogamy. In isogamy and anisogamy
both gametes are motile with heterokont flagellation. In oogamy, only the male gametes are
motile and female gametes are non-motile.
  Isomorphic alternation of generations is found in some brown algae, e.g., Ectocarpus,
Dictyota. Here both the haploid and diploid generations are present and are similar in structure.
In many brown algae, the diploid generation or phase is dominant. The haploid generation or
phase is either microscopic or represented by gametes only (e.g., Fucus and Sargassum).
Heteromorphic alternation of generation is found in Laminaria.

Economic importance
(i) Iodine: Fucus and Laminaria are rich sources of iodine. Potash is abundant in Macrocystis and
Nereocystis.
(ii) Medicines: Sodium laminarin sulphate is blood anticoagulant. Durvillea has worm expelling
properties.
(iii) Food : A number of brown algae are used as food in some countries, e.g., Laminaria (Kombu),
Macrocystis, Sargassum and Alaria (Sarumen). The edible brown algae are also used as
fodder.
(iv) Alginic acid: It is phycocolioid which is obtained commercially from a number of brown algae
including the giant ones (e.g., Laminaria, Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Fucus, Sargassum).
Alginic acid and its salts are used in forming emulsions (ice creams, ointments, toothpastes,
cosmetics, creams, shampoos, etc.), sizing textiles, flame proof plastics and sound proofing.

III. Green Algae -Chlorophyceae

 Majority of the species in this group are fresh water. Some species are marine, e.g.,
Acetabularia (largest plant cell), Codium, Ulva, Caulerpa.

Green Algae: (a) Volvox, (b) Chlamydomonas, (c) Chara

 Cell wall contains inner cellulose and an outer pectose layer.
 Photosynthetic pigments are similar to those of higher plants-chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,
carotenes and xanthophyills.
 Food reserve is starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.
  Chloroplasts generally contain pyrenoids (one or more) for storage of starch. Pyrenoids contain
protein besides starch. Chloroplast may have variety of shapes like: Spiral -Spirogyra, Star
shaped -Zygnema, Reticulate -Oedogonium, Cup shaped -Chlamydomonas, Girdle / Horse shoe
shaped -Ulothrix and Discoid -Chlorella.
 Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by flagellated spores. The common asexual structures are
zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes, autospores, etc.
 Sexual reproduction shows considerable variations in the type and formation of sex cells and
the methods include isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
 Three types of life cycles occur in green algae -haplontic, diplontic and diplohaplontic. In
haplontic life cycle, the dominant phase is haploid. It is characterised by zygotic meiosis, e.g.,
Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas. In diplontic life cycle, the dominant phase of the alga is
diploid. It gives rise to haploid gametes through meiosis (gametic meiosis, e.g., Caulerpa). The
haplo-diplontic life cycle possesses well developed multicellular haploid and diploid thallus. It
is characterised by sporic meiosis, e.g., Ulva, Cladophora.

Concept Builder
1. Based upon habitat green algae may be:
(i) Cryophyte-e.g., Chlamydomonas nivalis is present in snow.
(ii) Endozoic (inside body of animals) -e.g., Zoochlorella present inside Hydra.
(iii) Epizoic (on the surface of animals) -e.g., Characium on crustaceans, Cladophora on molluscan
shells.
(iv) Symbiotic -e.g., Trebouxia and Trentepohlia form lichen.
(v) Parasitic -e.g., Cephaleuros sp. causing red rust of tea and coffee.
2. Thallus is of various types -unicellular flagellate (e.g., Chlamydomonas), unicellular
nonflagellate (e.g., Chlorella, Acetabularia) flagellate colonies, (e.g., Volvox), nonflagellate
colonies (e.g., Hydrodictyon), unbranched filament (Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium), simple
branched (e.g., Cladophora), heterotrichous (with prostrate and erect branches, (e.g., Draparna
idia, Stigeoclonium, Coleochaete, Fritschiella), and parenchymatous (e.g., Ulva).
3. Green algae are believed to be ancestors of land plants. The various evidences which favour
the chlorophycean origin of land plants are :
(i) Cell wall contains similar cellulose and pectic compounds in both groups.
(ii) Both green algae and land plants possess the same type of chlorophylls, a and b. The
carotenoid pigments are similar in the two groups.
(iii) Starch is the common storage carbohydrate in the two groups.

Economic importance
(i) Codium and Ulva (Sea lettuce) is used as salad or vegetable in European countries after drying
and salting.
 (ii) Chlorella pyrenoidosa (called space alga) is used by exobiologists for food, oxygen and
disposal of CO2 and organic waste in prolonged space flight.
(iii) Cephaleuros virescence -It is a parasitic green alga which causes red rust of tea disease.

Self Assessment
Q.6 Coenobium is the name given to the colony of
(1) Chlamydomonas (2) Fritschiella (3) Volvox (4) Vaucheria
Q.7 All given algal members possess unicelled sex organs, except
(1) Chara (2) Ulothrix (3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomonas
Q.8 Anteriorly placed, equal, 2-8, flagella are characteristic to
(1) Blue green algae (2) Green algae (3) Brown algae (4) Red algae
Q.9 Which set of characters is specific to red algae?
(1) Phycobilins, Chlorophyll a and c (2) Chlorophyll a and d, Floridean starch
(3) Flagella absent, Mannitol (4) Fucoxanthin, Floridean starch
Q.10 Find odd one out w.r.t. fresh water algae
(1) Batrachospermum (2) Spirogyra
(3) Volvox (4) Chondrus
Q.11 Select an incorrect match
(1) Porphyra -Edible red algae (2) Gracilaria -Agar
(3) Alaria -Sarumen (4) Cephaleuros -Iodine
Q.12 Plant body is differentiated in hold fast, stipe and frond in
(1) Ulva (2) Laminaria (3) Oedogonium (4) Acetabularia
Q.13 Chloroplast is star shaped in
(1) Oedogonium (2) Zygnema (3) Chlorella (4) Ulothrix
Q.14 Chlorella pyrenoidosa is commonly called as
(1) Irish moss (2) Laver (3) Space alga (4) Frog spawn alga
Q.15 Thin walled, non-motile, asexual, endogenous spores in some algal members are called
(1) Zoospores (2) Aplanospores (3) Hypnospores (4) Cyst

Ans. Q.6 (3), Q.7 (1), Q.8 (2), Q.9 (2), Q.10 (4), Q.11 (4), Q.12 (2), Q.13 (2), Q.14 (3), Q.15 (2)

Life Cycle Patterns of Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix and Spirogyra

Life Cycle of Chlamydomonas
 Chlamydomonas is a microscopic eukaryotic, unicellular, pyriform, biflagellate green alga
which is found in both stationary fresh water and marine habitats generally rich in ammonium
salts.
 The alga has an apical papilla, two contractile vacuoles meant for osmoregulation and
excretion, a basin-shaped or cup-like chloroplast for photosynthesis with a red eye spot for
photosensitivity.
 Cell wall consists of glycoproteins with hydroxyproline and not true cellulose.
  Neuromotor apparatus regulates the locomotion of cells, it includes -Rhizoplast, Paradesmos,
Basal granule and Centrosome. Both flagella are whiplash type. Cup shaped chloroplast
contains a single pyrenoid.

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction commonly occurs by four methods:
1. Zoospores:
 These are formed under favourable conditions. A mature alga comes to rest and loses its
flagella.
 Its protoplasm contracts and divides longitudinally by bipartition division to form 2-16
daughter protoplasts.
 The daughter protoplasts develop flagella and get transformed into zoospores.

(A-E) : Zoospore formation in Chlamydomonas.

A. Vegetative cell, B-E. Zoospore formation. F. Zoospore liberation
 2. Palmella stage is formed in response to drought where the cells lose their flagella and their
walls undergo gelatinisation to form mucilage. The near naked cells grow and divide
repeatedly to form a number of cells inside the mucilage. On being flooded with water, the
mucilage dissolves and the released cells become transformed into flagellate individuals.

Chlamydomonas: Palmella stage

3. Aplanospores and hypnospores are formed under drought conditions. The protoplasts of each
cell contracts from the wall, rounds off and secretes a thin (aplanospore) or thick (hypnospore)
wall to form a spore.

Concept Builder
Red snow is sometimes caused by abundant occurrence of hypnospores of C.nivalis.
Hypnospores often possess a red pigment called haematochrome.

Sexual Reproduction
 It occurs towards the end of growing
season. It is of several types -isogamy
(fusion of similar gametes, e.g.,
C.debaryana), hologamy (fusion of
young cells, e.g., C. media), anisogamy
(fusion between gametes of different
sizes, e.g., C. braunii) and oogamy
(fusion between a small motile male
gamete and a non-motile larger female
gamete or egg, e.g., C.coccifera).
 The compatible gametes fuse to form a
diploid zygote which secretes a thick wall
to form resting diploid spore called
zygospore.
 On the approach of favourable conditions,
meiosis occurs in the zygospore to form
four haploid zoospores (meiospores or
meiozoospores).
Life Cycle of Ulothrix (Winter alga)
 Ulothrix is an unbranched green filamentous alga which grows
in aerated fresh water of rain puddles, lakes and slow moving
streams.
 The filament is made of a large number of rectangular cells
placed end to end in a single row.
 The lowermost cell is non-green, non-dividing, rhizoidal cell
that helps in attachment.
 The remaining cells are green due to presence of a single girdle-shaped chloroplast placed at
parietal position, having a few pyrenoids. An eye spot is absent in the somatic cells.
 Cell wall consists of inner cellulosic and outer layer of protopectin which is insoluble in water
so that their filaments appear like wet threads.

Reproduction
The alga multiplies by all possible means i.e., vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
1. Vegetative reproduction
It occurs through fragmentation.
2. Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction occurs by zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes and palmella
stage.

Asexual reproduction in Ulothrix

 Zoospores are produced under favourable conditions. Any green cell can function as
zoosporangium.
 Its protoplast contracts from the cell wall and undergoes bipartition division to form 2-32
daughter protoplasts.
 The latter may change into quadriflagellate macro, quadriflagellate micro or biflagellate
microzoospores. Eye spot and contractile vacuoles are present in the zoospores.
 Zoospores are liberated through a lateral pore in the wall. On germination, each zoospore gives
rise to a new filament.

3. Sexual reproduction
 It occurs towards the end of growing season.
 Each green cell can function as gametangium and develops 8-64 biflagellate gametes in a
fashion similar to zoospore formation.

Sexual reproduction in Ulothrix

  The compatible isogametes fuse in pairs forming diploid zygotes, which round off and secrete
a thick wall to produce diploid resting spores called zygospores.
 On return of favourable conditions, each zygospore forms 4 meiospores (meiozoospores or
meioaplanospores) which germinate and give rise to new filaments.

Life Cycle of Spirogyra

 Spirogyra is an unbranched green filamentous alga
commonly found floating free over the surface of fresh
water ponds. It is popularly known as pond scum,
summer alga, princess hairs or water silk.
 The alga is covered by a layer of mucilage. The filament
consists of a large number of green cylindrical cells
placed end to end in a single row. All the cells are similar,
autotrophic, capable of growth and division.
 A non green holdfast or hapteron occurs for attachment in
species such as S. jogensis, S. adnata. A cell contains 1 -
16 spirally coiled (left handed) ribbon shaped
chloroplasts.
 Each chloroplast bears a linear row of pyrenoids. The nucleus is suspended in the central
vacuole by means of cytoplasmic strands, Cell wall consists of inner cellulose and outer pectin
layers.
 This pectin dissolves in water and form a slimy-shealh. It makes the filament slippery to touch.

Reproduction
1. Vegetative reproduction: It multiplies vegetatively through fragmentation.
2. Asexual reproduction: Generally absent, except following means
(i) Parthenospore / Azygospore formation in S. varians (if placed in sugar solution).
(ii) Akinete formation in S. farlowi
3. Sexual reproduction: It takes place through conjugation (fusion of gametangia). Conjugation
is of two main types-Scalariform and Lateral.

Concept Builder
Scalariform conjugation :
 Most common type, occurs in both homo and heterothallic species. Minimum two filaments
are involved.
 The young cells of the two opposite filaments develop tubular conjugation processes.
 The common wall between the two conjugating processes dissolves and a transverse
conjugation tube is formed between the two cells.
 The protoplasts of the two cells function as non-flagellate gametes.
 One gamete is more active. It is called male gamete. The male gamete passes through the
conjugation tube and fuses with the other or female gamete in its cell.
 The diploid fusion product or zygote develops a wall around it and forms a resting zygospore,
e.g., S. tuwensis.

Scalariform conjugation in Spirogyra

 Lateral conjugation: It is primitive type and quite uncommon. Here two adjacent cells of the
same filament function as gametangia.
 They may develop a lateral passage between them (indirect lateral conjugation) or create a pore
in the common septum (direct lateral conjugation).
 The protoplasts or gamete of one cell (male) migrates into the other (female), where they fuse
to form diploid zygote and then zygospore.
 By any method, under favourable conditions, the zygospore germinates. Its diploid nucleus
undergoes meiosis, forming four haploid nuclei.
 Three of the haploid nuclei degenerate. The protoplast with the remaining haploid nucleus
grows in size, breaks the zygospore wall and comes out as a germ tube. The germ tube
develops into a filament.

(A) Direct lateral conjugation in S. jogensis, (B) Indirect lateral conjugation in S. affinis.
Conceptual Questions
1. Neuromotor apparatus regulates the locomotion in Chlamydomonas. (True/False)
2. Pond scum is the common name for .
3. Eye spot is present in the somatic cells of Ulothrix. (True/False)
4. conjugation is primitive type and quite uncommon in Spirogyra.
Ans. 1. True, 2. Spirogyra, 3. False, 4. Leteral

BRYOPHYTA
 Bryophyta is a small group of plants having multicellular diploid sporophyte living as a
parasite on an independent multicellular haploid gametophyte.
 On the basis of evolution, bryophytes stand in between algae and pteridophyta. They are the
first amphibians of plant kingdom, oldest bryophyte fossils are about 350 million years old.

General characters of Bryophyta :

 Bryophytes live in damp, humid and shaded habitats. They may form green carpets or mats on
damp soil, rocks, walls, tree trunks during rainy season.
 The dominant phase or plant body is a free living gametophyte (n). It is thallus like and may
be prostrate or erect.
 Vascular tissues are absent.
 True stem, leaf and roots are absent. Instead, rhizoids occur for attachment. The latter may be
unicellular (e.g., Riccia and Anthoceros) or multicellular (e.g., mosses).
 Vegetative reproduction is quite common through fragmentation, tubers, gemmae, buds,
adventitious branches etc.
 Asexual reproduction by mitospores is absent.
 Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed, called antheridium (male) and archegonium
(female). The jacket cells are sterile (Bryophytes are first archegoniates).
 Antherozoid is twisted and comma shaped with two flagella.
 An external layer of water is essential for the swimming of male gametes to reach the
archegonia i.e., zooidogamy. So these are called amphibians of plant kingdom.
 Zygotes do not undergo reduction division immediately. It develops inside archegonia and
divides by mitosis to produce embryo (so these are considered as first embryophytes). The
embryo develops further into a sporophyte which is parasitic over the gametophyte (may be
partial pasasite as in mosses).
 The sporophyte of bryophytes is also called sporogonium, it is composed of three parts viz.,
capsule, seta and foot. It produces meiospores or haploid spores inside the capsule part (after
meiosis in spore mother cells), while attached to the gametophyte.
 All bryophytes produce only one type of spores (Homosporous).
 On germination each spore produces a gametophyte (either directly or through a juvenile
filamentous stage called protonema, e.g., in mosses).
  Bryophytes show heteromorphic or heterologous alternation of generations in the life cycle i.e.,
haplodiplontic life cycle.

Concept Builder
 Term bryophyta was proposed by Brown. Hedwig is called father of bryology. Prof. Shiv
Ram Kashyap is known as "Father of Indian Bryology".
 Aquatic bryophytes are Riccia fluitans, Ricciocarpus, Fontinalis and Riella. Saprophytic
bryophytes are Buxbaumia and Cryptothallus, while Frullania is an epiphytic form.

Economic importance of bryophytes

(i) Prevention of soil erosion: Bryophytes, especially mosses, form dense mats over the soil and
prevent soil erosion against falling rains.
(ii) Soil formation: Mosses are an important link in plant succession on rocky areas. They take
part in building soil in rock crevices formed by lichens. Growth of Sphagnum (Bog moss)
ultimately fills ponds and lakes with soil.
(iii) Water retention : Dry Sphagnum has great water absorbing capacity. This characteristic is
employed by gardeners to keep seedlings and cut plants moist during transportation and
propagation. Sphagnum moss was used in place of absorbent cotton, so is also called cotton
moss.
(iv) Peat: Sphagnum often grows in acidic marshes. The older dead parts of moss and other marshy
plants got slowly carbonised, compressed and fossilised over thousands of years and have
produced a dark spongy mass called peat. Peat is dried, compressed and cut to form blocks.
The peat blocks are used as fuel. Peat is also a good manure. It overcomes soil alkalinity and
increases its water retention as well as aeration.
Self Assessment
Q.16 Select incorrect statement w.r.t.Chlamydomonas
(1) Cell is pyriform (2) Presence of contractile vacuoles
(3) Cell wall having polysulphate esters (4) Cup shaped chloroplast
Q.17 Flagella in a Chlamydomonas cell are
(1) 2; both tinsel type (2) 2; one tinsel and other whiplash
(3) 2; both whiplash type (4) 4; all whiplash type
Q.18 Red snow is associated with of Chlamydomonas.
(1) Zoospore (2) Hypnospore (3) Aplanospore (4) Tetraspore
Q.19 The cell of Ulothrix attached to substratum
(1) Is non dividing and photosynthetic (2) Is green and dome shaped
(3) Is non green and non dividing (4) Has an eye spot
Q.20 Quadriflagellated zoospores are characteristically found in
(1) Spirogyra (2) Chlamydomonas (3) Ulothrix (4) Volvox
Q.21 All given statements are correct for Ulothrix, except
(1) Unbranched filamentous algae (2) Parenchymatous sheet like body
(3) Occurrence of palmella stage (4) Girdle shaped chloroplast
Q.22 Number of new filaments produced by means of sexual reproduction in Spirogyra is equivalent
to
(1) Numberof zygospores (2) Number of meiosis
(3) Number of gametes (4) More than one option is correct
Q.23 Mark the correct option (w.r.t. Spirogyra)
(1) Chloroplast is spiral (2) Many pyrenoids are present in chloroplast
(3) Cytoplasmic strands hold the nucleus (4) All of these
Q.24 Select a correct match
(1) Cryptothallus -Epiphytic bryophyte (2) Buxbaumia -Parasitic bryophyte
(3) Bryophyta -First archegoniate (4) Riccia fluitans -Saprophytic bryophyte
Q.25 Ecologically the most important moss is
(1) Sphagnum (2) Funaria (3) Polytrichum (4) Pogonatum
Ans. Q.16 (3), Q.17 (3), Q.18 (2), Q.19 (3), Q.20 (3), Q.21 (2), Q.22 (4), Q.23 (4), Q.24 (3),
Q.25 (1)

Classification of Bryophyta :
 Some characteristic features of these classes are given below:
Hepaticopsida or Liverworts
 They have thalloid structure (e.g., Riccia, Marchantia) with dorsiventral symmetry. On the
ventral side of the thallus they have multicelled scales and unicelled rhizoids. Thallus has two
distinct zones i.e., assimilatory and storage.
 Leafy members like Porella have leaf like tiny appendages in two rows on the stem like
structures.
 Asexual reproduction occur by means of fragmentation, or by specialized structure called
gemmae (e.g., Marchantia). These are '8' shaped, stalked, green and multicellular asexual buds
developing in small receptacles (gemma cups) on dorsal surface of thallus. Each gemma
germinates to produce two thalli in Marchantia.
 Antheridia and archegonia are scattered and found embedded in dorsal side of thallus (e.g.,
Riccia) or may be projected from the thallus in form of stalked receptacles called
antheridiophore and archegoniophore respectively (e.g., Marchantia).

Bryophytes : A liverwort -Marchantia

(a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus

 Sporophyte may be represented by capsule only (e.g. , Riccia) or differentiated into foot, seta
and capsule (e.g., Marchantia).
 Capsule may contain spores only (e.g., Riccia) or spores and elaters (e.g., Marchantia). Elaters
are diploid, hygroscopic structures with spiral thickenings which help in spore dispersal.
 Sporophyte lacks assimilatory tissue, thus it is a complete parasite over the gametophyte.
 Spores (n) germinate to form the thalloid gametophyte.

Concept Builder
Anthocerotopsida or Hornworts Anthoceros, Notothylas (Members of Anthocerotae) are
called as hornworts, as they possess elongated 'horn like' sporophytes. Capsules of these
members contain spores and pseudoelaters (elater like structures without spiral thicknings).
Anthoceros cells have one chloroplast with one pyrenoid, so resembles algal thallus.
 Bryopsida -Musci or True Mosses:
 Gametophytic phase consist of two stages -first is protonema (juvenile stage) , and second is
gametophore or leafy stage (mature).
 Protonema is filamentous, creeping, green and branched structure developing through spore
germination.
 Gametophore consist of erect axis bearing spirally arranged leaves and sex organs.
 Rhizoids are multicellular (with oblique septa) and branched.
 Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation and secondary protonema (filament
developing from structure other than spore).
 Sex organs develop in the axis of leaves.
 The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal from capsule.
 Mosses may be known by different names : Cord moss (Funaria), Maiden hair moss
(Pogonatum), Peat/Bog moss (Sphagnum) , Hair cap moss (Polytrichum) .

Life cycle of Moss

 A typical moss plant like Funaria grows in moist,
shady places forming dense carpet on soils, rocks,
tree trunks etc., during the rainy season.
 The radially symmetric plant body is differentiated
into stem or axis, leaves or phylloids and rhizoids.
 The rhizoids are multicellular. Moss plants
multiply extensively by vegetative means.

Reproduction
1. Vegetative reproduction: It occurs by following
ways:
(i) Apospory - Formation of gametophyte (i.e., the
plant body) from sporophyte without meiosis.
(ii) Protonema buds - Primary protonema formed as a result of spore germination gives rise to
group of cells called buds. These buds when separated give rise to new plants.
2. Sexual reproduction: Funaria is monoecious and autoecious plant i.e., male and female sex
organs are borne on same plant, but on different branches, called as antheridial and archegonial
branch respectively.
Antheridium :
 Cluster of antheridia (male sex organ) are borne on antheridial branch, surrounded by a large
number of closely arranged perigonial leaves.
 An antheridium is a club-shaped structure. Paraphyses occurs mixed with antheridia. Terminal
cell of paraphyses is capitate. It is borne over a small multicellular stalk.
 There is a single layered jacket which encloses mass of sperm mother cells. Each sperm mother
cell (androcyte) produces two biflagellate sperms having curved body.
Archegonium:
 At the apex of archegonial branch, archegonia (female sex organ) intermingled with
paraphyses are present, surrounded by a cluster of perichaetial leaves.
 An archegonium is a flask-shaped structure having a multicellular stalk. It has a tubular neck
and a swollen basal venter.
 Venter has a two-layered wall which encloses two cells, a venter canal cell and an egg or
oosphere. The neck has a single layered wall made of 6-spirally twisted rows of cells.
 There is a cover made up of 4-cells. The neck encloses 6-10 neck canal cells (NCG). At
maturity, the neck canal and venter canal cells gelatinises. The lid cells separate.
 The opened archegonia attract sperms by sucrose and K+ ions present in their mucilage. A
sperm enters an archegonium, fuses with the oosphere and forms a diploid zygote or oospore.

Funaria : (A) An antheridium, (B) One antherozoid, (C) An archegonium

Development of sporophyte
 The venter cells form a cover over zygote called calyptra (haploid -gametophytic tissue). The
diploid oospore develops into a sporophyte. Sporophyte consists of three parts-foot, seta and
capsule. Foot is embedded in the tip of gametophytic plant. It takes part in fixation of
sporophyte and absorption of water and mineral salts from the gametophyte.
 Seta is a narrow stalk which lifts the capsule in the air. The capsule is further differentiated
into 3 parts-apophysis, theca and operculum. Apophysis contains assimilatory tissue and
stomata (having a single circular guard cell).
 Theca contains a central sterile column or columella, two spore sacs, air cavity and some
assimilatory tissue. Its tip contain two rows of acellular teeth called peristome.
 There are 32 peristomial teeth in each capsule arranged in two rows of 16 each. The teeth in
outer row (exostome) are dark brown and hygroscopic in nature, and also have transverse
bands of cellulose.
 However teeth of inner row (endostome) are thin, light brown and non-hygroscopic. Inside the
spore sac, diploid spore mother cells are formed.
 They undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores.
 The haploid spores are liberated from the capsule by removal of operculum and hygroscopic
movement of peristomial teeth.
 Since Funaria like mosses have some assimilatory tissue or cells with chloroplast in their
sporophyte, unlike liver worts, sporophyte of mosses are often called as semiparasite over
the gametophyte. Such cells are present in the apophysis, capsule wall and in the spores.
 On germination, each haploid spore produces a filamentous juvenile gametophyte called
protonema. Protonema has two types of branches, green and nongreen.
 The nongreen branches (rhizonema) are subterranean. They function as rhizoids. Green
branches (chloronema) are epiterranean.
 Protonema can multiply vegetatively. It ultimately bears buds on its green branches. The buds
grow to form moss plants. The latter, therefore, represent adult gametophyte.

Funaria : L.S. of mature capsule

Self Assessment
Q.26 Thallus of which bryophyte resembles algae in structure?
(1) Porella (2) Riccia (3) Anthoceros (4) Marchantia
Q.27 All given members are monoecious, except
(1) Marchantia (2) Funaria (3) Anthoceros (4) Sphagnum
Q.28 Hygroscopic structure present in Marchantia for spore dispersal is called
(1) Elater (2) Pseudoelater (3) Nurse cell (4) Annulus
Q.29 Select incorrect statement w.r.t. characters of true moss
(1) Multicelled branched rhizoids (2) Presence of scales
(3) Presence of protonema (4) Erect leafy axis as mature gametophyte
Q.30 Gemmae are
(1) Unicelled structures (2) Multicelled asexual buds
(3) Diploid sporophytic structures (4) Haploid sexual structures
Number of neck canal cells in true mosses is
(1) 4 (2) 4 -6 (3) 1 (4) 6 -10
Find odd one out w.r.t. ploidy level in bryophytes
(1) NCC (2) VCC (3) Spore (4) Theca
Sporophyte is a partial parasite on gametophyte in
(1) Marchantia (2) Porella (3) Pogonatum (4) Riccia
Photosynthetic tissue is present in region of Funaria capsule.
(1) Apophysis (2) Theca
(3) Operculum (4) More than one option is correct
Q.35 Central sterile tissue of capsule in sporophyte of Funaria is called as
(1) Apophysis (2) Annulus (3) Columella (4) Operculum
Ans. Q.26 (3), Q.27 (1), Q.28 (1), Q.29 (2), Q.30 (2), Q.31 (4), Q.32 (4), Q.33 (3), Q.34 (4),
Q.35 (4)

PTERIDOPHYTA
General characters of pteridophyta
 They are most primitive vascular, flowerless, seedless, spore producing cryptogamic land
plants. Commonly called vascular amphibians "or" botanical snakes. These are first
successful plants on land. Evolutionarily these are first terrestrial plants to possess vascular
tissues.
 Term pteridophyta was given by Haeckel.
1. Dominant phase of plant body is a sporophyte.
2. Plant body is differentiated into true stem, leaves and roots.
3. Vascular tissues are present. They are of two types, xylem and phloem. In xylem , true vessels
are absent. In phloem, companion cells and sieve tubes are absent. Instead, sieve cells are
present. Secondary growth is exceptionally present in Isoetes and Botrychium.
4. On the basis of leaves pteridophytes are of two types. In megaphyllous plants, leaves are large
in relation to stem and leaf trace is broken by leaf gaps, e.g., ferns. In microphyllous forms,
leaves are small and receive a single unbroken leaf trace, e.g., club moss and horsetails.
5. Sporangia are associated with leaves called sporophylls. Meiospores are formed inside
sporangia. In some cases sporophytes may form distinct compact structures called strobili or
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum).
6. Spore on germination produces small, reduced, free living', independent, multicelled, non-
vascular, haploid gametophyte. This thalloid gametophyte is called prothallus. These require
cool, damp shady places to grow. Because of this restricted requirement and the need of water
for fertilization are reasons due to which the spread of living pteridophytes is limited and
restricted to narrow geographical regions. The development of gametophyte may be
endosporic (inside the spore wall) or exosporic (outside the spore wall).
7. Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed. Number of NCC in archegonia may be one
uninucleate (Selaginella) or one binucleate (ferns).
8. Sperms are flagellated. They require an external supply of water for swimming to reach
archegonia. The chemical stimulus is provided by malic acid.
9. Embryo stage is present.
10. Heteromorphic or heterologous alternation of generation is present in the life cycle.
11. Pteridophytes are divided in four groups, viz., Psilophyta (Psilotum), Lycophyta (Lycopodium,
Selaginella), Sphenophyta (Equisetum), and Pterophytai/Filicophyta (Dryopteris, Pteris,
Adiantum, Salvinia).
12. True ferns are leptosporangiate members of Filicophyta and are most conspicuous of the
pteridophytes.

Pteridophytes: (a) Equisetum, (b) Salvinia

Concept Builder
1. Sporangium development is of two types in pteridophytes:
(i) Leptosporangiate -When sporangium develops from single superficial cell, e.g., Pteris,
Dryopteris, Adiantum.
(ii) Eusporangiate -When sporangium develops from group of cells, e.g., Selaginella, Equisetum.
2. Majority of pteridophytes produce same type of spores (homosporous, e.g., ferns like
Adiantum, Pteris, Dryopteris). Only a few produce different types of spores, namely
megaspores and microspores (heterosporous, e.g., Selaginella, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla
etc.). Heterospory leads to seed habit in plants.
3. Embryogeny in pteridophytes is of two types:
(i) Exoscopic embryogeny : Axis of embryo is directed towards archegonial neck, e.g.,
Equisetum.
(ii) Endoscopic: Axis of embryo is directed inward towards venter, e.g., Selaginella.
4. Development of embryo may be :
(i) Holoblastic -When entire zygote is involved in embryonic development, e.g. , Ferns.
(ii) Meroblastic -When part of zygote is involved in embryonic development, e.g., Selaginella.

Stelar system
 The central vascular cylinder of axis of pteridophytes is referred to as stele. It is a primary
vascular tissue consisting of pith, xylem, phloem and pericycle.
 It first appeared in pteridophytes like Rhynia. So lets study different types of steles proposed
by Van Teigham and Douliot.
 Types of $tele :
1. Protostele: Simplest type, without pith
(i) Haplostele: e.g., Rhynia (ii) Actinostele : e.g., Lycopodium serratum

(iii) Plectostele: e.g., Lycopodium clavatum (iv) Mixed protostele : e.g. Lycopodium cernum
2. Siphonostele: With pith
(i) Ectophloic Siphonostele : (ii) Amphiphloic Siphonostele:
Phloem on one side of xylem only, Xylem is having phloem on its both sides,
e.g., Osmunda, Equisetum e.g., Marsilea

(iii)Solenostele : Stele with one or few non (iv) Dictyostele : Stele with large number of
overlapping leaf gap, overlapping leaf gaps
e.g., Adiantum caudatum e.g., Dryopteris, Pteris etc.

The specific features of true ferns are as follows :

(i) The stem is underground rhizome (sometimes oblique, called root stock) in most of the ferns,
except in tree ferns like Cyathea, Alsophyia where the stem is aerial.
(ii) Leaves are large and are called fronds. Leaves may be simple or pinnately compound.
(iii) Young leaves show circinate ptyxis, as they are coiled in the form of a watch spring. This
coiling protects the growing point which comes to lie in the centre.
(iv) Younger parts of stem, young leaves, petiole and rachis of mature leaves possess brown stiff
hairs called ramenta. Ramenta protect them from mechanical injury and desiccation.
(v) Sporangia occurs on the ventral surface of leaves in clusters called sori (singular-sorus). The
fertile leaves are known as sporophylls. A sorus is covered by a flap-like outgrowth from its
surface called indusium (true indusium, e.g., Dryopteris) or turned margin of the sporophyll
(false indusium , e.g., Adiantum).
(vi) Development of sporangium in true ferns is leptosporangiate.
(vii) The male gamete is spirally coiled and multiciliated.
Life cycle of a fern (Dryopteris)
 Plant body is a perennial, independently
living evergreen sporophyte. It is
differentiated into stem, leaves and roots.
Roots are adventitious.
 Stem is an underground dark brown rhizome.
 The large aerial leaves or fronds develop
acropetally in spirals from the upper surface
of the rhizome.
 The young leaves show circinate ptyxis.
Persistent leaf bases of the dead leaves are
found in older parts of rhizome.
 Venation is open furcate in leaflets.
Ramenta or paleae are present.

Reproduction
 The fern multiplies vegetatively by
fragmentation of rhizome and development of
adventitious buds.
 In Dryopteris, the adventitious buds present at leaf base separate and grow into a new plant.
 In Adiantum caudatum and a few other species, adventitious buds develop at leaf tips.
 When such leaf tips happen to touch the soil, they form new plants.
 The process helps in spreading the fern over a large area. Because of this reason A. caudatum
is also called walking fern.
 Ventral surface of leaflets of a mature leaf bear yellowish brown clusters of sporangia called
sori. The leaves having sori or sporangia are called sporophylls.
 In Dryopteris, the sori develop in two rows, one on either side of the veins. Each row contains
4-6 sori. Each sorus is covered by a membranous sheath of its own.
 This covering is called true indusium. The covered sori of Dryopteris are kidney-shaped in
outline. This has given the name of male shield fern to Dryopteris.
 A sorus consists of a parenchymatous cushion of placenta. The placenta bears a number of
stalked biconvex sporangia. In each sporangium, there is a single layered jacket that encloses
12-16 diploid spore mother cells.
 A marginal row of jacket cells are differentially thickened to form annulus. The remaining
marginal cells constitute stomium. The diploid spore mother cells divide meiotically to form
haploid spores.
 With the maturity of spores, the indusium shrivels. The exposed sporangia dehisce in the
region of stomium due to differential contraction of annulus. The spores are thrown away.
They are dispersed by air currents.
 (a) : Reproduction in Dryopteris
A. Fern leaflet (Sporophyll) showing sori, B. V.S. Sporophyll, C. A Sporangium

(b) : Dryopteris A. Structure of Prothallus (Ventral view)

B. One archegonium C. One antherozoid

 After falling on a suitable soil, each spore germinates to form a flat, heart shaped, green,
thalloid gametophyte called prothallus.
 The prothallus is monoecious, that is, it bears both the types of sex organs, male antheridia and
female archegonia. They are borne ventrally.
 Antheridia occur in the area of rhizoids, while archegonia are borne behind the apical notch in
an area called apical cushion. Antheridium has a 3 celled jacket and about 32 sperm mother
cells. The sperms are multiflagellate (= multiciliate) and spirally twisted.
 Archegonium is flask-shaped in outline. It has an embedded venter and a projecting neck. Neck
has 4-rowed wall which encloses a single binucleate neck canal cell.
 The venter contains a single venter canal cell and an oosphere. In the mature state, the venter
canal cell and the neck canal cells gelatinise. The neck opens.
 Sperms are attracted to the opened archegonia by malic acid (chemotactic stimulus) present in
their mucilage. A sperm fuses with an oosphere to form a diploid oospore.
 The oospore gives rise to an embryo which grows in size to form the fern plant.
Self Assessment
Q.36 Pteridophytes are also called
(1) Vascular amphibians of plant kingdom (2) First tracheophytes
(3) Botanical snakes (4) All of these
Q.37 Find the correct option w.r.t. Filicophyta
(1) Selaginella (2) Equisetum (3) Oryopteris (4) Lycopodium
Q.38 Select a set of heterosporous genera
(1) Marsilea, Azolla (2) Salvinia, Pteridium
(3) Adiantum, Azolla (4) Pteris, Lycopodium
Q.39 True ferns are associated with all, except
(1) Circinate ptyxis (2) Presence of ramenta
(3) Presence of frond (4) Biflagellated male gametes
Q.40 Select the correct match
(1) Psilopsida -Dryopteris (2) Lycopsida -Selaginella
(3) Sphenopsida -Pteris (4) Pteropsida -Equisetum
Q.41 Ectophloic siphonostele is found in
(1) Equisetum (2) Adiantum (3) Marsilea (4) Rhynia
Q.42 In life cycle of Dryopteris
(1) Main plant body is gametophyte (2) True indusium covers the sorus
(3) Sucrose attracts the male gametes (4) Two NCC are found in archegonium
Q.43 A. Companion cells and sieve tubes are absent in pteridophytes
B. Eusporangiate development is characteristic of true ferns
C. Cordate prothallus is found in Dryopteris
(1) Only C is incorrect (2) Only A is incorrect
(3) A and B are correct (4) Only B is incorrect
Q.44 Stele with large number of overlapping leaf gaps is called as
(1) Protostele (2) Actinostele (3) Dictyostele (4) Plectostele
Q.45 Antheridium of Dryopteris has celled jacket and about sperm mother cells.
(1) 3,16 (2) 2, 32 (3) 2, 16 (4) 3, 32
Ans. Q.36 (4), Q.37 (3), Q.38 (1), Q.39 (4), Q.40 (2), Q.41 (1), Q.42 (2), Q.43 (4), Q.44 (3),
Q.45 (4)

Life Cycle of Selaginella :

Salient features
 Plant body is an evergreen sporophyte. It is differentiated into stem, leaves and roots. The roots
often develop at the tips of special structures called rhizophores.
 Plant body of Selaginella chrysocaulos and S.selaginoides is erect. Its leaves are isophyllous
and arranged in two rows. In S.kraussiana the plant body is prostrate. Its leaves are
anisophyllous or dimorphic and arranged in four rows.
 Bower and Goebel named rhizophore of Selaginella as an organ sui-generis, i.e., an organ
having the characters of both stem as well as root, but independent in origin.
 The stem in Selaginella is distelic. 'Rarely stem is monostelic.
 The plant body can multiply vegetatively by fragmentation, bulbils and tubers. Bulbils and
tubers help in perennation as well.

Seleginella kraussiana – A. Genereal habit, B. A part of the plant

C. Arrangement of leaves

 Sporangia develop in the axil of fertile leaves or sporophylls at the tips of small branches
called spikes. There are two types of sporangia, microsporangia and megasporangia, hence this
genus is heterosporous.
 Each microsporangium produces a large number of small haploid microspores. A
megasporangium develops only four haploid megaspores. Growth of the gametophytes is
precocious.
 Microspore produces an endosporic 13-celled male gametophyte. The latter has one
prothallial cell, 8 jacket cells and four androgonial cells. The androgonial cells form 128-
256 androcytes or sperm mother cells. A sperm mother cell gives rise to a biflagellate
sperm.
 Megaspore produces a partially exosporic female gametophyte. The female gametophyte
contains an exposed generative apical cushion and a storage tissue. The two are separated by a
diaphragm.
 The apical cushion produces archegonia and rhizoids. Each archeogonium has a single
female gamete or oosphere. The mucilage oozing out of neck of archegonium in Selaginella
and fern contains malic acid.
 The neck of archegonium in Selaginella and fern contains only one neck canal cell.
Fertilisation requires the help of external water for swimming of sperm. It produces diploid
oospore.
  Oospore divides to form a suspensor and embryo. The development of embryo is
meroblastic. Suspensor helps in pushing the embryo into food laden storage tissue. Embryo
has a foot for absorbing nourishment, a shoot tip and a root tip. The latter two elongate and
produce an independent sporophytic plant body.
 Selaginella shows two distinct generations, sporophyte and gametophyte, one producing the
other. They are morphologically different. The phenomenon is called heteromorphic or
heterologous alternation of generations.

Concept Builder
1. Common names Spike moss (Selaginella)
Bird's nest moss (Selaginella rupestris)
Club moss (Lycopodium)
2. Smallest pteridophyte =Azolla pinnata (an aquatic fern). It is commonly used as biofertilizer.
3. Largest pteridophyte = Cyathea (tree fern)
4. Apogamy : It is development of haploid sporophyte from gametophyte without fertilisation. It
was reported by Farlow in Pteris cretica.
5. Apospory : It is development of diploid gametophyte from sporophyte without meiosis. It was
reported by Druery in Athyrium. Due to apospory, polyploidy is common in ferns.
6. Psilotales like Rhynia (fossil) were first tracheophytes.
7. Psilotum shows presence of rhizoids and dichotomous branching of stem.
8. Under dry conditions, the xerophytic species of Selaginella roll into brown balls. The
phenomenon is called cespitose habit. In this state, it may be uprooted. The brown balls
become green and unroll again under moist conditions. Because of this characteristic, these
plants are known as resurrection plants, e.g., S.lepidophylla, S.bryopteris.
9. Selaginella rupestris shows a near approach to seed habit.

Conceptual Questions
1. Salvinia and Selaginella both are genera.
2. In Selaginella, the apical cushion of female gametophyte produces archegonia only.
(True/False)
Ans. (1) Heterosporous, (2) False

GYMNOSPERMS
 The term gymnosperm was used by Theophrastus (300 Be) in his book Enquiry into plants.
 They are popularly called naked seeded vascular plants. Goebel called them as
phanerogams without ovary.
 It is smallest group of plant kingdom.
General characters of gymnosperms:
 Majority of gymnosperms are perennial woody plants forming either shrubs or trees. Ephedra
is a climber. Some of these are very large and live for thousands of years, e.g., Sequoia.
 Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in gymnosperms the male and female gametophytes
do not have an independent free living existence.
 Tap root system is present. Cycas also has special azeotropic N2 fixing coralloid roots having
association with Anabaena cycadae (BGA). Pinus root shows symbiotic relation with
ectomycorrhiza.
 The leaves may be simple (Pinus) or compound (Cycas). These leaves are well adapted to
withstand extremes of temperature, humidity and wind, e.g., Needle leaf of Pinus. Scale leaves
may also be present.
 Stem is woody and branched (Pinus,
Cedrus) or unbranched (Cycas).
 These are heterosporous. There occurs two
types of sporophylls; microsporophylls and
megasporophylls. The two types of
sporophylls are usually aggregated to form
lax or compact cones (strobili) i.e., pollen
cones (male cones) and seed cones (female
cones).
 Microsporophylls do not show distinction
of filament and anther.
 The micros pores develop into a male gametophyte which is highly reduced and is confined to
only a limited number of cells. This reduced male gametophyte is called pollen grain. The
development of pollen grains takes place within the microsporangium.
 Megasporophylls are not rolled like carpels. A distinction of ovary, style and stigma is absent.
 Ovules (integumented. megasporangium) lie exposed on the megasporophyll. Each ovule is
surrounded by a 3-layered single integument (Bitegmic in Gnetum).
 Female gametophyte contains archegonia (Absent in certain members of order Gnetales)
 Pollination is direct as a stigma is absent and the pollen grains directly reach the micropylar
end of ovules. Pollination is usually accomplished by wind (anemophily).
 Male gametophyte produces only two male gametes or sperms. Generally, one of them is
functional.
 External water is not required for transport of male gametes. Instead, a pollen tube is formed
by the male gametophyte for effecting fertilization (siphonogamy).
 Seeds contain a food laden tissue or endosperm for future growth of embryo into seedling.
This tissue represents the female gametophyte, hence haploid.
 Like pteridophytes, xylem does not possess vessels, except in some Gnetales. Phloem is
without companion cells. Albuminous cells perform the function of companion cells. Sieve
tubes are also not formed as the sieve cells are not arranged end to end in rows.
  Vascular tissues are arranged into vascular bundles just like angiosperms.
 Foliage leaves do not have lateral veins. Transfusion tissue (hydrostereom) occurs internally
for lateral transport.
 Wood is soft and homoxylous but members of Gnetales bear vessels in xylem.
 Types of wood :
(i) Manoxylic : Soft wood, vascular tissues with medullary rays, commercially less
important, e.g., Cycas.
(ii) Pycnoxylic : Compact wood without or with narrow medullary rays, commercially
more important, e.g., Pinus.
(iii) Monoxylic : With single persistent cambium ring and bundles, e.g., Pinus
(iv) Polyxylic : With many persistent cambium rings and bundles, e.g., Cycas
Gymnosperms are, therefore, those seed plants in which the ovule remains exposed over the
surface of the megasporophylls both before and after fertilisation.

Concept Builder
1. Smallest gymnosperm = Zamia
Largest gymnosperm = Sequoia
2. The three generations in seed are:
(i) Testa, tegmen and perisperm represent parental sporophyte
(ii) Endosperm represents female gametophyte;
(iii) Plumule, radicle, suspensor and cotyledons (embryo) represent future sporophyte.
3. Polyembryony: It is the formation of more than one embryo inside a single seed. It was
reported by Leeuwenhoek in oranges. Simple polyembryony is due to fertilisation of many
eggs, e.g. Pinus ovule has 2-8 archegonia. Cleavage polyembryony is true polyembryony and
very common. It is due to splitting of embryo tissue. Adventive polyembryony is the formation
of extra embryos directly from diploid cells (e.g., rosette cells) other than embryonal cells.
4. Order Gnetales consists of Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia. These are nearer to flowering
plants in having flower like arrangement of sporophyll and possessing primitive vessels in
xylem so wood is called heteroxylous. Plants of Cycadales and Coniferales are commonly
called Cycads and Conifers respectively.
5. Cycas, Ginkgo and Metasequoia are living fossils.
6. Ginkgo biloba (Pagoda tree or Maiden hair tree) is oldest living fossil and it is connecting link
between cycades and conifers.
7. Largest ovule (found in Cycas revoluta)
8. Largest male cone (in C. circinalis)
9. Largest male gamete (sperm) in Cycas
10. Largest female gamete (egg) in Cycas
11. Independent, free living, photosynthetic gametophyte is not found in gymnosperms and
angiospersm.
 12. Gymnosperms are divided into four orders-Ginkgoales, Gnetales, (e.g. Ephedra, Gnetum,
Welwitschia), Cycadales and Coniferales. Ginkgoales is represented by maiden hair tree
(Ginkgo biloba) where Ginkgo biloba happens to be only living member, rest all are extinct. So
it is also called as living fossil.

Economic Importance
(i) Edible Seeds. Seeds of Pinus gerardiana called chilgoza are edible.
(ii) Timber. Gymnosperms possess soft wood. The same is used in preparation of light furniture ,
plywood, packing cases, match sticks, railways sleepers, etc, e.g., Cedrus deodara.
(iii) Resin. Resin is a semifluid secreted by special resin canals. It solidifies on exposure to air.
Therefore, it plugs the places of injury. It helps in sealing female cones after pollination. Resin
is commercially extracted and distilled to obtain turpentine and resin. Resin is used in water
proofing, sealing joints and preparation of writing paper. Turpentine is used as solvent in
paints, polishes and wax, e.g., Pinus.
(iv) Ephedrine. Drug ephedrine is obtained from Ephedra. The drug is used in curing respiratory
elements including asthma.
(v) Sago. A starchy food sago is obtained from stem of Cycas revoluta which is thus also called as
sago palm.
(vi) Canada balsam. A mounting agent used in preparation of permanent slides is obtained from
Abies balsamaea.
(vii) Cedar wood oil. Useful in microscopy is obtained from Juniperus virginiana.
(viii) Taxol. Anticancerous chemical obtained from Taxus.

Life Cycle of Pinus

 Pinus is a coniferous gymnosperm.
 It is a large tree having pyramidal or excurrent shape like a "Christmas tree". The plant
body is a sporophyte having stem, leaves and roots.
 The main stem is straight. Stem branches are dimorphic i.e., of two types, long and dwarf.
Long shoots show unlimited growth and bear only scale leaves. The dwarf branches possess 1-
5 needle-like foliage leaves which are surrounded at the base by a sheath of scare leaves.
 Pinus has a horizontally spreading tap root system with peg-like downwardly directed roots
present at intervals.
 Finer roots are of two types-normal (with root hairs and root cap) and mycorrhizal. The
mycorrhizal roots occur near the soil surface.
 They are devoid of root hairs and root cap. Mostly Boletus (fungus) forms an ectomycorrhiza
with roots of Pinus.
 The sporophytic plant body does not multiply vegetatively. It is a monoecious tree. It
produces microsporophylls and megasporophylls in two types of cones, male and female.
Male or Pollen Cones
 These are non-woody structures occurring sub-terminally in clusters on lower long branches.
 These cones are homologous to dwarf shoots. Each male cone has a short stalk, a central axis
and a number of spirally arranged microsporophylls.
 A microsporophyll bears two oblong, parallel microsporangia on its lower surface. In a
microsporangium, the diploid microspore mother cells undergo meiosis and form haploid
microspores or pollen grains.
 The pollen grains are released from the male cones at 4 celled stage, having two
prothallial cells, one generative cell and one vegetative cell and dispersed by air currents.
 They form yellow clouds in the pine forests called as 'sulphur shower'. A pollen grain has
two air sacs or wings for making it light, which are formed by its exine.

Pinus: A. a young male cone, B. male cone in radial longitudinal section;

C. microsporophyll ventral view
Female or Seed Cones

Pinus: A. First year female cone, B. Second year female cone,

C. Third year female cone

 These are initially green but become woody and brown at maturity.
 They develop in groups of 2-6 on upper long branches of the tree. These are homologous to
long shoots.
 Each female cone has a long stalk and a central axis on which are borne a number of spirally
arranged paired scales. The lower of the pair is called bract scale while the upper scale is
ovuliferous scale.
 The ovuliferous scale bears two ovules towards the basal region on the upper side.
 Each ovule has a 3-layered integument with a terminal wide, oblique pore or micropyle and
nucellus (= megasporangium). In the middle of nucellus, a megaspore mother cell
differentiates.
 It forms four haploid megaspores by meiosis but only one survives.
 The functional megaspore gives rise to female gametophyte called endosperm.
 The female gametophyte bears 1-8 archegonia. An archegonium has a short neck and a large
venter.
 Neck canal cell is absent. Venter canal cell is ephemeral. The venter contains a large egg or
oosphere.
 Pollination is anemophilous (by air) and direct. The formation of male gametes occur after
pollination.
 The pollen grains pass into the opened micropyle and rest on the tip of nucellus, where they are
caught in the mucilagenous pollination drop oozed out by terminal part of nucellus.
  Here each pollen grain germinates and forms a pollen tube (siphonogamy) but further growth
is stopped due to arrival of winter in the first year.
 Fertilization occurs after 13 months from the time of pollination. In the spring of next year,
fertilization occurs.
 Pollen tube grows and pierces an archegonium.

Pinus : A. L.S. of female cone, B. a megasporophyll, C. a winged seed

 One male gamete or male nucleus fuses with the oosphere to form diploid zygote or oospore.
The oospore forms an embryo while the ovule matures into a seed.
 Part of the upper surface of the ovuliferous scale is peeled off alongwith the seed to form its
wing.
 A female cone takes about 26 months for reaching maturity. It then opens to release winged
seeds which are dispersed by air. After falling on a suitable soil, each seed gives rise to a new
plant.

Concept Builder
(a) Development of embryo is meroblastic in Pinus.
(b) The number of cotyledons in Pinus ranges from 3 -18.
(c) There are 4 tiers in proembryo, namely basal embryo tier, suspensor tier, rosette tier and upper
tier.
(d) Development of sporangium in Pinus is eusporangiate.
(e) Pinus shows polyembryony by three methods -simple, cleavage and adventive.
Self Assessment
Q.46 "Organ sui generis" is also called
(1) Rhizoid (2) Rhizomorph (3) Rhizophore (4) Rhizine
Q.47 Consider the given features
a. Resurrection habit
b. Meroblastic embryo development
c. Endosporic and diploid female gametophyte
d. Precocious germination of spores
Find correct w.r.t. Selaginella
(1) a, b, c (2) a, c, d (3) a, c (4) a, b, d
Endosperm in gymnosperms is
(1) n (2) 2n (3) 3n (4) 4n
Select a correct match
(1) Chilgoza -Pinus gerardiana (2) Canada balsum -Ephedra
(3) Cedar wood oil -Cedrus (4) Taxol -Ginkgo
Q.50 A. Siphonogamy is found in Pinus
B. Stem branches are monomorphic in Pinus
C. Wood is monoxylic and manoxylic in Pinus
(1) A and C are incorrect (2) Only A is correct
(3) Only C is correct (4) A and B are correct
Q.51 How many ovules are present on each megasporophyll of Pinus?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Four (4) Eight or more
Q.52 Mark the odd one (w.r.t. Ginkgo biloba)
(1) Presence of naked seeds (2) Absence of flowers
(3) Presence of heterospory (4) Absence of long shoot
Q.53 Transfusion tissue is found in the leaves of
(1) Gymnosperms (2) Ferns (3) Monocots (4) Dicots
Q.54 Match the Column-I with Column-II
Column I Column II
a. Largest gymnosperm (i) Zamia
b. Pagoda tree (ii) Ephedra
c. Smallest gymnosperm (iii) Ginkgo biloba
d. Ephedrine (iv) Sequoia
(1) a(i), b(iv), c(iii), d(ii) (2) a(iv), b(iii), c(i) , d(ii)
(3) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i) (4) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
Q.55 Mark the incorrect option (w.r.t. Gnetales)
(1) Ephedra (2) Ginkgo (3) Welwitschia (4) Gnetum
Ans. Q.46 (3), Q.47 (4), Q.48 (1), Q.49 (1), Q.50 (2), Q.51 (2), Q.52 (4), Q.53 (1), Q.54 (2),
Q.55 (2)
 Salient Features of Cycas (Sago Palm)
 Cycas is called Palm-fern. It bears crown of leaves on unbranched stem called caudex like
palms. It also shows circinate ptyxis and presence of ramenta like ferns.
 Roots are of two types-normal tap root and ageotropic coralloid roots. Latter are formed in
form of coralline masses which bear blue green algae in their cortical cells, e.g., Anabaena, etc.
They help in nitrogen fixation.
 Leaves are of two types-scale and foliage, both arising in whorls. Every year almost one is
added.
 Old leaves fall and leave characteristic leaf scars on the stem. Foliage leaves are leathery and
pinnately compound. Scale leaves are brown, and membranous.
 Stem of Cycas shows manoxylic and polyxylic wood.
 Rachis shows presence of diploxylic vascular bundles arranged in shape of inverted omega
().
 Transfusion tissue replaces lateral veins in the leaves for lateral transport of food.
 Plants are dioecious. Male cones are found but female cones are absent (loose
megasporophylls). Largest egg, sperm and ovule are found in Cycas. Ovules are orthotropous.
 Sperms in Cycas are multiflageliate (= multiciliate). Pollen tube is formed in Cycas, but is
haustorial in nature. Thus, Cycas shows both siphonogamy and zooidogamy.

ANGIOSPERMS (FLOWERING PLANTS OR ANTHOPHYTES)

Angiosperms-Classification up to Class
 After Linnaeus work on classification of plants, the taxonomists realised the necessity of
information on natural history of vegetation and the affinities at various levels of hierarchy.
 George Bentham and J.D. Hooker gave most important natural system of classification of
angiosperms and published it in three volumes of Genera Plantarum.
 They described 202 families. In this system, description of plants was based on detailed studies
and dissections.
 This system is followed in all British Commonwealth countries including India.
 The system being handy, it is preferred and used by the students in practical classes. This
system covered about ninety seven thousand species of seed plants.
 In Bentham and Hooker system of classification, phanerogams were divided into three
classes on the basis of morphological characters, such as leaf arrangement and venation
pattern, number of members in floral whorls like calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium,
number of cotyledons in the seed and seeds with or without cover.
 In this classification, Class is like division, series is like class, cohort is like order and order
is like family.
 An outline of the Bentham and Hooker classification of phanerogamia is given below:
Class 1 : Dicotyledonae
General characters
 Pentamerous flower, reticulate venation in leaves, two cotyledons in seed, open vascular
bundles (with cambium), secondary growth present, wood formation occurs.
 It is divided into 3 sub-classes
Sub-class 1 : Polypetalae -Petals free.
 It includes three series:
Series 1 : Thalamiflorae -Flower hypogynous, stamens and pistils many (indefinite), petals
free, distinct sepals are free from ovary. It has 6 orders, e.g., Ranales, Parietales, Malvales
etc.
Series 2 : Disciflorae -Flower hypogynous, Calyx consists of free or united sepals, Petals free,
a prominent cushion shaped disc is present below ovary. It has 4 orders, e.g., Sapindales,
Geraniales etc.
Series 3 : Calyciflorae -Flower perigynous or epigynous, calyx contains united sepals (rarely
free), ovary inferior. It has 5 orders, e.g., Rosales, Umbellates etc.
Sub-class 2 : Gamopetalae -Petals united or fused.
 It includes 3 series:
Series 1 : Inferae -Flower epigynous, ovary inferior, stamens as many as corolla lobes or
fewer. It has 3 orders, e.g., Asterales, Campanulates etc.
Series 2 : Heteromerae -Ovary usually superior, carpels more than two. It has 3 orders , e.g.,
Ericales, Primulales, Ebenales.
Series 3 : Bicarpellatae -Ovary usually superior, two carpels (rarely one or three) . It has 4
orders, e.g., Lamiales, Polemoniales etc.
Sub-class 3 : Monochlamydeae -Flower incomplete, no distinction between calyx and corolla, pe-
rianth present which is usually sepaloid and may be absent.
• It includes 8 series:
Series 1 : Curvembryeae -Embryo curved, generally one ovule.
Series 2 : Multiovulatae Aquaticae -Plants are aquatic, submerged herbs, syncarpous ovary.
Series 3 : Multiovulatae Terrestres -Plants are terrestrial, syncarpous ovary.
Series 4 : Microembryae -Very minute or small embryo.
Series 5 : Daphnales -Ovary with one carpel and one ovule.
Series 6 : Achlamydosporeae -Ovary unilocular with one to three ovules. Ovary inferior.
Series 7 : Unisexuales -Flower unisexual.
Series 8 : Ordines Anomali -Families having plants with anomalous (abnormal) characters.

Class 2 : Gymnospermae
Sex organs are cones, perianth absent, ovule naked (not found inside ovary), seeds are also
naked, haploid endosperm.
It has three families -Gnetaceae, Coniferae and Cycadaceae.
Class 3 : Monocotyledonae
Parallel venation in leaves, embryo with one cotyledon, flower usually trimerous, wood absent,
no secondary growth.
 It include 7 series:
Series 1 : Microspermae -Ovary inferior, seed minute.
Series 2 : Epigynae -Ovary inferior, seeds larger.
Series 3 : Coronarieae -Ovary superior, perianth coloured.
Series 4 : Calycineae -Ovary superior, perianth green.
Series 5 : Nudiflorae -Perianth absent, ovary superior.
Series 6 : Apocarpae -Carpels free (apocarpous).
Series 7 : Glumaceae -Flowers arranged in spikelets with bracts, perianth reduced, bracts
large and scaly.
Merits of Bentham and Hooker's System
1. It is useful for practical value.
2. Ranales have been given the most primitive position among dicots.
3. Glumaceae is considered most advanced among monocots.
Demerits of Bentham and Hooker's System.
1. Gymnosperms were placed between dicots and monocots.
2. Many important floral characters have been neglected.
3. It is not a phylogenetic system and believes in the fixity of species.
4. Some closely related families were separated and placed under different cohorts (order) and
unrelated families have been put nearer.
5. Advanced family like Orchidaceae (Microspermae) have been considered as primitive.

 Angiosperms are those seed plants in which ovules and seeds are covered (inside fruits) and
the sporophylls are organised into flowers. These are found in almost all the possible habitats.
Tillandsia (Spanish moss) is an epiphytic angiosperm.
General characters
 Flowering plants or angiosperms are the most recent and highly evolved plants.
 Sporophylls are aggregated in flowers. It is their most striking feature. Therefore, angiosperms
are also called flowering plants.
 Stamen (male sex organ) consists of a filament and an anther. Carpel (female sex organ) is
rolled and partly sterilised to produce a stigma, style and ovary, containing ovules.
 Pollination occurs through several agencies, but most prominent amongst them is by animals,
especially insects.
 Pollen grains or microspores reach stigmatic surface found at the tip of carpel or
megasporophyll (indirect pollination).
 Female gametophyte or embryo sac is highly reduced and generally develops upto 8-nucleate
stage prior to fertilization.
 Archegonia are absent. Instead, there is one egg surrounded by two specialised synergid cells
that attract the pollen tube. The latter brings two naked non-flagellate male gametes.
 There occurs double fertilization . One produces zygote, hence embryo. The other forms
primary endosperm cell.
 Endosperm is formed through triple fusion and is generally triploid.
 Fertilized ovules ripen into seeds. The seeds are covered by ovary wall. A fruit is technically a
ripened ovary. Fruits not only protect the seeds but also help in their dispersal.
 Xylem contains vessels.
 Phloem possesses sieve tubes and companion cells.
 Angiosperms are divided into two sub-groups-dicotyledons and monocotyledons, mainly on
the basis of number of embryonic leaves or cotyledons. The two are commonly called as dicots
and monocots.

Differences between dicots and monocots

Dicots Monocots
1. Seeds usually have two cotyledons. 1. The seeds contain one cotyledon.
2. Flowers are generally pentamerous or 2. Flowers are usually trimerous (floral parts
tetramerous (floral parts in sets of 5 and 4 in sets of three or its multiples).
or their multiples).
3. Leaves are net-veined with reticulate 3. The leaves possess parallel venation with a
venation with a few exceptions. few exceptions.
4. Primary root often long lived, forming tap 4. Primary root is short-lived. Instead
root system. Adventitious roots occur in adventitious roots are found.
some cases.
5. Vascular bundles of the stem are arranged 5. Vascular bundles are found scattered.
in a ring.
6. Vascular bundles of the stem possess 6. Cambium is absent (vascular bundle
cambium (vascular bundles open), so that closed).
secondary growth is possible.
 Differences between various plant groups having embryo
Features Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Dominant phase Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
Ploidy of main Haploid Diploid Diploid Diploid
plant body
Differentiation of Thallus of foliose Root, stem and Root, stem and Root, stem and
body structures and leaves leaves leaves
rhizoids
Vascular bundles Absent Present Present Present
Nature of spores Homospores Homospores and Heterospores Heterospores
Heterospores
Seed and its Seed absent Seed absent Seed naked Seed with
coverings (without covering) covering
Flower an fruit Absent Absent Absent Present

Plant Life Cycles and Alternation of Generations

 Life cycle of a plant is called alternation of generations in plants, both haploid and diploid
cells can divide by mitosis.
 This ability leads to the formation of different plant bodies -haploid gamete producing plant
(gametophyte) and diploid spore producing plant (sporophyte).
 The haploid plant body produce, gametes by mitosis. Following fertilization, the zygote may
divide by mitosis to produce sporophyte or may divide by meiosis to produce haploid spores.
 Haploid spores in turn divide mitotically to produce gametophyte. Thus, during the life cycle
of a sexually reproducing plant there occurs an alternation of generations between the haploid
and diploid phases. Syngamy and meiosis seems to be instrumental for this event.
 There are three chief patterns of life cycle.
They fundamentally differ in the duration of
the haploid and diploid phases. These are:
(i) Haplontic : It is characterized by the dominance
of haplophase. The plant body is gametophyte
and independent. The sporophyte is dependent
on gametophyte, and is not a free living body.
The major part of life is dominated by
gametophyte, e.g., majority of green algae viz.
Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix, Spirogyra etc.
(ii) Diplo-haplontic or Haplo diplontic: It is
characterized by the existence of both
sporophyte as well as gametophyte. Both of
 them are photosynthetic multicelled bodies and often free living with two nearly equal phases
-the diplophase and haplophase. If sporophytes and gametophytes are morphologically
different then the life cycle is termed as Diplo-haplontic-heteromorphic, e.g., all pteridophytes;
all bryophytes some brown algae viz., Laminaria and other Kelps. If the two phases are
morphologically identical, then life cycle is termed as Diplo-haplonticisomorphic, e.g., green
algae viz., Ulva and Cladophora; brown algae, such as Ectocarpus.

(iii) Diplontic : It is characterized by the dominance of diplophase. The plant body is sporophyte
which is independent and free, living. The gametophytes are extremely reduced and are
dependent physically as well as nutritionally on the sporophyte. The major part of the life is
enjoyed by the sporophyte, e.g., all gymnosperms and angiosperms; Diatoms; some brown
algae, viz., Fucus and Sargassum.

Conceptual Questions
1. Fucus and Sargassum show life cycle pattern.
2. Both pollen grains and seeds are winged in Cycas (True/False).
3. Polyxylic and manoxylic wood is present in Cycas (True/False).
4. Endosperm is triploid, nutritive tissue in .
Ans. 1. Diplontic, 2. Flase, 3. True, 4. Angiosperms
Self Assessment
Q.56 Features like coralloid root and circinate ptyxis are present in
(1) Pinus (2) Cycas (3) Ginkgo (4) Cedrus
Q.57 Independent free living, photosynthetic gametophyte is not found in
(1) Funaria (2) Marchantia (3) Cycas (4) Riccia
Q.58 Female gametophyte in angiosperms is called
(1) Endosperm (2) Carpel (3) Ovule (4) Embryo sac
Q.59 Find odd one out w.r.t. haplontic life cycle
(1) Ectocarpus (2) Ulothrix (3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomonas
Q.60 Select correct w.r.t. diplohaplontic life cycle
(1) Found in Polysiphonia and Gnetum
(2) Both gametophyte and sporophyte phases are present
(3) Common in green algae
(4) Gametic meiosis occurs

Ans. Q.56 (2), Q.57 (3), Q.58 (4), Q.59 (1), Q.60 (2)
 SYMMARY
1. Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
2. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic organisms.
3. Depending on the type of pigment possessed and the type of stored food, algae are classified
into three classes, namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
4. Algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by formation of different
types of spores and sexually by formation of gametes which may show isogamy, anisogamy or
oogamy.
5. Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual
reproduction. Their plant body is more differentiated than that of algae. It is thallus-like and
prostrate or erect and attached to the substratum by rhizoids. They possess root-like, leaflike
and stem-like structures.
6. The bryophytes are divided into liverworts, hornworts and mosses.
7. The plant body of liverworts is thalloid and dorsiventral whereas mosses have upright, slender
axis bearing spirally arranged leaves.
8. The main plant body of a bryophyte is gamete-producing and is called a gametophyte. It bears
the male sex organs called antheridia and female sex organs called archegonia. The male and
female gametes fuse to form zygote which produces a multicellular body called sporophyte. It
produces haploid spores. The spores germinate to form gametophytes.
9. In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem and
leaves. These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
10. The sporophytes in pteridophytes bear sporangia which produce spores. The spores germinate
to form gametophytes which require cool, damp places to grow.
11. The gametophytes in pteridophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and
archegonia, respectively.
12. Water is required for transfer of male gametes to archegonium in both bryophytes and
pteridophytes where zygote is formed after fertilisation. The zygote produces a sporophyte by
dividing mitotically.
13. The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall. After
fertilization the seeds remain exposed and therefore these plants are called naked-seeded
plants.
14. The gymnosperms produce microspores and megaspores which are produced in
microsporangia and megasporangia borne on the sporophylls.
15. The sporophylls-microsporophylls and megasporophylls-are arranged spirally on axis to form
male and female cones, respectively.
16. The pollen grain germinates and pollen tube releases the male gamete into the ovule, where it
fuses with the egg cell in archegonia. Following fertilisation, the zygote develops into embryo
and the ovules into seeds.
17. In angiosperms, the male sex organs (stamen) and female sex organs (pistil) are born in a
flower. Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther. The anther produces pollen grains
(male gametophyte) after meiosis. The pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one to many
ovules.
18. Within the ovule is the female gametophyte or embryo sac which contains the egg cell. The
pollen tube enters the embryo-sac where two male gametes are discharged. One male gamete
fuses with egg cell (syngamy) and other fuses with diploid secondary nucleus (triple fusion).
This phenomenon of two fusions is called double fertilisation and is unique to angiosperms.
19. The angiosperms are divided into two classes-the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons.
20. During the life cycle of any sexually reproducing plant, there is alternation of generations
between gamete producing haploid gametophyte and spore producing diploid sporophyte.
However, different plant groups as well as individuals may show different patterns of life cycle
haplontic, diplontic or intermediate, i.e., haplodiplontic or diplohaplontic.
 EXERCISE – 1
Section – A
Details of sexual system of classification were published in
(1) Historia Plantarum (2) Historia Naturalis
(3) Historia Generalis Plantarum (4) Genera Plantarum
Huxley is considered to be the founder of
(1) Classical systematics (2) New systematics
(3) Phylogenetic system of classification (4) Artificial system of classification
Term alpha-taxonomy was introduced by
(1) John Ray (2) Hutchinson (3) Bassey (4) Turril
Sexual system of classification is
(1) Artificial system (2) Based on stamens characters
(3) Based on corolla and carpels characters (4) Both (1) & (2)
The Linnaeus system of classification contains
(1) 4 classes of plants (2) 8 classes of plants
(3) 16 classes of plants (4) 24 classes of plants
Classification based on several characters is
(1) Natural (2) Artificial (3) Classical (4) Phylogenetic
The natural system of classification was proposed by
(1) Engler & Prantl (2) Bentham & Hooker
(3) Carolus Linnaeus (4) Julian Huxley
In Bentham and Hooker's system the term cohort have been used. It is same as which rank in
today's classification?
(1) Class (2) Family (3) Order (4) Sub-family
Which one of the following classification is best suited for identification of seed plants?
(1) Bentham and Hooker's classification (2) Engler and Prantl's classification
(3) Hutchinson's classification (4) Takhtajan's classification
Which is most advanced among the following?
(1) Cycadaceae (2) Gnetaceae (3) Coniferae (4) Cryptogamae
Which is not true about the series Heteromerae in Bentham and Hooker's system?
(1) Always bicarpellary condition (2) Ovary usually superior
(3) Stamens are as many as corolla lobe (4) It includes 3 cohorts
Who is not associated with the artificial system of classification?
(1) Pliny (2) Theophrastus (3) Hutchinson (4) Linnaeus
Evolutionary history of an organism is known as
(1) Phylogeny (2) Ontogeny (3) Phycology (4) Mycology
Angiosperms (Dicotyledons) were distinguished into archichlamydeae and metachlamydeae by
(1) Candolle (2) Cronquist (3) Hutchinson (4) Engler and Prantl
 "Taxonomy without phylogeny may be likened to bones without flesh" is a statement
supported by
(1) Oswald Tippo (2) Bentham and Hooker
(3) Takhtajan (4) John Hutchinson
Select the cladistic system of classification in which dicots are primitive than monocots
(1) Horizontal system (2) Hutchinson system
(3) Bentham and Hooker's system (4) Engler and Prantl 's system
Seedless tracheophytes are
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta (3) Gymnosperms (4) Angiosperms
Algae were grouped into kingdoms according to Whittaker.
(1) Two (2) Three (3) One (4) Four
Heterotrichous nature of thallus is found in
(1) Funaria (2) Fritschiella and Ectocarpus
(3) Stigeoclonium and Coleochaete (4) All of these
Thick walled perennating sexual spore is
(1) Zygote (2) Zoospore (3) Hypnospore (4) Zygospore
Gulf weed belongs to the class
(1) Chlorophyceae (2) Dinophyceae (3) Phaeophyceae (4) Rhodophyceae
The thallus organisation of Volvox is
(1) Multicellular and coccoid (2) Colonial and nonflagellate
(3) Unicellular (4) Colonial and motile
Hydroxyproline nature of cell wall is found in
(1) Chlamydomonas (2) Ulothrix (3) Spirogyra (4) Chlorella
Gametophytic plant body is nonvascular in
(1) Algae and liverworts (2) Mosses and ferns
(3) Gymnosperms and angiosperms (4) All of these
Brown algae are quite common in
(1) Fresh water habitats (2) Tropical sea water
(3) Temperate sea water (4) Both (2) & (3)
Chloroplast with many pyrenoids is the feature of
(1) Chlamydomonas (2) Sargassum (3) Batrachospermum (4) Spirogyra
Number of species of marine algae used as food is
(1) 20 (2) 70 (3) 50 (4) 120
Red snow is caused by
(1) Zoospores of Chlamydomonas nivalis
(2) Hypnospores of Chlamydomonas brauni
(3) Aplanospores of Chlamydomonas media
(4) Hypnospores of Chlamydomonas nivalis
 Thallus is flattened, leaf like and anchors to the rocks with the help of holdfast in
(1) Laminaria (2) Polysiphonia (3) Batrachospermum (4) Ectocarpus
Algin is a phycocolloid, obtained from the cell wall of
(1) Macrocystis and Porphyridium (2) Mastigocladus and Laminaria
(3) Microcystis and Nereocystis (4) Macrocystis and Fucus
Which of the given is a parasitic algae?
(1) Porphyra (2) Sargassum (3) Laminaria (4) Cephaleuros
An edible red algae is
(1) Fucus (2) Sargassum (3) Acetabularia (4) Porphyra
A floating brown algae that covers thousands of hectares of sea in Atlantic ocean is
(1) Fucus (2) Nereocystis (3) Sargassum (4) Dictyota
Motile, flagellated asexual spore is
(1) Zygote (2) Zygospore (3) Aplanospore (4) Zoospore
Laminarin starch is a reserve product and is a characteristic of
(1) Green algae (2) Blue green algae (3) Red algae (4) Brown algae
Which of the following is a red alga that is not red?
(1) Nemalion (2) Polysiphonia (3) Gelidium (4) Batrachospermum
The colour of brown algae is due to
(1) Carotene (2) Fucoxanthin (3) Phycoerythrin (4) Phycocyanin
Irish moss belongs to
(1) Mosses (2) Bryophytes (3) Red algae (4) Lichens
Which of the following are useful for curing goitre?
(1) Sea kelps (2) Diatoms (3) Red algae (4) Porphyra
Of all algae, the property of nitrogen fixation is restricted to the members of
(1) Cyanophyta (2) Chlorophyta (3) Rhodophyta (4) Phaeophyta
Find the site of meiosis in green algae
(1) Gametangia (2) Zygote (3) Sporangia (4) Zygospore
Non-motile gametes are characteristically found in
(1) Cyanophyta (2) Rhodophyta (3) Phaeophyta (4) Chlorophyta
Non-vascular archegoniates are
(1) Thallophyta (2) Pteridophyta (3) Bryophyta (4) Gymnosperms
Protonema represents photosynthetic, filamentous, juvenile gametophyte of
(1) Irish moss (2) Club moss (3) Cord moss (4) Spanish moss
What is the chromosomes number in calyptra, perichaelial cells, columella and protonema if
endothecium cell contains 20 chromosomes?
(1) 10, 10, 20 and 10 respectively (2) 10, 20, 20 and 10 respectively
(3) 20, 10, 20 and 10 respectively (4) 10, 10, 20 and 0 respectively
Find the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Cord moss (i) Rhizophore
b. Spike moss (ii) Agar
e. Irish moss (iii) Peristome
d. Ceylon moss (iv) Carrageenin
(1) a(i), b(ii), e(iii), d(iv) (2) a(iii), b(ii), e(iv), d(i)
(3) a(iii), b(i), e(ii), d(iv) (4) a(iii), b(i), e(iv), d(ii)
One of the following is a heterotrophic bryophyte
(1) Cryptothallus (2) Riccia (3) Dawsonia (4) Sphaerocarpus
In Funaria, the number of peristome teeth in exostome is
(1) 32 (2) 64 (3) 16 (4) 8
Rhizoids of mosses are
(1) Unicellular and pigmented (2) Multicellular and pigmented
(3) Unicellular and nonpigmented (4) Multicellular and nonpigmented
In Funaria, calyptra is derived from
(1) Antheridium (2) Columella (3) Capsule (4) Archegonium
Which of the following is not connected with spore dispersal in Funaria?
(1) Seta (2) Peristome (3) Annulus (4) Foot
Chloroplasts are present in the spores of
(1) Rhizopus (2) Funaria (3) Yeast (4) Dryopteris
Conducting tissue is not found in
(1) Mosses (2) Liverworts (3) Cycas (4) Ferns
Non-vascular embryophyte with leaves is
(1) Riccia (2) Porella (3) Selaginella (4) Macrocystis
The hygroscopic structures in moss capsule is/are
(1) Stomium cells (2) Annulus (3) Operculum (4) Peristome teeth
Mitospores are totally absent in life cycle of
(1) Chlorophyceae (2) Phaeophyceae (3) Fungi (4) Bryophytes
Which is a member of bryopsida?
(1) Maiden hair moss (2) Irish moss (3) Reindeer moss (4) All of these
Which group of plantae represents gametophytic plant body with dependent sporophyte?
(1) Algae and bryophytes (2) Bryophytes and pteridophytes
(3) Liverworts and mosses (4) Ferns and cycades
Life cycle of cord moss is
(1) Haplontic (2) Haplodiplontic (3) Diplontic (4) Haplohaplontic
Heterosporous pteridophyte with eusporangiate type of sporangium is
(1) Pteris and Adiantum (2) Isoetes and Selaginella
(3) Dryopteris and Azolla (4) Marsilea and Pteris
Pteridophytes are divided into classes.
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) Six
Rootless pteridophytes with rhizoides are included into
(1) Sphenopsida (2) Psilopsida (3) Pteropsida (4) Lycopsida
The dominant photosynthetic phase in the life cycle of pteridophyta is equivalent to the
(1) Gametophytic phase of bryophyta
(2) Sporophytic phase of bryophyta
(3) Gametophytic phase of pteridophytes
(4) Gametophytic phase of gymnosperm
In Pteridophytes, reduction division occurs when
(1) Prothallus is formed (2) Sex organs are formed
(3) Spores are formed (4) Gametes are formed
Fern sperms (antherozoids) are
(1) Multiflagellated (2) Uniflagellated (3) Biflagellated (4) Non flagellated
When the gametophyte development occurs within spore it is known as
(1) Exosporic (2) Endosporic (3) Episporic (4) None of these
In Selaginella life cycle, generative tissue of female gametophyte makes
(1) Androgonial cells (2) Prothallial cell (3) Diaphragm (4) Archegonia
In the fern rhizome, the meristele is
(1) Amphicribal (2) Collateral (3) Conjoint (4) Radial
Venation in fern leaves is
(1) Unicostate (2) Reticulate (3) Furcate (4) Parallel
If the number of chromosome in the foot of an embryo is 8, what should be the number in its
spore?
(1) 4 (2) 8 (3) 16 (4) 23
Select the type of stele without pith
(1) Solenostele (2) Siphonostele (3) Protostele (4) Dictyostele
Spore having their wall modified to elater is characteristic of
(1) Lycopodium (2) Equisetum (3) Adiantum (4) Marchantia
In the archegonium of Dryopteris, the number of neck canal cells is/are
(1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 6-10
Vascular cryptogames are
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta (3) Gymnosperm (4) Angiosperm
Maiden hair fern is
(1) Adiantum (2) Dryopteris (3) Cyathea (4) Alsophila
Which group of plantae represents smallest group with perennial plants only?
(1) Pteridophyta (2) Angiosperms (3) Bryophyta (4) Gymnosperms
Monkey's puzzle is a common name for
(1) Araucaria embricata (2) Cycas revoluta
(3) Pinus longifolia (4) Gnetum gnemone
Living fossils of gymnosperms are
(1) Cycas (2) Metasequoia (3) Ginkgo biloba (4) All of these
The ovuliferous scale of Pinus bears ovules
(1) One (2) Three (3) Two (4) Four
Phanerogams without womb are
(1) Angiosperms (2) Bryophytes (3) Ferns (4) Gymnosperms
In gymnosperms, pollination takes place through
(1) Insects (2) Wind (3) Bats (4) Birds
Of the following, the false character with respect to Pinus is
(1) Resin canals in needles (2) Traeheids with bordered pits
(3) Bracts and ovuliferous scales (4) Embryo with two cotyledons
Maiden hair tree is
(1) Ginkgo biloba (2) Gnetum (3) Ephedra (4) Welwitschia
Edible seeds are obtained from
(1) Mangifera indica (2) Pinus gerardiana (3) P. roxburghii (4) Dalbergia sissoo
Diploxylic vascular bundles are found in
(1) Pteris (2) Selaginella (3) Funaria (4) Cycas
Circinate ptyxis is found in
(1) Pteris (2) Dryopteris (3) Cycas (4) All of these
Transfusion tissue replaces the veins in
(1) Cycas (2) Ferns (3) Pinus (4) Pinus and Cycas
Carpels are equivalent to the
(1) Microsporophylls (2) Megasporophylls (3) Megasporangia (4) Embryo sac
A marine angiosperm is
(1) Hydrilla (2) Utricularia (3) Potamogeton (4) Zostera

Section – B
Some characters of algae are given below
a. Floridean starch b. Sulphated phycocolloids in cell wall
c. Alginic acid d. Trumpet hypha
e. Haplodiplontic life cycle f. Isomorphic alternation of generation
g. Fucoxanthin h. Phycoerythrin
i. Zygotic meiosis j. Two anterior flagella
Which of the given set of characters belongs to Laminaria?
(1) a, b, e, f, h (2) c, d, e, g (3) b, c, d, e, f, g, i (4) c, d, e, f, g, i
Anthoceros resembles green algae in all, except
(1) Algal filament like gametophyte that develops after spore germination
(2) Single pyrenoid per cell
(3) Single chloroplast per cell
(4) Presence of starch storing bodies
A. Leptosporangiate development of sporangium is found in all members of pteropsida
B. Selaginella is advance among pteridophytes as it produces seeds
C. Pinus leaves are monomorphic, pinnate compound and have sunken stomata as adaptation
against transpiration
D. Sporic meiosis is characteristic of life cycle in many organisms like Volvox,
Chlamydomonas and Ulothrix
(1) All are incorrect (2) Both B and C are correct
(3) Only B is correct (4) Only D is incorrect
Wood of Pinus is
(1) Soft, nonporous, homoxylous, manoxylic, polyxylic
(2) Hard, nonporous, heteroxylous, polyxylic, manoxylic
(3) Soft, porous, homoxylous, pycnoxylic, monoxylic
(4) Soft, nonporous, homoxylous, pycnoxylic, monoxylic
How many structures listed below are diploid for a typical fern member?
a. Indusium cell b. Stomium cell c. NCC d. Root stock cell
e. Sporophyll cell f. Prothallus cell g. SMC h. Spore
Antherozoid mother cell
(1) Nine (2) Six (3) Five (4) Seven
A. Ranales is considered most advanced among the dicots by Bentham and Hooker.
B. Engler and Prantl system is transition between natural and artificial systems
C. Numerical taxonomy uses all observable characters and employs computers for
establishing correlation between the plants
D. Chemical constituents of the plants can be used to resolve taxonomic problems
(1) All are correct (2) All are incorrect
(3) C and D are correct (4) A, C and D are correct
Identify the labels A, B, C and D in the figure
given below
(1) A - Sporophyte; B – Meiosis;
C - Gametogenesis; D - Endosperm
(2) A - Sporophyte; B – Mitosis;
C - Gametogenesis; D - Zygote
(3) A - Gametophyte; B – Meiosis;
C - Gametogenesis; D -Zygote
(4) A - Sporophyte; B – Meiosis;
C - Gametogenesis; D - Zygote
Find set of features related to Funaria
a. Protonema b. Prothallus
c. Gametophore d. Thallus body
e. 4 NCC f. Haplodiplontic
g. True plant organs in sporophyte h. Fragmentation
(1) b, d, e, g (2) a, d, f, g (3) a, c, f, g, h (4) a, c, f, h
Mark the correct statement for the organism given below in figure.

(1) The structure labelled A is male cone

(2) It is member of sphenopsida
(3) Nodes are hollow while internodes are solid
(4) This is commonly called as stonewort
Which of the given sets are matched correctly?
a. Chondrus - Algin b. Gracilaria - Agar
c. Cycas - Coralloid root d. Pinus - Canada balsum
e. Adiantum - Maiden hair fern f. Lycopodium - Little club moss
g. Cedrus – Independent gametophyle h. Sequoia - Tallest gymnosperm
(1) b, c, e, h (2) a, b, c, e, f (3) b, c, e, g, h (4) b, c, d, e, g, h
Basis of dendrogram is
(1) Phenetics (2) Taximetrics
(3) Numerical taxonomy (4) All of these
The classification of plants and animals on the basis of chromosome number is called
(1) Cytotaxonomy (2) Biochemical systematics
(3) Taxonomy (4) Numerical taxonomy
The sequencing in DNA and chemical nature of proteins have been used as the basis of
classification by
(1) Cytotaxonomist (2) Karyotaxonomist
(3) Chemotaxonomist (4) -taxonomist
The Bentham and Hooker's classification is
(1) Classification of taxa based on actual examination
(2) Artificial system of classification
(3) Phylogenetic system of classification
(4) Based on evolution
Algae with floridean starch as reserve food material is also characterised by
(1) Presence of chlorophyll (2) Stacked thylakoids
(3) Nonsulphated phycocolloids (4) Nonflagellate nature
100 zygospores, alternate with empty cells in Spirogyra are under conjugation and the total
number of daughter filaments formed will be
(1) Scalariform, 400 (3) Lateral, 400
(2) Lateral, 100 (4) Scalariform, 100
The alga Chara is called 'Stonewort' because its plant body is encrusted with
(1) Calcium bicarbonate (2) Calcium carbonate
(3) Calcium chloride (4) Calcium oxalate
In chlorophyceae, the flagella are
(1) Tinsel type (2) Whiplash type
(3) Whiplash and tinsel type (4) Basal tinsel, apical whiplash type
Flagella are of equal length and smooth in Chlamydomonas. This condition can be referred to
as
(1) Isokont and pleuronematic (2) Heterokont and acro nematic
(3) Isokont and acronematic (4) Heterokont and pleuronematic
The female sex organ in red algae is flask shaped and is known as
(1) Trichogyne (2) Carpogonium (3) Spermatium (4) Archegonium
Which one of the following is homosporous with exoscopic embryogeny?
(1) All pteridophytes (2) Bryophytes and gymnosperms
(3) Angiosperms (4) All bryophytes
Algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes resemble with each other in which one of the following
feature?
(1) Gametophytic plant body (2) Dependence on water for fertilisation
(3) Heteromorphic alternation of generation (4) Presence of embryo
Bryorhytes are not characterised by
(1) Sporophyte parasitic over gametophyte (2) Independent gametophyte
(3) Absence of vascular tissues (4) Independent sporophyte
Stomata having pores bounded by a single ring shaped guard cell are found in
(1) Capsule of Funaria (2) Leaf of fern
(3) Pinnule of Cycas (4) All of these
Stems and leaves of bryophytes are
(1) Analogous to vascular plants (2) Homologous to vascular plants
(3) Analogous to algae thallus (4) None of these
In little club moss, embryo develops from the part of zygote and rest is used to form suspensor.
This mode of development is called
(1) Exoscopic (2) Endoscopic (3) Meroblastic (4) Holoblastic
Shedding of male gametophyte in Selaginella occurs at 13-celled stage which consists of
(1) 8 jacket cells, 1 generative cell and 4 androgonial cells
(2) 9 jacket cells and 4 androgonial cells
(3) 12 jacket cells and 1 male gamete
(4) 8 jacket cells, 1 prothalial cell and 4 androgonial cells
Find correct statement for the prothallus of fern
(1) Monoecious, protandrous with multicellular rhizoides
(2) Monoecious, protandrous with unicellular rhizoides
(3) Dioecious, with unicellular rhizoides
(4) Monoecious, protandrous with apical antheredia and basal archegonia on ventral surface
The evolutionary advanced features of Selaginella are
(a) Heterospory
(b) Endosporic development of gametophyte
(c) Reduced gametophyte
(d) Localization of sporangium bearing appendages in strobili
(e) Unisexual gametophytes
(f) Fertilization with the help of water
(1) All are correct (2) All except (f) is correct
(3) All except (e) and (f) are correct (4) All except (c) is correct
The sporangia of eusporangiate ferns
(1) Possess a single layer of wall cells
(2) Produce very few spores
(3) Originate from a group of initial cells
(4) Dehisce at the region of a well defined stomium
Endosperm of gymnosperm is ontogenetically similar to angiospermic
(1) Endosperm (2) Embryo sac (3) Archegonium (4) Megasporangia
Member of plantae having endospermic, perispermic, polycotyledonous and winged seeds is
also related to
(1) Sulphur shower (2) Largest ovule
(3) Double fertilization (4) Placentation
Pollination occurs in Pinus at
(1) 2 celled.stages (2) 3 celled stages (3) 4 celled stages (4) 5 celled stages
Polyxylic and manoxylic wood is present in
(1) Pinus (2) Cycas (3) Ginkgo (4) Gnetum
Which one of the following group acts as connecting link between gymnosperms and
angiosperms?
(1) Ginkgoales (2) Cycadales (3) Coniferales (4) Gnetales
Fruits are not produced in gymnosperms because they are
(1) Without pollination (2) Without fertilization
(3) Seedless plants (4) Without any ovary
Which one constitutes the dominant vegetation in colder regions?
(1) Monocots (2) Dicots (3) Legumes (4) Gymnosperms
 Find the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Cedar wood oil (i) Juniperus virginiana
b. Canada Balsam (ii) Pinus girardiana
e. Chilgoza seeds (iii) Cycas revoluta
d. Sago grains (iv) Cedrus deodara
(v) Abies species
(1) a(i), b(v), e(ii), d(iii) (2) a(i), b(v), e(iii), d(ii)
(3) a(iii), b(v), e(i), d(ii) (4) a(i), b(v) , e(ii), d(iv)
Vessels are present in the xylem of which group of tracheophytes?
(1) Angiosperms (2) Gymnosperms (3) Pteridophytes (4) Both (1) & (2)
Biennials are characterised by
(1) Bearing flowers for two seasons
(2) Forming aerial stem and flowering in second year
(3) Flowering in first year and forming fruits in second year
(4) Forming storage organs in the first year and reproductive organ or flowers in the second
year
Flowering plants are more successful than other members of the plant world because
(1) They are large and have a good vascular tissue system
(2) They carry out variety of pollination mechanism
(3) The protected plant embryo can survive in the period of unfavourable conditions
(4) All of these
Answer Key
Section–A
Q.1 4 Q.2 2 Q.3 4 Q.4 4 Q.5 4 Q.6 1 Q.7 2
Q.8 3 Q.9 1 Q.10 2 Q.11 1 Q.12 3 Q.13 1 Q.14 4
Q.15 3 Q.16 2 Q.17 2 Q.18 2 Q.19 4 Q.20 4 Q.21 3
Q.22 4 Q.23 1 Q.24 4 Q.25 3 Q.26 4 Q.27 2 Q.28 4
Q.29 1 Q.30 4 Q.31 4 Q.32 4 Q.33 3 Q.34 4 Q.35 4
Q.36 4 Q.37 2 Q.38 3 Q.39 1 Q.40 1 Q.41 4 Q.42 2
Q.43 3 Q.44 3 Q.45 1 Q.46 4 Q.47 1 Q.48 3 Q.49 4
Q.50 4 Q.51 4 Q.52 2 Q.53 2 Q.54 2 Q.55 4 Q.56 4
Q.57 1 Q.58 3 Q.59 2 Q.60 2 Q.61 3 Q.62 2 Q.63 1
Q.64 3 Q.65 1 Q.66 2 Q.67 4 Q.68 1 Q.69 3 Q.70 1
Q.71 3 Q.72 2 Q.73 3 Q.74 2 Q.75 1 Q.76 4 Q.77 1
Q.78 4 Q.79 3 Q.80 4 Q.81 2 Q.82 4 Q.83 1 Q.84 2
Q.85 4 Q.86 4 Q.87 4 Q.88 2 Q.89 4
Section–B
Q.1 2 Q.2 1 Q.3 1 Q.4 4 Q.5 3 Q.6 3 Q.7 4
Q.8 4 Q.9 2 Q.10 1 Q.11 4 Q.12 1 Q.13 3 Q.14 1
Q.15 4 Q.16 2 Q.17 2 Q.18 2 Q.19 3 Q.20 2 Q.21 4
Q.22 2 Q.23 4 Q.24 1 Q.25 1 Q.26 3 Q.27 4 Q.28 2
Q.29 2 Q.30 3 Q.31 2 Q.32 1 Q.33 3 Q.34 2 Q.35 4
Q.36 4 Q.37 4 Q.38 1 Q.39 1 Q.40 4 Q.41 4
EXERCISE – 2 Previous Years Questions
Which of the following plants has high water retention capacity and is used to provide
moisture to plants? [BHU 2005]
(1) Sphagnum (2) Botrychilum (3) Marsilea (4) Marchantia
Leptoids and hydroids are the vascular supply of [DPMT 2005]
(1) Hornworts (2) Irish mosses (3) Mosses (4) Pteridophytes
Moss peat is used as a packing material for sending flowers and live plants to distant places
because [AIPMT 2006]
(1) It serve as a disinfectant (2) It is easily available
(3) It is hygroscopic (4) It reduces transpiration
In a moss the sporophyte [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Manufactures food for itself, as well as for the gametophyte
(2) Is partially parasitic on the gametophyte
(3) Prosuces gametes that give rise to the gametophyte
(4) Arises from a spore produced from the gametophyte
Bryophytes are exceptional as [DY Patil Pune 2006]
(1) They produce spores
(2) Their sporophytic stage grows on gametophyte
(3) They do not require water for fertillization
(4) Their gametophyte stage grows on sporophyte
Which of the following is the amphibians of the plant kingdom? [Manipal PMT 2007]
(1) Pteridophyte (2) Bryophyte (3) Cycas (4) All above
Flagellated male gametes are present in all the three of which one of the following sets?
[AIPMT 2007]
(1) Zygnema ; Saprolegnia and Hydrilla (2) Fucus ; Marsilea and calotropis
(3) Riccia ; Dryopteris and Cycas (4) Anthoceros ; Funaria and Spirogyra
Plant classification proposed by C. Linneaeus was artificial because it was based on
[CMC Vellore 2007]
(1) Few morphological characters
(2) Diverse evolutionary tendencion
(3) Adaptive anatomical characters
(4) Physiological traits together with morphological characters
In which of the following, gametes are produced by mitotic division : [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Algae (3) Cymnosperms (4) Angiosperms
Which one of the following is heterosporous? [AIMPT 2008]
(1) Dryopteris (2) Salvinia (3) Adiantum (4) Equisetum
Liverworts, Hornworts and Mosses together constitute : [MGIMS Wardha 2008]
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Lichens and plantae
(3) Bryophyta (4) Bryopsida
Protonemma is a characteristic feature of [ICAR AIEEA 2008]
(1) Fern (2) Marchantia (3) Moss (4) Cycas
Bryophytes resemble algae in the following aspects [KCET 2009]
(1) Filamentous body, pressure of vascular tissues and autotrophic nutrition
(2) Differentiation of plant body into root, stem and autotrophic nutrition
(3) Thallus like plant body, pressure of roots and autotrophic nutrition
(4) Thallus like plant body, lack of vascular tissues and autotrophic nutrition
Sphagnum is commonly used as packing matrial for transshipment of living material due to its
[AMU 2009]
(1) Capacity to hold water (2) Easy availability
(3) Nature as it can grow anywhere (4) All the above
Which of the following plants do not produce seeds? [COMED K UGET 2009]
(1) Ficus and Funaria (2) Fern and Funaria
(3) Chlamydomonas and Ficus (4) Punica and Pinus
Algae which form motile colony is [Orissa Jee 2005]
(1) Volvox (2) Nostoc (3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomonas
Auxospores and hormocysts are formed, respectively, by [AIPMT 2005]
(1) several diatoms and few cyanobacteria (2) several cyanobacteria and several diatoms
(3) some diatoms and several cyanobacteria (4) some cyanobacteria and many diatoms
Agar-agar which is commonly used in micro-biological studies and culture media is obtained
from [BHU 2006]
(1) Gelidium (2) Laminaria (3) Polysiphonia (4) Batrachospremum
Match column-I with column-II and select the correct option [KERLA PMT 2007]
Column-I Column-II
(Type of Chloroplast) (Algae)
(a) Cup shaped 1. Ulothrix
(b) Girdle shaped 2. Oedogonium
(c) Stellate 3. Chlmydomonas
(d) Reticulate 4. Zygnema
(1) a-2, b-4, c-3, d-1 (2) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2 (3) a-2, b-4, c-2, d-1 (4) a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2
If you are asked to classify the various algae into distinct groups, which of the following
characters you should choose? [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Nature of stored food materials in the cell
(2) Structural organization of thallus
(3) Chemical composition of cell wall
(4) Types of pigments present in the cell
All algae have [CMC VELLORE 2005]
(1) chlorophyll 'a' and chlorophyll 'b' (2) chlorophyll 'b' and carotenes
(3) chlorophyll 'a' and carotenes (4) phycobilins and carotenes
The edible green alga rich in protein is [HP PMT 2008]
(1) Porphyra (2) Chlorella (3) Laminaria (4) Chondrus crispus
Pyerenoids are commonly found in [PB. PMT 2005]
(1) red algae (2) green algae (3) brown algae (4) blue green algae
Which pigments is not found in red algae? [CHD. CET 2008]
(1) Chlorophyll a (2) Phycocyanin (3) Chlorophyll b (4) Phycoerythrin
Nutrition of Protista [AFMC 2008]
(1) Phagotrophic (2) saprotrophic (3) autotrophic (4) all above
Laminaria and Fucus belongs to [AMU 2009]
(1) chlorophyceae (2) rhodophyceae (3) paeophyceae (4) cyanophyceae
In which of the following, all listed genera belong to the same class of algae [DPMT 2009]
(1) Chara, Fucus, Polysiphonia (2) Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas
(3) Porphyra, Ectocarpus, Ulothrix (4) Saragassum, Laminaria, Gracillaria
Mannitol is the stored food in [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Fucus (2) Gracillaria (3) Chara (4) Prophyra
Which of relation does a fungus has with alga in lichens? [COMED K UGET 2009]
(1) Epiphytic (2) Parastic (3) Symbiotic (4) Saprophytic
Cycas and Adiantum resemble each other in having : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Motile Sperms (2) Cambium (3) Vessels (4) Seeds
Monascus purpureus is a yeast used commercially in the production of : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) streptokinase for removing clots from the blood vessels.
(2) citric acid
(3) blood cholesterol lowering statins
(4) ethanol
Which one of the following is correctly matched? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Ginger - Sucker (2) Chlamydomonas - Conidia
(3) Yeast - Zoospores (4) Onion – Bulb
The thallus of Volvox is called [AIIMS]
(1) Coenocyte (2) Filament (3) Heterotrichous (4) Coenobium
Triphasic life cycle is found in [AIIMS]
(1) Chondrus (2) Laminaria (3) Polysiphonia (4) Macrocystis
Hornworts are represented by [AIIMS]
(1) Hepaticopsida (2) Bryopsida (3) Anthocerotopsida (4) Psilopsida
Which of the following is not a correct match? [AIIMS]
(1) Cord moss-Funaria (2) Maiden hair fern-Ginkgo
(3) Walking fern-Adiantum (4) Bog moss-Sphagnum
Single filament of Nostoc without mucilage sheath is known as [AIIMS]
(1) Mycelium (2) Colony (3) Trichome (4) Hyphae
A mature ligule is having a prominent basal portion, which is called [AIIMS]
(1 ) Trichocyst (2) Heterocyst (3) Rhizophore (4) Glossopodium
Primitive types of stomata are found in the [AIIMS]
(1) Apophysis of capsule (2) Leaves of moss plants
(3) Axis of the moss plant (4) All of these
Elater mechanism for spore dispersal is exhibited by [AIIMS]
(1 ) Riccia (2) Dryopteris (3) Funaria (4) Marchantia
Find the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Royal fern (i) Adiantum
b. Sun fern (ii) Osmunda
c. Grape fern (iii) Pteridium
d. Walking fern (iv) Botrychium
(1) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i) (2) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
(3) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv) (4) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
Red algae shows resemblance with bryophytes in having [AIIMS]
(1) Flagellation (2) Dependent gametophyte
(3) Nature of male gametes (4) Female gametangia shape
Phycocolloidal substances having haemostatic properties and useful in the treatment of shock;
are obtained from the cell wall of [AIIMS]
(1) Sargassum and Stigeoclonium (2) Macrocystis and Microcystis
(3) Gracilaria and Chara (4) Laminaria and Macrocystis
Which of the following is characteristic of ferns? [Manipal PMT 2005]
(1) Leafy gametophyte (2) Circinate vernation
(3) Mycorrhizal roots (4) Coralloid roots
First vascular plant is [Orissa JEE 2005]
(1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta (3) pteridophyta (4) Spermatophyta
Fronds are [JIPMER 2005]
(1) Leaves of ferns (2) Leaves of Cycas
(3) Moss roots (4) Reproductive structure of ferns
In pteridophytes, phloem is without [Orissa JEE 2005]
(1) Sieve cells (2) Sieve tubes (3) Companion cells (4) Bast fibres
Which of the following is present in association with Azolla? [Maharashtra CET 2005]
(1) Anabaena (2) Nostoc (3) Clostridium (4) Azotobacter
One of the following differentiates pteridophytes from mosses. [BVP Pune 2006]
(1) Prothallus (2) Homosporous spores
(3) Haplontic life cycle (4) All above
In the prothallus of a vascular cryptogam, the antherozoids and egg mature at different times.
As a result [AIPMT 2007]
(1) There is high degree of sterillity (2) One can cinclude that the plant is apomictic
(3) Self fertilization is prevented
(4) There is no change in success rate of fertilization
Which one of the following is a vascular cryptogam? [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Marchantia (2) Cedrus (3) Equisetum (4) Ginkgo
Top-shaped multiciliate male gametes, and the mature seed which bears only one embryo with
two cotyledons, are characteristic features of [AIPMT 2005]
(1) Polypetalous angiosperms (2) Gamopetalous angiosperms
(3) Conifers (4) Cycads
Match items in Column I with those in Column II
Column I Column II
(a) Peritrichous (J) Ginkgo biloba
(b) Living fossil (K) Macrocystis
(c) Rhizophore (L) Escherichia coli
(d) Smallest flowering plant (M) Selaginella
(e) Largest perennial alga (N) Wolffia
(1) a–K, b–J, c–L, d–M, e–N (2) a–N, b–L, c–K, d–N, e–J
(3) a–J, b–K, c–N, d–L, e–K (4) a–L, b–J, c–M, d–N, e–K
Coralloid roots of Cycas has [Maharastra CEI 2005]
(1) Anabaena (2) Nostoc (3) Mycorrhizae (4) Rhizopus
In gymnosperms, the pollen chamber represents [AIPMT 2007]
(1) A cavity in the ovule in which pollen grains are stored after pollination
(2) An opening in the megagametophyte through which the pollen tube approaches the egg
(3) The microsporangium in which pollen grain develops
(4) A cell in the pollen grain in which the sperms are formed
Conifers differ from grasses in the [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Formation of endosperm before fertilization
(2) Production of seeds from ovules
(3) Lack of xylem tracheids
(4) Absence of pollen tubes
In which one of the following, male and female gametophytes do not have free living
independent existence? [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Pteris (2) Funaria (3) Polytrichum (4) Cedrus
In angiosperms double fertillization means [Haryana PMT 2006]
(1) Fusion of egg cell with male gamete (2) Fusion of secondary nucleus with male gamete
(3) Both above (4) None of the above
Male gametes in angiosperms are formed by the division of [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Genarative cell (2) Vegetative cell
(3) Microspore mother cell (4) Microspore
Which one of the following contain xylem vessels? [COMED K UGET 2009]
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta (3) Gymnosperm (4) Angiosperm
Gymnosperms are also called soft wood spermatophytes because they lack :[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Phloem fibres (2) Thick-walled tracheids
(3) Xylem fibres (4) Cambium
Which one of the following is a correct statement? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) In gymnosperms female gametophyte is free-living.
(2) Antheridiophores and archegoniophores are present in pteridophytes.
(3) Origin of seed habit can be traced in pteridophytes.
(4) Pteridophyte gametophyte has a protonemal and leafy stage
 How many organisms in the list given below are autotrophs ? [AIPMT Mains 2012]
Lactobacillus, Nostoc, Chara, Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, Streptomyces, Sacharomyces,
Trypanosoma, Porphyra, Wolfia
(1) Four (2) Five (3) Six (4) Three
Read the following five statements (A - E) and answer as asked next to them.
(A) In Equisetum the female gametophyte is retained on the parent sporophyte.
(B) In Ginkgo male gametophyte is not independent
(C) The sporophyte in Riccia is more developed than that in Polytrichum.
(D) Sexual reproduction in Volvox is isogamous.
(E) The spores of slime molds lack cell walls.
How many of the above statements are correct ? [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) One
Which one of the following pairs is wrongly matched? [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) Ginkgo - Archegonia (2) Salvinia - Prothallus
(3) Viroids - DNA (4) Mustard – Synergids
Besides paddy fields, cyanobacteria are also found inside vegetative part of : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Cycas (2) Equisetum (3) Psilotum (4) Pinus
Isogamous condition with non-flagelated gametes is found in: [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Spirogyra (2) Volvox (3) Fucus (4) Chlamydomonas
Seed coat is not thin, membranous in : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Coconut (2) Groundnut (3) Gram (4) Maize
Which of the following is not correctly matched for the organism and its cell wall degrading
enzyme? [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Plant cells - Cellulase (2) Algae - Methylase
(3) Fungi – Chitinase (4) Bacteria – Lysozyme
Lenticels are involved in : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Gaseous exchange (2) Food transport (3) Photosynthesis (4) Transpiration

ANSWER KEY
Q.1 1 Q.2 3 Q.3 3 Q.4 2 Q.5 2 Q.6 4 Q.7 3
Q.8 1 Q.9 2 Q.10 2 Q.11 3 Q.12 3 Q.13 4 Q.14 1
Q.15 2 Q.16 1 Q.17 3 Q.18 1 Q.19 2 Q.20 4 Q.21 3
Q.22 2 Q.23 2 Q.24 3 Q.25 4 Q.26 3 Q.27 2 Q.28 1
Q.29 3 Q.30 1 Q.31 3 Q.32 4 Q.33 4 Q.34 3 Q.35 3
Q.36 2 Q.37 3 Q.38 4 Q.39 1 Q.40 4 Q.41 2 Q.42 4
Q.43 4 Q.44 2 Q.45 3 Q.46 1 Q.47 3 Q.48 1 Q.49 1
Q.50 1 Q.51 3 Q.52 4 Q.53 4 Q.54 1 Q.55 1 Q.56 1
Q.57 4 Q.58 4 Q.59 1 Q.60 4 Q.61 3 Q.62 3 Q.63 3
Q.64 1 Q.65 3 Q.66 1 Q.67 1 Q.68 1 Q.69 2 Q.70 1
EXERCISE – 3 AIIMS Special Questions
In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason
(R)
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
then mark (1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
A : Thallophytes are non-vascular, non-archegoniate and non-cormophytic plants.
R : Thallophytes lack vascular bundles, archegonia and differentiated plant body.
A : Funaria archegonium has maximum concentration of sucrose at the tip of neck.
R : Male gametes show chemotropic movement
A : Pyrenoids may or may not be surrouflded by a sheath of starch plates in algae.
R : In higher plants, these are replaced by amyloplasts.
A : Seeds are formed by some species of spike moss.
R : All conditions for seed habit are fulfilled by these species of spike moss.
A : Resin duct in coniferales is schizogenous in origin.
R : Resin duct helps to retain water as well as seals the injured areas of plants.
A : Gymnodinium is red tide causing alga.
R : Phycoerythrin is responsible for red colour.
A : Sporophyte in Funaria is semiparasite on gametophyte.
R : Spore forms secondary protonema in Funaria.
A : Red algae contribute in producing coral reefs.
R : Some red algae secrete and deposite calcium carbonate over their walls.
A : True indusium is present as protective covering of sori in Dryopteris.
R : It develops from the margin of leaf.
A : In Pinus ovule nucellus is protected by three layered covering.
R : Three integuments are present in ovule.
A : Trabeculated endoderm is present in Selaginella stem.
R : Here endoderm is present in form of bands.

Answer Key
Q.1 1 Q.2 3 Q.3 2 Q.4 4 Q.5 2 Q.6 1 Q.7 1
Q.8 1 Q.9 3 Q.10 3 Q.11 1