Introdution To Psychology

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: CSS 121
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

CSS 121 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
CSS 121
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Course Developer/Writer Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos
Course Co-ordinator Dr. (Mrs) Inyang Udofot

Lagos
ii

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
5, Dar Es Salaam Street,
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse 11
Abuja, Nigeria.
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria 2008
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-026-3
All Rights Reserved
iii
CONTENTS PAGES
Introduction………………………………………………. 1
What You will Learn in this Course……………………… 1
Course Aims……………………………………………… 2
Course Objectives………………………………………… 3
Working through this Course……………………………. 3-4
Course Materials…………………………………………. 4-5
Study Units……………………………………………….. 5
Presentation Schedule………………………………….… 5
Assignment File………………………………………....... 5
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………….. 5-6
Final Examinations and Grading…………………………. 6
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………. 6
Course Overview…………………………………………. 6
How to Get the Most from this Course…………………… 6-9
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………… 9
Summary ……...…………………………………………. 10
iv
Introduction
Introduction to psychology is a year one, three credit-foundation course.

It is relevant to all students as a core module of their B.Sc and Diploma
in Criminology and Security Studies. It will also be suitable as a one-off
course for anyone who does not intend to complete a National Open
University of Nigeria (NOUN) qualification but wants to learn
Introductory Psychology.
This course will introduce to you ways in which psychological theories

and research can be applied to the many and varied roles performed by
police officers, members of the correctional services, and personnel
from private security companies. Do not worry if you do not have
extensive knowledge of psychology. One of the aims of CSS 103 is to
give you a general background to psychology and to illustrate key areas
in which it can be applied in a practical way to policing and carrying out
duties related to law enforcement.
The course consists of 20 units, which involve definitions of

psychology, approaches to the study of psychology, the nature of
psychology, specialties in psychology, applying psychology to policing,
understanding some important factors r in person perception and
impression formation, understanding and attributing causes : to others’
behaviour, accuracy of judgments, the problem of deception, juvenile
delinquency, behaviour modification and human aggression. The
material has been developed to suit students in Nigeria by virtue of the
fact that it has practical examples from the local environment. The
intention is to make use of local experiences and situations to support
the student's study and to ensure that the content remains current.
This Course guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through the
materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the amount of time
you should spend on each unit of the course in order to complete it
successfully. It also gives you some guidance on your tutor-marked
assignments. Detailed information on tutor-marked assignments is
similarly made available. There are regular tutorial classes that are
linked to the course. You are advised to attend these sessions.
What You will Learn in this Course
The overall aim of CSS 1 03 -Introduction to psychology -is to introduce

specific definitions of psychology and provide approaches to the study
of behaviour, the nature of psychology, specialties in psychology and
how psychologists develop and test their theories. During this course,
you will learn about definitions of intelligence, individual differences in
CSS 121 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
intelligence, explanation of behaviour in relation to genetic influences

and environmental influences, the application of psychology to policing,
what perception is, impression formation, important factors in
perception, and how we can use psychology to modify behaviour.
Psychology is vital to the understanding and prediction of human

behaviour. You will learn what approaches are used to study behaviour
and specialties in psychology. You will also learn how psychologists
develop and test their theories. In addition, you will understand some
important factors in person perception and impression formation.
Correct interpretation of signals from others and the under-standing and
attribution of causes to others’ behaviour, accuracy of judgments
including deviant behaviour are important in today’s world. You will
understand how these can be achieved and how delinquent behaviour
can be modified. You will be given sufficient grounding to understand
human aggression and personality development, which should provide
you with the necessary basis for further study.
Course Aims
This course aims to give you an understanding of the definitions of

psychology, what psychology is, approaches to the study of behaviour,
the objectives of psychology, specialties in psychology and areas that
overlap with other disciplines. You will be taught how psychologists
develop and test their theories and how you can apply psychology to
policing. The factors Influencing deception attempts and factors
influencing the detection of deception would also be understood. These
alms will be achieved by:
1. Introducing you to the definitions of psychology.

2. Explaining to you approaches to the study of behaviour and
objectives of psychology.
3. Outlining the methods and nature of psychology.
4. Describing how psychologists develop and test their theories.
5. Explaining to you behaviour genetic influences.
6. Giving you situations and environmental influences on
behaviour.
7. Describing how psychology can be applied to policing.
8. Explaining what perception is and factors affecting perception.
9. Outlining factors influencing deception attempts and factors
influencing the unit c detection of deception.
10. Explaining delinquency and behaviour modification strategies.
11. Giving you explanation on how human aggression can be
managed.
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Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set out above, the course sets overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read them before
you start working through the unit.
You may want to .refer to them during your study of the unit to check on
your progress. You should always look at the unit objectives after
completing a unit. In this way you can be sure that you have done what
was required of you by the unit.
Set out below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By
meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the
course.
On successful completion of the course you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of psychology.

2. Describe four approaches to the study of psychology.
3. List some concepts in psychology.
4. Identify the specialties in psychology.
5. Discuss how psychologists develop and test their theories
6. Define the concept of intelligence.
7. Explain the basis of individual differences in intelligence.
8. Discuss the situational and environmental influence on
behaviour.
9. Describe how psychology can be applied to policing.
10. Explain what perception is.
11. Describe impression formation.
12. Specify important factors in person perception and impression
formation.
13. Explain the concept of personality trait inferences about what the
person is like.
14. Discuss the causes of behaviour.
15 Explain the concept of accuracy of judgments.
16. Explain the concept of deception.
17. Define the term socialisation.
18. Explain the concept of juvenile delinquency.
19. Discuss behaviour modification.
20. Explain the concept of human aggression.
Working through this Course
To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read
books and other materials provided by the National Open University of
iii
Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains self- assessment exercises, and at

points in the course you are required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course is a final examination.
The course should take you about 17 weeks in total to complete. Next
you will find listed all the components of the course, what you have to
do and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order to
complete the course successfully on time.
Course Materials
Major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. References
4. Presentation schedule
Study Units
The study units in this course are as follows:
Module I
Unit 1 Definitions of Psychology

Unit 2 Approaches to the Study of Psychology
Unit 3 Some Basic Concepts in Psychology
Unit 4 Specialties in Psychology
Unit 5 How Psychologists Develop and Test their Theories
Unit 6 Definitions of Intelligence
Module 2
Unit 1 Individual Differences in Intelligence

Unit 2 Explaining Behaviour-Genetic Influences and
Environmental Influences
Unit 3 Applying Psychology to Policing
Unit 4 Perception: A Basic Process
Unit 5 Impression Formation
Unit 6 Understanding some Important Factors in Person
Perception and Impression Formation
Unit 7 Personality Trait Inferences about what the Person is like
Module 3
Unit 1 Understanding and Attributing causes to others’ Behaviour

Unit 2 Accuracy of Judgments
iv
Unit 3 The Problem of Deception

Unit 4 Socialisation
Unit 5 Juvenile Delinquency
Unit 6 Behaviour Modification
Unit 7 Human Aggression
Presentation schedule
The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you

the important dates for this year for the completion of tutor-marked
assignments and for attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to
submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against
falling behind in your work.
Assignment File
There are three aspects to the assessment of the course. First is a set of
self-exercises, second is a set of tutor -marked assignments, and third is
a written examination.
In tackling the assignments, you are expected to be sincere in attempting

the exercises, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and
techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be
submitted to your tutor against formal deadlines stated in the
presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will make up 50% of your total course mark.
A t the end of the course you will need to sit for a final written
examination of three hours’ duration. This examination will make up the
remaining 50% of your total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You are

encouraged to submit all assignments. Assignment questions for the
units in this course are contained in the assignment file. You will be able
to complete your assignments from the information and materials
contained in your reading, and study units. However, it is desirable in all
degree level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched
more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will
give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding
of the subject.
When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with a
TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form, to your tutor. Make sure that
each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in
v
the presentation schedule and assignment file. If, for any reason, you
cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions
will not be granted after the due date unless in exceptional
circumstances.
Final Examinations and Grading
The final examination for CSS 103 will be of three hours’ duration and
it has a value of 50% of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions which reflect the type of self- testing, practice
exercises and tutor-marked problems you have previously encountered.
All areas of the course will be assessed.
Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the
examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to
review your self-tests, tutor- marked assignments and comments on
them before the examination. The final examination covers information
from all parts of the course.
Course Marking Scheme
The following table lays out how the actual course marking is done.
Assessments 50% of course marks

Final examination 50% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
Table 1: Course marking scheme
Course Overview
The next table brings together the units, the number of weeks you
should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them.
How to Get the Most from this Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecturer.
In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the
study units tell you when to read your other materials. Just as a lecturer
might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises
for you to do at appropriate points.
vi
Each of the study unit follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of
learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be
able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use
these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit,
you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives
or not. If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from a reading section or some
other sources. You will be directed when there is the need for it.
Self-tests are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are given at
the end of units. Working through these tests will help you to achieve
the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the assignments and the
examination.
Unit Title of Work Weekly Assessment

Activity (End of Unit)
Course Guide 1
Module 1
1 Definitions of Psychology
2 Approaches to the Study of Assignment 1
Behaviour
3 Some Basic Concepts in 1
Psychology
4 Specialties in Psychology 1
5 How Psychologists Develop and Assignment 2
Test Theories
6 Definitions of Intelligence 1
Module 2
1 Individual Differences in
Intelligence
2 Explaining Behaviour-Genetic 1 Assignment 3
Influences and Environmental
Influences
3 Applying Psychology to Policing
4 Perception: A Basic Process
5 Impression Formation 1 Assignment 4
6 Understanding some Important
Factors in Person Perception and
Impression Formation
7 Personality Trait Inferences about 1
what the Person is like
vii
Module 3
1 Understanding and Attributing 1 Assignment 5
causes to others’ Behaviour
2 Accuracy of Judgments 1
3 The Problem of Deception
4 Socialization 1 Assignment 6
5 Juvenile Delinquency
6 Behaviour Modification 2
7 Human Aggression 2 Assignment 7
Total 14
Table 2: Course organizer
You should do every self-test as you come to it in the study unit. There
will also be numerous examples given in the study units. Work through
these when you come to them too.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your
tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to call and
ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this course guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more

details.
Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the
assignments relate to the units. Important information, e.g. details
of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the semester is
available. You need to gather together all this information in one
place, such as in your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method
you choose to use, you should write in your own dates for
working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late
for him to help you.
4. Turn to unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the table of content at the beginning of each
unit. You will almost always read both the study unit you are
viii
working on and one of the materials for further reading on your

desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit, you will be instructed to read sections from
other sources. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet
the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the
examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.
8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s

objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait until you get it back before starting on the
next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both
on the tutor-marked assignment form and also as written on the
assignment itself. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you
have any questions or problems.
11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are 17 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments. He will also
keep a close watch on your progress or any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must
mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due
ix
date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by
your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion

board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which
you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:
1. You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings.
2. You have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises.
3. You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is your only chance
to have a face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions on
problems encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum
benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending
them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussions actively.
Summary
CSS 103 intends to introduce psychology to you. Upon completing this

course, you will be equipped with basic knowledge of psychology, its
approaches and methods.
You will be able to answer questions like these ones.
1. What is psychology?
2. What are the approaches to the study of behaviour?
3. How many specialties can you identify in psychology?
4. How do psychologists develop and test their theories?
5. What is intelligence?
6. Why are there individual differences in intelligence?
7. How can we explain behaviour-genetic influences and
environmental influences?
8. How can we apply psychology to policing?
9. What are the important factors in person perception and
impression formation?
10. How can we interpret signals from others?
11. How can we understand and attribute causes to others’
behaviour?
12. Why is it difficult to determine accurate judgment?
13. What is the problem of deception?
14. Why is the home important as a socialising agent?
15. What is juvenile delinquency?
16. Why is aggression manifested by human beings?
x
Course Code CSS 103
Course Title Introduction to Psychology
Course Developer/Writer Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

Victoria Island, Lagos
Course Coordinator Dr. (Mrs) Inyang Udofot

Victoria Island, Lagos
xi

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
5, Dar Es Salaam Street,
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse 11
Abuja, Nigeria.
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL:www.nou.edu.ng
Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria 2008
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-026-3
All Rights Reserved
xii
CONTENTS PAGES
Module 1……………………………………………………………. 1
Unit 1 The Concept of Psychology………………………. 1 - 9

Unit 2 Approaches to Psychology ………………………..10 - 18
Unit 3 Some Basic Concepts in Psychology…………… 19 - 27
Unit 4 Specialties in Psychology………………………….28 - 35
Unit 5 How Psychologists Develop and Test their
Theories ……………………………………….......36 - 42
Module 2……………………………………………………….. 43
Unit 1 Definitions of Intelligence……………………… 43 - 50

Unit 2 Individual Differences in Intelligence…………. 51 - 55
Unit 3 Explaining Behaviour-Genetic Influences and
Environmental Influences……………………… 56 - 61
Unit 4 Applying Psychology to Policing………………. 62 - 66
Unit 5 Perception: A Basic Process……………………. 67 - 73
Module 3………………………………………………………. 74
Unit 1 Impression Formation…………………………… 74 - 78

Unit 2 Understanding Some Important Factors in
Person Perception and Impression Formation…… 79 - 85
Unit 3 Personality Trait Inferences about What the
Person is Like……………………………………. 86 - 91
Unit 4 Understanding and Attributing Causes to
Others’ Behaviour……………………………….. 92 - 96
Unit 5 Accuracy of Judgment……………………..…….. 97 -102
Module 4 ……………………………………………….. 103
Unit 1 The Problem of Deception……………………. 103 - 108

Unit 2 Socialization …………………………………. 109 - 116
Unit 3 Juvenile Delinquency ………………………… 117 - 123
Unit 4 Behaviour Modification………………………. 124 - 129
Unit 5 Human Aggression……………………………. 130 - 137
xiii
MODULE 1
Unit 1 The Concept of Psychology

Unit 2 Approaches to Psychology
Unit 3 Some Basic Concepts in Psychology
Unit 4 Specialties in Psychology
Unit 5 How Psychologists Develop and Test their Theories
UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT OF PSYCHOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Descriptions
3.2 Is Psychology more than just Common Sense?
3.3 Definitions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
By now, you should have read through the course guide, which was sent to
you as part of your institutional package furthering course. If you have not,
please ensure that you read the course guide before reading your study
materials as it provides a comprehensive outline of the materials you will
cover on a unit-to-unit basis, starting with the topic you are about to study:
definitions of psychology. The unit guides you through several definitions
of psychology across the ages. Let us look at what you should learn in this
unit, as specified in the unit objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
describe the concept of psychology; and

define the concept of psychology in a specific way.
1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Descriptions
There are various reasons for popular misconceptions e.g (frequent

appearances in the mass media) of statements about what psychologists tell
us. These are often one- sided views exaggerating some opinions held by
only a few psychologists or even by some who are not properly qualified
psychologists. This is because human behaviour can be observed by all and
sundry who attempt to explain occurrences from their own intuition, or
belief. In other branches of science, for example physics and chemistry,
common sense or intuition does not help observers to explain why diatomic
hydrogen behaves differently from a monatomic one, when these are
bombarded by neutrons.
Another explanation of such differential judgments is traceable to the fact

that whereas human behaviour may be a matter of common observation,
scientific facts are only understood after sustained learning. Many writers
also think that the labels, especially labels of definitions and constructs, in
psychology, are derived from the daily usage of many common words
while those used in pure science have separate origins and they are of
restricted use. For example, intelligence is a psychological construct which
implies one thing to a psychologist and another to a layman, and a typical
word thermocouple of pure science means a very special thing to scientists
and students of science but, perhaps nothing to a layman.
Furthermore, many people think psychology is the same as psychoanalysis

and Freudian or neo- Freudian psychology (We will discuss this in the later
units of this course), which psychologists regard as accounting for only a
minor part of the entire body of psychological knowledge. It is also not
uncommon to find ignorant individuals who conceptualise psychologists as
those who can hypnotise others.
Here we will look at some of the descriptions of the concept of psychology.

You will probably have come across the word ‘psychology’ before, and you
may have your own idea of what psychology is all about. Unfortunately
there are a number of misconceptions and misunderstandings as to what
psychology is exactly, and for this reason we will consider why this is so
and then examine some descriptions of this subject area.
2
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
How would you describe psychology? Make a few brief notes before
moving on to the next section.
Now, let us go on with our descriptions of the concept of psychology.
While people have been interested in human behaviour for thousands of

years, psychology has only become a discipline in its own right in the last
100 years. For many years, philosophers puzzled over the nature of the
human mind and people’s motivations. However, philosophers’ accounts
were essentially speculative and they made no attempt to prove whether
their views were correct or incorrect.
Many writers agree that the birth of psychology as we now understand the
concept was in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. At this time, Wilhelm Wundt
founded the first laboratory devoted to experimental psychology. Over the
next 40 years, many universities throughout Europe and the United States
set up their own laboratories. The main belief shared by these early
pioneers was that human psychological processes could be studied
objectively using the same experimental methods developed over the years
by the natural sciences (for examp1e physics and chemistry). The first
recognized book on psychology was written by William James and
published in 1890.
From these early beginnings, psychology expanded quite rapidly and

achieved various important milestones in its history. Many see the writings
of Sigmund Freud as very significant in the development of psychology,
although as you will see later, his work has been criticized for lacking in
sound scientific basis. Psychology today encompasses a wide range of
perspectives and has been applied to a large number of different areas of
human functioning. You will learn about some of these in what follows. I
know you now find our discussion meaningful and interesting. Let us
continue.
Any dictionary and almost all introductory psychology textbooks will

contain a description of the word psychology. Unfortunately, you may find
that there are almost as many different descriptions of the subject area as
there are textbooks. This may not however be as confusing as it might at
first appear as many descriptions will share common elements, or say
basically the same thing in slightly different ways. Why do psychologists
differ in their descriptions?
3
There are at least two reasons why psychologists do not always agree on a
simple common description of psychology.
1. The first is that psychology is a relatively new discipline. Compared

with sciences such as chemistry and physics, psychology is in its
infancy and its theories and methods are still being developed.
2. The second reason is that psychology already covers a diverse range

of subjects, and psychologists working in different areas see
psychology in slightly different ways. Let us cite an example so that
you can have a clear understanding. Educational psychologists will
be mainly concerned with the way in which children learn, and how
to help children who are not doing well at school. By contrast, a
clinical psychologist will deal almost exclusively with people who
are mentally ill or who are experiencing behavioural problems.
It is time for you to try your hand on a question.
State one reason why psychologists disagree on a common description of

psychology.
Let us now continue with our discussion
3.2 Is Psychology more than just ‘Common Sense’?
One reaction that people have when they hear of the results of a
psychological research is that it is all just ‘common sense’. While it is true
that psychologists do sometimes confirm what people may already believe,
their research also allow them to ascertain the conditions under which
certain events do or do not occur. Different people have different views of
how the world works and may presume different things about ‘human
nature’. Sometimes common sense appears to be contradictory. For
example if you were asked to speculate as to why some people enjoy each
other’s company and others do not, you may fall back on the proverb ‘Birds
of the same feathers flock together’. In other words, people with similar
interests, habits, and personalities tend to be attracted to each other.
However you might equally have provided an alternative theory which is
that ‘opposites attract’. Both of these expressions are well known, yet
surely both cannot be true. A psychologist may wish to examine this and
determine whether one is more accurate than the other, or identify the
circumstances under which one is truer than the other.
4
There are many other examples of ‘common sense’ which turn out not
necessary to be true. As you read more about psychology, you will come
across a number of such challenges. For example, some police officers may
believe that they can persuade a reluctant suspect to confess or believe that
only a guilty person would sign a confession. We will see in another unit of
this course that both of these presumptions may not actually be true.
Visit the School of Arts and Social Sciences in the National Open
University of Nigeria’s library. Open any recent book on introductory
psychology at the contents page and note the different subjects that are
covered. If possible, compare it with an introductory psychology book
published more than 20 years ago. Note the differences between the
contents of the two volumes.
Now, clap for yourself for participating in our discussion. Let us continue.
3.3 Definitions
It is not very clear if one would have time to think as Marshall Temple
(1984 11) wanted when she opined. Can you imagine what life would be
like if we had idea at all what effect our behaviour is going to have on
others? What a mad world it would be if a smile were answered by a kick
and angry shout by a friendly greeting.
Efforts at thinking about these questions and hazarding answers for them
have to do with a branch of knowledge known as psychology. Perhaps the
most succinct definition of the concept is that psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour. Many people would insert the world ‘human’ in this
definitions, as the vast majority of psychologists are interested exclusively
in studying human behaviour (Alhassan, 2000).
However, some psychologists study animals other than humans, partly

because such study is interesting in itself and partly because studying
animals allows researchers to carry out experiments and then extend the
results into the human domain. Perhaps the best known example of this is
the work of B.F. Skinner, who carried out many experiments using rats,
pigeons and other animals in order to understand how they respond to their
environment. Many of Skinner’s findings were expanded to cover human
populations and valuable lessons were learnt (Andrew et.at.1993).
5
In some cases, psychologists have used animals such as rats and mice
because such subjects are more easily recruited than humans. It may also be
true that some psychologists are less worried about carrying out potentially
harmful experiments on animals such as rats and mice than they might be
when carrying out the equivalent studies on humans. However, it is
important for you to note that today; psychologists in almost all countries
are governed by rules, meaning they should not harm any animals (human
or otherwise) that are used in experiments.
My dear student, l knows you are getting more interested in our discussion.
That is nice. You are likely to find the next section even more interesting.
Let us go on.
So, psychologists generally study human behaviour and try to understand

why people behave the way they do. They may also gather information
about a subject and by carefully analyzing their information, reach a
conclusion. We will see in unit 2 some of the ways in which psychologists
might go about studying human behaviour.
Now assess yourself on the progress you have made in this course by
answering this question.
State two reasons why some psychologists study animals.
Now take a five minute break. We must continue now.
It is important for you to remember that psychology is the science that

studies behaviour and what goes on in the mind that causes behaviour to
occur. Psychology has to do with the concepts of learning, memory,
perception, motivation and personality traits. All these concepts lead to
behaviour. Behaviour in this context may mean anything that we do such as
thinking, sneezing, laughing, sleeping and even falling in love. Because we
are unable to see the mind, we have to study it through the ways in which it
manifests itself. And so the branch of knowledge which deals with the
study of this mind is psychology. Dennis Child (1977:1) sees behaviour to
include ‘all those aspects of human activity which we can observe’. He
does not however exclude behaviours that are not observable hence he went
further to involve ‘personal experience which can only be studied by asking
individuals to express their feelings and thoughts’ as part of behaviour.
6
Psychology as an ancient discipline was part of philosophy. Orji(1986:2)

submitted that philosophical views would appear relevant because
psychology has to do with the behaviour and to some extent, the nature of
man and how he relates to his environment. Iwuji(1981:63) stated
categorically that ‘psychology cannot explain human behaviour without
some philosophical assumptions about human nature’.
Let us cite an example to ensure you understand our discussion. For

example, for the psychologists, the varieties of human conduct are morally
neither good nor bad. They are simply forms of behaviour to be studied.
But for the philosopher, some forms of behaviour are morally good and
others are bad. Philosophy seeks to discover and to recommend principles
for deciding what actions and qualities are good and why they are so.
Psychology studies such actions or behaviour empirically. This may be why

Child (1977) saw psychology as a discipline with a wide area of interest. It
covers, according to Child, from the scientific study to all kinds of pursuits
including making dogs salivate at the sound of a bell and a study of the
growth of intelligence in human beings.
From our discussion, it is clear that there are many definitions of

psychology. Here is an interesting question for you: Are there common
elements in these definitions? You are eager to know the correct response.
Pay attention to the next section.
While many writers of psychology textbooks give differing definitions of

the subject area, a common thread still runs through these definitions.
Zimbardo (1992) captures the views of many by suggesting that the goals
of psychology are:
1. To objectively describe the behaviour of individuals.

2. To develop an, understanding of the causes and consequences of that
behaviour using explanations which are based upon the best
available evidence and creative imagination?
3. To predict accurately if, when, how and in what form from a given
situation.
4. To demonstrate that it is possible to control a given behavioural
response by making it start, stop, or vary in some predictable way.
Zimbardo also suggests using psychology in ways that can improve the
quality of the lives of individuals and of society in general. it is important
for you to note that part of the problem with offering a simple but an all
embracing definition of psychology is that the concept ‘psychology’
7
includes a number of different approaches. We will discuss in unit 2 of this

course.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt some descriptions of psychology. Psychologists

differ in their descriptions of psychology because psychology is a relatively
new discipline. In addition, psychology already covers a diverse range of
subjects. Given this situation, psychologists working in different areas see
psychology in slightly different ways. You have also learnt some
definitions of psychology. Psychology is mainly concerned with the
systematic (or scientific) study of human behaviour. Such systematic study
allows psychologists to offer explanations for different behaviour and in
some cases to make predictions about future behaviour.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns descriptions and

definitions of psychology from the perspectives of different
psychologists.
2. The unit has served to introduce you to other units in the course.
3. The units that follow shall build upon this introduction to ensure
clarity of concepts and understanding of contents.
6.0TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. State two reasons why psychologists do not always agree on a

common description of psychology
2. From your understanding of our discussion, how would you define
psychology?
8
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Tamaza

Publishing Co., Ltd. Zaria, Nigeria.
Andrew B.C., George R.G. & Paul R.S., (1993). Psychology Foresmane &
Co. Glenview, USA
Child D. (1977). Psychology and the Teacher. Holt Rmehart and Winston,
London.
Iwuji V.B. (1981). ‘What is Learning and what is its Process?’ in Alvan
School of Education Journal. (ASEJ). Vol. 1 and 2, 62 - 71
Orji A.S. (1986). Introduction to Education, Standard Publishing Co. Ltd.

Aba
Temple M.S. (1984). Education Psychology for the Teacher in Africa,

Edward Arnold (Publishers Ltd.), London
Zimbardo P.G. (1992). Psychology and Life. Harper Collins, New York.
Ainsworth P.B. (2001). Psychology and Policing. Chichester: Willey
9
UNIT 2 APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Objectives of Psychology
3.2 The Methods of Psychology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 1, we discussed misconception descriptions and definitions of

psychology. The unit also served to introduce you to other units in this
course. You can now describe and define psychology from your own
understanding. You are about to study another interesting unit: the study of
behaviour. Because psychology is a relatively new discipline, it is still
adopting different approaches to the study of behaviour. This unit guides
you through these approaches. Let us look at what other content you should
learn in this unit as specified in the unit objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
explain some of the approaches to the study of behaviour;

list the objectives of psychology; and
describe some of the methods used by psychologists in their research.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
From our discussion in unit 1, you will remember that part of the problem
with offering a simple but all embracing definition of psychology is that the
term ‘psychology’ includes a number of different approaches. Some of the
main approaches that you will study in this unit include:
10
The Biological Approach: Psychologists operating from this perspective

tend to search for the causes of behaviour in the functioning of the brain
and biochemical processes. It is relevant for you to note that this approach
has become more and more important in recent years as we learn more
about the brain and brain chemistry. Let us cite an example to drive home
this point. A psychologist working from this perspective might for example,
search for abnormalities in the brain chemistry of depressed people. The
psychologists might try to alleviate the symptoms by suggesting techniques
such as administering anti depressant drugs (we will discuss more on this
in HEM 606; Alcohol drugs and HIV/AIDS), thus altering the brains
chemistry.
The Psychodynamic Approach: This approach is linked to the writings

of Sigmund Freud. Freud believes that human behaviour stems from
inherited instincts, biological drive, and attempts to resolve, the competing
demands of personal needs and society’s expectations. According to Freud,
a great deal of an individual’s personality is determined in the first five
years of life, when some of these conflicts are being resolved. You must
also note that Freud laid great emphasis on the role of the unconscious mind
in producing behaviour. In addition a lot of his work involved trying to find
ways of tapping into the unconscious. You need to remember that while
psychologists do not refer to Freud’s writings a great deal today, there are
some areas (for example aggression) where his views may be relevant. We
will discuss more on aggression later in this course.
Our discussion as getting clearer and more understandable. I commend your

active participation. Now, try your hand on this question.
i. We know that psychology is the scientific study of animal and

human behaviour. From our discussion, there is a particular
approach that attempts to find out the cause of behaviour. State in
the space that follows which approach we are referring to.
ii. List one particular area of psychology where Freud’s writing may be
of relevance today.
Well done. Let us continue our discussion.
The Behaviourist Approach: unlike the previous two approaches,

behaviourists are interested not in biological drives or unconscious forces,
but rather they are interested in observable behaviour and the
environmental force which appear to sustain such behaviour. Behavourists
11
such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner would thus spend a great deal of time
studying the behaviour itself and the environmental conditions that appear
to sustain or discourage the behaviour.
You must note that for the behaviourist, any piece of behaviour can be
explained simply by reference to the environmental factors that are present
and which reinforce the behaviour in question. Let us cite an example to
ensure clarity and understanding. A behaviourist called upon to help deal
with a disruptive boy in school may start by examining the problem
behaviour within the classroom. He/She may observe that whenever the
child is disruptive, he receives attention from the teacher, but when he is
well behaved, he is ignored. The behaviourist might suggest that the teacher
starts to ignore the boy when he is being disruptive, and reinforce his good
behaviour instead.
The Cognitive Approach: From this perspective, behaviour is understood

by reference to the ways in which people think. It is primarily concerned
with thinking, the processing of information, perception, memory, problem
solving, and consciousness. As such the cognitive approach sees humans
not as passive organisms shaped entirely by their genes or by the
environment, but rather as thinking, rationalizing individuals who can work
through and solve problems and plan their actions. You must note that the
cognitive approach has gained influence over the last 30 years. You will see
some example of cognitive approach in some units of this course when we
consider the area of perception.
You should be aware that there are other approaches. For example,
humanism is another approach concerned with the individual and his/her
unique qualities, and ecological psychology, which is concerned with the
study of behaviour in its natural environment.
Now, find out the progress you have made in understanding our discussion
by answering the following questions.
i. State in the space below the main interest of behaviourists
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii. Identify the main concern of behaviour from the standpoint of

cognitive approach
12
Well done. Let us continue our discussion.
3.1 Objectives of psychology
The objectives of psychology are many. Of these, the most important are:
1. Understanding human behaviour.
2. Explaining data. This is usually achieved by formulating a theory

that can explain the data.
3. Relying on the scientific method to test the accuracy of their theories

because so many factors are involved in the manifestation of
behaviour. One test of a theory’s accuracy and usefulness is its
ability to predict behaviour and mental processes.
4. Applying knowledge to promote human welfare. Knowledge gained

through psychological research touches almost on every aspect of
our lives, ranging from the way we raise and teach children to the
tests you took to gain admission to the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN); from the advertising of goods and services that we
see on television to the design of ‘tie-and-dye’ (our local textile
print) and from the way nations resolve conflicts.
5. Shaping of human behaviour when necessary. When psychology is

referred to as a ‘new’ science we mean that the methods of studying
psychological problems are new. This is bound to be so since
psychology became a science in the modem sense of the concept, in
the mid nineteenth century. That was when scientific methods were
first applied to psychological problems.
I am sure our discussion is clear and understandable to you. Now, try your
hand on this question.
Identify and write in the space below any three goals of psychology.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13
I am sure you are eager to know how psychologists achieve the objectives
discussed above. We must therefore continue our discussion.
3.2 The Methods of Psychology
The most important methods psychologists use to accomplish their

objectives are:
1. Naturalistic observation: For the most part, psychologists have

learned about behaviour in animal and human subjects from
laboratory studies. However, at times psychologists wan to study
how animals and people behave in their normal environments. To do
this, the method of naturalistic observation is used. You must
remember that this method has two general characteristics.
a. Subjects are observed in their natural environments, and

b. The observer does not attempt to interfere with natural
behaviour of the subjects
It is to be noted that the ethnologists (scientists who study the

behaviour of animals in the wild) use the method of naturalistic
observation. For example, much of what we know about aggressive
behaviour in animals comes from ethological studies. From these
studies, psychologists have learned that groups of animals have
territories and will bend together to fight off any intruders (Krunck,
1966).
The Nobel Prize winning ethnologist Konrad Lorenz (1966), has

also proposed that humans, like animals also band together to defend
their territory and that this is one of the primary causes of human
aggression (we will discuss more on this later). The result of
observation can be realized in various situations and is therefore
useful for control and prediction.
Amongst the disadvantages of observation are that what is observed

may not necessary reveal the true feelings of an individual subject,
and the individual who is observing may have his own biases which
may possibly colour his interpretation of the findings.
2. The Case Study: The case study is an essential part of

understanding and helping people with psychological disorders.
Sigmond Freud, the Austrians, psychologist was probably the first
man to introduce case history as a method of scientific investigation.
14
Case history may be described as mainly a clinical method. Let us

give an example to assist you in gaining a clear understanding. In
order to treat a patient, the psychologist needs to know what sort of
difficulties the patient is experiencing. The psychologist asks the
patient about his/her background in relation to the sickness. The
psychologist then composes a case study describing how the
patient’s difficulties arose, how he/she copes with these difficulties
and what can be done to help the patient.
The major advantage of the case study is that it provides

comprehensive information about the patient that is being studies,
and from various other sources.
In addition, it offers opportunity for cooperation between teacher’s

parents, and other social workers outside the school system.
One of the major problems of the case study is that it often forms the
basis for making sweeping generalizations which derive from data
coming from individuals whose evident may not necessary be
reliable.
3. Surveys: Surveys are questionnaires, conducted in person or

through the mail, that inquire into the ways a group (of people)
thinks or acts. It is important for you to remember that in conducting
surveys, the population or groups of subjects to be surveyed must be
identified. Thereafter, a statistical method must be used to pick a
random but representative sample of that population.
4. Correlational Studies: To see if two variables are associated or

related in some way, psychologists use a statistical technique
devised by Francis Galton known as correlation. Although the
mathematics involved is a little complex, the idea is very simple.
Measure two variables, like height and weight, and see if they are
related. They are correlated when changes in the value of one are
associated with I changes in the value of the other.
5. Experimentation: In psychology, experiments are performed on

animals and humans. You need to remember that an experiment
allows a psychologist to identify causes and effects to the extent that
there will be no ambiguity about what caused what. You must also
note that this is the most reliable of all methods of collecting
information. It is precise and systematic in its approach. However,
you need to remember that the findings of an experimental study
15
usually have 1imited application because of the small number of

people involved.
6. Test: Psychological tests are used to measure all kinds of abilities,

interests, and achievements. Such tests are referred to as test-
batteries.
7. Questionnaires: The questionnaire is a short method for gaining

information on a specific problem in a brief interval of time.
Medinnus and Johnson (1976:21) credited Stanley Hall as the first
psychologist to use questionnaire in child study. Much information
can be gathered by means of a written questionnaire presented to the
subjects. Through this method a very large sample of the subjects
can be covered. Questionnaires are widely used in educational
psychology. In a questionnaire, standard instructions are given to all
subjects and the personal appearance, mood or conduct of the
investigation will not colour the data collected
At this stage, it is important for you to note that there are two types of
questionnaires. They are the structured and the unstructured questionnaires.
They are assigned to elicit information from people either about
themselves, other people or things. Olomolaiye (1986:64) identified two
major parts in any questionnaire:
a. The first seekers .information about the nature and characteristics of

the respondents -their age, sex, social class, education and so on.
This we shall call the descriptive part of the questionnaire.
b. The second part is concerned mainly with measurement. It is the

section of the .questionnaire that provides the relevant information
we want about the topic of our research. Such information relates to
the attitudes, opinions and beliefs of the respondents. We shall call
this the analytic part of the questionnaire.
Time is now ripe for you to clap for yourself for your active participation in
our discussion
That is fine. Let us continue. A structured questionnaire contains the

questions and alternative answers to them. The answers provided for each
should be exhaustive of all possible responses and at the same time
mutually exclusive. You should note that the administration and scoring of
a structured questionnaire is straight forward and the results lend
themselves readily to statistical analysis. You must note also that it has the
16
disadvantage of forcing subjects into choosing one of a number of

preselected alternative answers to questions for which they might feel they
did not have a clear answer, or into choosing an alternative that does not
readily represent their attitude.
Unstructured questionnaire has the advantage of giving the respondents

freedom to reveal their opinions and attitudes. However, they have the
disadvantage that the information they generate is difficult to process and
analysis. Generally, most investigators avoid this type of questionnaire and
prefer to use the structured types. One important point that we must
remember is that we should always pre-test our questionnaire in order to
remove vagueness and misinterpretations before administering them to the
actual sample in question.
You should note also that the sample used for pre-testing should be drawn
from a population similar to the sample that will be drawn as research
subjects. It is only after the questionnaire items have been tested that the
questionnaire can be administered to the subjects.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt some approaches to the study of behaviour,
objectives of psychology and the methods of psychology. You should also
have learned about the different perspectives from which psychologists
approach their subject. Among such approaches are the biological
approach, the psychodynamic approach, the behaviourist approach and the
cognitive approach.
You will have seen that psychologists usually adopt a scientific

methodology in trying to understand the complexities of human behaviour
and go beyond simply falling back on ‘common sense’ explanations. The
most important methods psychologists use to accomplish these objectives
are naturalistic observation, case study, surveys, correlational studies,
experimentation and tests, and questionnaires. The objectives of
psychology are to describe and explain these behaviours and processes to
predict their possible variation, and Sigmund Freud, the Austrian
psychologist was probably the first man to introduce case history as a
method of scientific investigation. Case history may be described as mainly
a clinical method.
17
5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this unit concerns the approaches to the study
of behaviour.
You have also learnt the objectives of psychology and some of the
methods used by psychologists in their research
The unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other units later in
the course
The units that follow shall build upon these concepts.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the four objectives of psychology.

2. What are the important methods that psychologists use to achieve
these objectives?
Krunck, T. (1966). Elements of Psychology. Knopf, New York..
Lorenz, K. (1966). On Aggression. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.
Olomolaiye, F. (1986). Research Methods and Statistics. Fab Aneh,

Nigeria.
18
UNIT 3 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Learning
3.2 Maturation and Learning
3.3 Concept of Growth and Learning
3.4 Principles of Growth and Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 2, we discussed the study of behaviour. The unit also served to

introduce us to other units in this course. You can now explain approaches
to the study of behaviour,
List the objectives of psychology, and describe some of the methods used
by psychologists in their research. You are about to study another
interesting and insightful unit: some basic concepts in psychology. We will
now consider what some concepts mean within the context of psychology.
Let us look at other contents that you will learn in this unit as specified in
the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
explain the concept of learning;

describe the relationship between maturation and learning;
define the concept of growth and development; and
list the principles of growth and development.
19
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Learning
To the layman ‘learning’ has always been a rather simple matter, he sees it
frequently and assumes that he has a clear understanding of its meaning,
that is getting to know something he does not know. As Oxiedine (1968:5)
puts it, that ‘we learn what we are taught is often the attitude of the non-
professional person’. Alhassan (2000) states that although there is little
disagreement among psychologists as to the importance of learning and
pervasiveness of learning in all forms of human activity, there is a marked
difference between the ways they look at learning and the ways the layman
does. Let us cite some examples to ensure you have a clear understanding
of the concept.
Kohler (1925) in his book, The Mentality of Apes explained learning as a

perceptual process with the major emphasis being on the study of
relationships and how people learn to see relationships among various items
of experience. Learning of relationships can be clearly seen in the
phenomenon of insight. Sometimes pupils work for a long time on a
problem or skill with apparently little progress. All of a sudden there will
be a flash of understanding in which the pupil or student sees through the
problem or reform his responses into a more complex habit. This
phenomenon was first widely publicized by this famous psychologist.
Worgang Kohler. He found that apes, when confronted with a different
problem, might act as if they were surveying the situation and would then
go directly to the goal object (banana) by putting two sticks together, or by
piling one box on top of another. It appeared that there had been a sudden
perceptual charge in which these animals saw the relationship of the sticks
or boxes to themselves and the goal in a new way.
I can perceive you are looking comfortable indicating you are finding out
discussion clear and understandable. Fine, we must go on.
Aristotle talked of learning as a association of ideas following the laws of

similarity, contrast, and continuity. He believed that people learn and
remember those things that are alike, that are striking because of their
difference, and that occur together in space and time (Murphy, 1949).
Bugelski (1956:120) on his own parts sees learning as the process of the
formation of relatively permanent neural circuits through the simultaneous
activity of the elements of the circuit to be. Such activity is of the nature of
change in cell structure through growth in such a manner as to facilitate the
20
arousal of the entire circuit when a component element is aroused or

activated.
Lindgren (1961) posts that learning is a central process in understanding

human behaviour. Most aspects of human behaviour, the writer argues, the
learned contrary to the widely held view at the turn of the century that
human behaviour is instinctive in nature. Learning may also be thought of
as a process of problem solving, a way of thinking, creating, and
synthesizing.
Alhassan (1985:1) opines that learning is the totality of the acquisition of

factual information, the mastering of skills and means of aiding further
study (understanding); acquisition of behaviour patterns, the styles of
tacking problems of everyday life and more. Learning is a dynamic process
whereby, through interactive experience, insights or cognitive structures of
life spaces are changed and so become more useful for future guidance.
Gagne (1970:3) attempts a definition of learning which seems to have a

wide appeal when he writes that a learning event take place when the
stimulus situation affects the learner in such a way that his or her
performance changes from a time- before being in that situation to a time
after being in it. The change in performance is what leads to the conclusion
that learning has occurred.
In spite of the above discussion, note that leaning may not be easy to define
adequately. This may be so because we cannot see it directly, but when we'
observe a child’s behaviour, we can conclude that some kind of leaning has
occurred. Let us give an example to drive home this point. When a
preschooler is able to recite the alphabet from A – Z or the numerals which
he could not do before, we can deduce that some learning has taken place.
Another example: When we look at the stages of a child’s development we

can see that he first knows how to eat, then to sit, to crawl about, to stand,
to walk, to run about, and to speak. The child is now capable of doing some
things which he could not do earlier in his life. It may be said that in these
respects, the child has learned because ‘observed changes in behaviour are
evidence of learning’ (Balogun,1981:52). Many psychologists agree that
learning is a general term for relatively lasting or permanent change in
performance or behaviour caused or produced directly by experience. O’
Connon (1963) submits that a study of learning is part of the larger study of
psychology, which may be defined as the scientific study of human
experience and human and animal behaviour.
21
For Mukherjee (1478) learning may be held to be an inference from some

performance of the organism manifesting a change of behaviour venile for
Olaitan (1992), learning refers to a collection of experiences which a person
progressively acquires to be regarded as educated in his/her society. I want
you note what this f description of the concept of learning implies: It
implies that the value of learning is determined primarily by the society.
People learn what the social leaning environment permits them to learn by
way of subjects offered, quality of teachers, quality of the curriculum,
quality of the learning environment, and so on. The writer fi.1rther states
that when the learning the society is capable of offering does not suit its
definition of an educated man, a vacuum is created which has to be bridged
by making learning more meaningful and relevant to the societal perception
of an educated man.
Time is ripe for you to check the progress you have made in understanding
our .discussion.
i. Complete the following psychological statements in the spaces

provided.
- Learning is……………………..change in…………..……………….

- Learning is a c………………………………………..………process.
- Learning is a d…………………………………………….…process.
Well done. You deserve my commendation for your active participation in

our discussion. Let us keep the ball rolling.
3.2 Maturation and Learning
Maturation as a scientific and psychological concept designates that period

of development during which a germ cell becomes mature. It is a process of
ripening and of moving towards the fuller unfolding of potentials of the
organism. Maturation denotes both a change in the physical equipment of
the organism but more importantly it is a change in function and the
capacity to perform through the use of this equipment. Let us cite an
example: When the muscles of a child’s legs grow they can be noticed, but
it is only when maturation takes place that the baby walks with the legs. If
in spite of the growth of the legs the baby cannot stand or walk, then
maturation of the can germ cells of the muscles has not taken place. It is
important for you to remember that psychologists have run experiments
and discovered that in spite of the training, sessions babies are subjected to
22
in order to quicken walking or standing, they do not yield any significant

result when compared with sessions. The muscles wait until maturation
takes place.
The concept of maturation has some indirect relationship with learning.
Learning; by as discussed earlier, means a change in function as a result of
experience and practice. In one sense, both learning and maturation depend
on change of function. However, while maturation is not noticeable and
takes place inside the organism, leaning is entirely based on experience and
practice. You should note that the interesting relationship is that maturation
must take place before any learning can take effect.
The concept of maturation leads to the concept of phsylogenetic function or

prehensile skills sometimes referred to as developmental tasks. Such tasks
include crawling, creeping, walking and so on. Remember that they are
cross cultural and therefore common to all races. More importantly,
remember that training is of little importance if maturation is not ready.
Such tasks as learning to ride a tricycle or bicycle, learning to swim or
make ridges in the farm require maturation and training. So while an
American child of four can ride a bicycle, a child of eight in a remote
African village may not be able to do so. Whereas maturation provides the
raw time table for learning, the culture directs or determines what is learnt.
Here’s a question for you to answer.
Fill in the blanks in the statements below:
Maturation denotes both a in the physical equipment of

the but more importantly it is the in
function and the capacity to through the use of this
equipment. We must continue now.
3.3 Concept of Growth and Development
Modem educationists stress the point that a teacher should not only know
his subject matter but also the child he teaches. The knowledge of the .child
would include knowing the child’s growth patterns’ developments, social
and emotional characteristics. It is a thorough understanding of the growth
and development of the child that would enable the teacher to make his
education more meaningful to the child.
Human body grows in stages and each stage has its dominant characteristics
and uniqueness. Each stage has also its significant problems. Each stage is
23
related to another and not clearly marked out as distinct. No individual

passes from one stage to another on a particular birthday. A stage moves
imperceptibly to the next stage. Some of the stages are very short but some
are long. Psychologists see the study of the child from conception to the
beginning of adolescence as child study while the adolescent psychologists
see adolescence as concerned with the study of the child from the on-setting
of puberty until maturity. Note that an understanding of a stage helps to
throw light on what happens in the next stage. According to Alhassan
(2000), it is good to look at a child as the child he is and the adolescent he
will be. It is also good to look at the adolescent as the adolescent he is and
the child he was.
Let us go on with our discussion.
Generally, when we refer to a child or any human organism as growing, we

mean that such organism is becoming larger or heavier. Physical growth
can be measured in terms of height (meters and centimeters) and in terms of
weight (kilogrammes).
In effect, growth can be either horizontal or vertical. Physical growth
involves stages or epochs. These stages or epochs can be gradual,
continuous but not uniform. They include the pre-natal stage, the infancy
stage, the childhood stage, the adolescence, the adult and the senescence.
The concept of development refers to changes in structure and function.

This means that development includes growth and the ability to see the
organism in the performance of certain functions. Development is the
progress an organism makes towards maturity. It then means that from the
very beginning of life up to old age and death, human beings are subjected
to many internal and external influences. You need to remember that
psychologists usually see development as the process that leads to greater
strength and stability.
It is time to stretch your legs and hands. So, take 5 minutes to do that. Let
us now carry-on with our discussion.
3.4 Principles of Growth and Development
The principles of growth and development are:
1. Development ill an organism is for the most part orderly and

proceeds on the same order for all children. For example, all fetuses
turn their heads before they turn their hands. Every child sits before
24
standing, babbles before talking, is dependent before being

independent.
2. Growth and development are continuous. Growth may be continuous

but not always smooth and gradual. There are spurts in physical
growth and psychological functions. Let us cite some examples:
abrupt or sudden increases in height or development of genital organ
during pre-adolescence, sharp rises in vocabulary during childhood,
sudden improvement in problem solving ability during middle and
later adolescence.
3. There are critical periods for certain organs. If anything interferes

with the development of an organ at that particular time, it results in
permanent deficiency or malfunctioning. For example, certain
organs such as the heart, the kidneys, the eyes, and the fingers have
critical periods. If during their development, any thing happens to
them, if affects these organs permanently. Eric Erikson, a
psychologist (we will discuss more on him) postulates that if a child
of 1 fails to learn to trust people, he may never trust people
throughout his life.
4. The basic personality of any individual is set during the first years of
his life. Well adjusted babies develop this trait often during the first
years of their lives and grow to be well adjusted adults.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt the concept of learning and the relationship
between maturation and learning. You also have learned the concept of
growth and development as well as the principles of growth and
development. You have learnt that the .concept of maturation has some
indirect relationship with learning. Both learning and maturation depend on
change of function.
You will have seen that psychologists usually see development as the
process of greater strength and stability. All aspects of growth are inter-
related. The different aspects of growth such as physical, mental, social and
emotional are inter-related because all these are taking place in one
individual.
25
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the concept of learning,
and the relationship between maturation and learning.
2. You also learnt the concept of growth and development and the
principles of growth and development.
3. The unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other units
later in the course.
4. The units that follow shall build upon this reflective understanding
into the study of basic concepts in psychology to ensure an overall
understanding of contents.
1. Define the concept of learning

2. Describe maturation
3. Distinguish between growth and development
26
Alhassan, A.B. (1985). The Role of Motivation in School Learning.

Seminar Paper, Department of Education, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria.
Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology. Tamaza

Publishing Co. Ltd, Zaria, Nigeria.
Balogun, T.R. (1981). ‘A Systems Approach to Education in Nigeria’ in:

West African Journal of Education, XIL 21-29.
Bugelski, B.R (1956). The Psychology of Learning Holt. New York..
Gagne, R. (1970). The Conditions of Learning. Rinchart & Winston, Holt,

New York..
Kohler, W. (192). Gestalt Psychology Live Right.
Lindgren, H.C. (1961). Educational Psychology in the Classroom, John

Wiley and Sons Inc. London.
Murphy, G. (1949). Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and

Structure. Rinehart and Winston, Holt, New York.
Mukherejee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology K.P. Basu Publishing Co.

Calculta, India.
Olaitan, S.D. (1992). ‘Learning about Learning: A Builder’s Bridge

between Learning, People and Society’. In Ipaye, B. (ed). Education
in Nigeria, Past, Present and Future. Macmillan Nigeria Publishers
Ltd, Lagos.
Oxiedine, P. (1968) Learning Difficulties in children New York.
27
UNIT 4 SPECIALTIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Development Psychology
3.2 Educational Psychology
3.3 Social Psychology
3.4 Physiological Psychology
3.5 Clinical Psychology
3.6 Occupational Health Psychology
3.7 Cardiac Psychology
3.8 Psychology of Law
3.8.1 Community Psychology
3.9 Community Psychology
3.9.1 The Psychology of Eating
3.9.2 Forensic Psychology
3.9.3 Psychology of Politics
3.9.4 Feminist Psychology
3.9.5 Disability and Health Psychology
3.9.6 Philosophical Counseling
3.9.7 Police Psychology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 3, we discussed some basic concepts in psychology. The unit also

served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can now explain
tire concepts of learning, maturation, growth and development. You are
about to study another interesting and practical unit: specialties in
psychology. We will now consider the areas in which psychology can be
applied. Let us look at what other contents you should learn in this unit as
specified in the objective below:
28
2.0 OBJECTIVES
describe some of the main psychological influences on human

behaviour.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Development Psychology
Developmental psychology is a broad field of interest in which the

physical, emotional and intellectual characteristics and development of
youngsters from pre-natal stage onwards are studied. In addition to this are
changes in many other forms of activity, for example, the acquisition of
language or the growth of a sense of morality.
3.2 Educational Psychology
An educational psychologist will use the subject matter of psychology

mainly to help children going through the education system. You should
note also tha1 educational psychology seeks to discover by studying the
mental, physical, social and emotional behaviour of children and adults, the
factors which influence the quality and quantity of learning.
Thus, if a particular child is experiencing difficulty with his/her school

work, or is being disruptive in the classroom, the psychologist may examine
the child to try to establish what might be causing the problem. Let us cite
an example: the teacher may conduct an I.Q. test on the child, or interview
the individual and the parents. Following such an assessment the
psychologist may be able to recommend the best way in which the school
might deal with the individual or meet his/her needs.
The application of psychology in education therefore gives us a means of

appraising children’s similarities and differences when attempting to create
more efficient learning environments for them.
The application of psychology in education also provides us with a means 0

making evaluations of our own strengths and weaknesses as learners and
teachers (Alhassan, 2000).1n the light of our discussion above, educational
psychology could be seen as a fundamental discipline in education,
29
performing functions similar to what the pure sciences (physics, chemistry,

mathematics, biology) do to applied sciences (engineering, architecture,
town planning, estate management and food technology). In fact, Gage and
Berliner (1979) argued that teachers combine insight from educational
psychology with philosophical reasoning.
3.3 Social Psychology
Social psychology is the study of social institutions and their impact on the
behaviour of individuals. It concentrates on the external agencies which
influence man. Social psychologists would be interested in the study of
family, village, and role of the head teacher or effect of family background
on achievement at school.
It is now time for you to check your level of understanding of our

discussion.
i. Would you say developmental psychology is a broad area of

interest?
ii. List any 4 areas that may generate research interest in social
psychology
Well done, let us continue our discussion.
3.4 Physiological Psychology
The domain of the physiological psychology is the examination of the

biological best bases of behaviour with particular reference to the
biochemical reactions underlying memory and learning, and the role of
various portions of the brain in the regulation of such motives as hunger
and thirst, and such basic processes as sleep.
3.5 Clinical Psychology
A clinical psychologist is someone who specialises in the treatment of those

with behavioural problems and mental illness. Such a person will have
received specialized training, usually involving a further three year course
of study. You should note that to clinical psychologists often work within
hospitals or specialist psychiatric facilities and many sometimes are part of
a team comprising psychiatrists, nurses, and so on. Clinical psychiatrists
30
often work to help those with relatively minor behavioural disorders, such
as phobias.
3.6 Occupational Health Psychology
Occupational health psychology focuses on work environment, the

individual, and the work-family interface. It concerns the application
psychology to improve the quality of work life and to protect and promote
the safety, health and well being of workers.
3.7 Cardiac Psychology
This studies the workings of the heart -a cardiac structure of the transport
system in higher animals and the centre of emotions, especially love and the
mind, what a person thinks or feels, conscious thoughts of patients (The
monitor APA, 1998).
3.8 Psychology of Law
Both psychology and law deal generally on human behaviour with

reference to testimony, evidence, influences, crime, truancy, delinquency,
and emotion. Psychology has a great deal to offer any law enforcement
agency -large or small. Law enforcement officers and their management
structure face a considerable variety of problems, many of which can be
addressed by knowledgeable and skillful professional psychologists. It is
important for you to note that whether psychological services can be
effective depends on the degree to which police managers accept that
understanding human behaviour can further the goals and purposes of law
enforcement
3.8.1 Community Psychology
The main thrust of community psychology is in the direction of family-care

programmes and programmes in child guidance and rehabilitation centres.
3.9 Forensic Psychology
This is the branch of psychology that will be of most interest to those

studying this course. It involves mainly the application of psychology to the
area of crime and the legal system. Note that forensic psychology is
applicable in many other areas.
31
Forensic psychology studies psychological damages, forensic examination,

expert testimony in employment -related disputes, doomsday cults, secret
societies and militias: brain washing, madness, criminality, sexual predator
laws, patient estimate of pain, child-custody decision-making, child-sexual
behaviour in relation to abuse variable, treating psychological disturbances
caused by motor accidents, and forensic evaluation of sexual harassment
(The monitor APA, 1998).
Now, take a short break of2 minutes. Let us continue by checking your
progress in understanding our discussion.
i. Given our discussion so far, which of the areas of psychology will

you want to specialize in?
ii. Why do you prefer that specialty?
You deserve commendation for active participation in our discussion. Let

us continue.
3.9.1 Psychology of Politics
It is that body of knowledge which lies somewhere between individual

psychology and political science, just as social psychology and sociology. It
deals with the problems of control of behaviour among groups, with the
study of organizations of people in conflict. It refers also to the ways and
means, the methods and techniques by which politicians particularly
partisan politicians, promise the masses various things, such as paradise,
having all their villages air-conditioned, and so on; when in reality, the
masses, particularly in developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America are always forgotten once such politicians are on the seat of
power.
Such politicians manipulate and exploit the needs and aspirations of the
gullible masses to their advantage. It is important for you to note that the
psychology of politics is practiced in the developed and developing
countries. However in the former, the level of literacy is comparatively high
and the electorate is far more sophisticated.
These factors make the practice of both politics and the psychology of
politics much more demanding. Conversely, in the developing countries the
level of literacy is comparatively low and the citizens are both less
32
sophisticated and more gullible. This makes it easier for politicians in the
developing countries to practice the .psychology of politics on the people.
3.9.2 Feminist Psychology
This branch of psychology is on how widely-held feminist tenets -such as

empowering individuals, valuing diversity, and creating dialogue -can be
integrated across the field of psychology.
3.9.3 Disability and Health Psychology
This studies the interplay between psychological health and medical

conditions, it introduces information on the nature of different types of
disabilities and the ways in which duabi1ity -specific factors such as age of
onset, duration of the disability and how the disability was acquired -all
towards psychological adjustment.
3.9.4 Philosophical Counseling
Unlike the approach of counseling psychology, the approach of

philosophical counseling is more open-ended and reflective- there are no
fixed ideas or goals. The possibilities of cross-fertilization between
philosophy and psychology are wonderful.
It is important for you to know that there are many ways in which
meaningful life changes can occur through education, one form of which is
the discussion of philosophical issues. Gerad Achenbach is believed to be
the first to revive the profession of philosophical counseling when in 1981
he founded a suicide-prevention organization called the Samaritan (Phillips,
1997:12). In his work, Achenbach believed that the counter between the
philosopher and the client was of the paramount importance, and that the
aim was not healing but arriving at a satisfactory self- explanation and
clarification. You must remember that philosophical practice has been a
world-wide movement that is starting to flourish in Germany, the Nether-
lands, the USA, Canada, Britain, France, Israel and South Africa. It is to be
noted that each of these countries now has its own certification
organization.
3.9.5 Police Psychology
We must of course add police psychology, as this is the subject matter of

another unit in this course. In the unit, you will see the extent to which
33
psychology might be useful in the training of police recruits and in

everyday policing.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt branches of psychology. You have therefore
learnt the areas in which psychology can be applied. We can now say that
there is no discipline that has no psychological perspective. For example, as
we discussed earlier, we have developmental psychology, social
psychology, clinical psychology, and psychology of politics among others.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the specialties in

psychology.
2. You also learnt occupational health psychology, psychology of law,
forensic psychology, feminist psychology, and police psychology.
3. The unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other units
later in your course.
4. The units that follow shall build upon this interesting and revealing
unit. In this way, you will gain a better understanding of the
contents.
l. a. Two things that the educational psychologist will do are:

i. ……………………………………………………..…….
ii. …………………………………………………………...
b. The social psychologist will be interested in the study of two areas.

These are:
i. ……………………………………………………...…………
ii. ………………………………………………………………
c. Occupational health psychology concerns the application of

psychology to:
i. …………………………………...……………………………
ii. ……………………………………...…………………………
d. Describe clinical psychology.

e. What is forensic psychology?
34
Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology, Tamaza

Publishing Co. Ltd. Zaria, Nigeria.
Gage, N. L. & Berliner D.C. (1979). Educational Psychology. Rand

McNally College Publishing Co. Ltd. Chicago.
Phillips, C. (1997). An Ancient Practice is being Rejuvenated American

Psychological Association, AP A, 28.11,12.
The Monito1: America Psychological Association, APA (1998), 29, 2, 36,

41.
35
UNIT 5 HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS DEVELOP AND TEST

THEIR THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Awareness of the Problem
3.2 Location of Definition of the Problem
3.3 Collection of Data
3.4 Formation of Hypotheses
3.5 Testing Hypotheses
3.6 Verification of the Hypotheses
3.7 Testing Ideas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 4, we discussed specialties in psychology. The unit also served to

introduce us other units in this course. You can now explain what we call
mental psychology, social psychology, occupational health psychology,
forensic psychology, feminist psychology, and police psychology, amongst
others. You are about to study another it that you will find quite interesting
and very useful: How psychologists develop test their theories. We will
consider the scientific method. Let us look at what other content you should
learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below
2.0 OBJECTIVES
identify the steps involved in the scientific method,

explain how ideas in psychology are tested; and
steps in the scientific method.
36
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Awareness in the Scientific Method
The first stage is that a problem is felt when a man encounters a problem
which puzzles him and he apparently has no answer for.
3.2 Location and Definition of the Problem
The problem, as encountered by man, may be so diffused or overwhelming

that he cannot specify it. He then tries to find specifically what his problem
is. Let us cite an example to enhance your level of understanding: If the
problem is fear, is it .rear arising from pain in a particular part of the body
or a strange noise or object?
3.3 Collections of Data
When man has defined the problem before him precisely, he begins to
collect relevant or possible data. He starts to take closer observation of the
part of the now localized problem. He collects as much information as
possible. Let us give an example. If the original fear is now localized to a
strange object, man starts to find if the object is big or small, the colour of
the object, whether it is mobile, whether it makes any sound and if any, the
timing, and so on.
3.4 Formulation of Hypotheses
On the basis of the accumulated data, man starts to formulate possible

hypotheses. These hypotheses can be seen as educated guesses or answers
to the problem. His preliminary study of the facts has led him to these now
intelligent guesses about the possible solution to his problem. At this stage
these possible solutions are tentative, hence they are many and all cannot be
the solution. Where the hypothesis is one, it is still tentative unit it is proved
to be the correct solution. In fact some scientists at this stage label them as
hunches.
3.5 Testing the Hypotheses
The guesses are tested as to their solubility of the problem. If A and B are
true, then C must be true. If for example the strange object which caused
fear is four footed, mobile and makes some noise, then it is a wild animal.
If we had seen that, though the fear object is four footed but immobile then
37
we might conclude that it can be any other thing but an animal. This will
mean testing another hypothesis.
3.6 Verification of the Hypotheses
This may mean testing the workability or solubility of the accepted

hypotheses. It is therefore left for man to select a suitable and safe method
which will help him to confirm whether or not the hypotheses will work. To
find, for example, if the cause of the fear is a wild animal, man may decide
to attack it by hauling a stone at it or usil1g a club to hit it. On the basis of
his findings, he can now draw conclusions.
The above scientific method gives one an Idea about the procedures
Involved In psychological investigations. However, it is important for you
to note that in psychology the steps listed do not provide the right pattern
that a psychologist or even a scientist must follow. One may find out that
while applying the scientific method, a psychologist does not necessarily
tackle one step at a time, complete that process and then move on to the
next step. For example, the scientist may formulate his hypotheses and
move to the next step of testing. He discovers that none of the hypotheses
works, then he shuttles back to formulate new hypotheses or even to take a
second look at his definition of the problem. But in the final analysis, his
results, when presented, will show a logically arranged sequence which
parallels the scientific method.
You have been very active in our discussion, well done. Now try your hand
on this question.
i. State what you must do before testing an hypothesis.

ii. State what you must do after defining a problem.
3.7 Testing Ideas
Psychologists often gather information by carrying out experiments to test

certain ideas. From our previous discussion, we refer to this as testing a
hypothesis. Let us cite an example to illustrate this process. Suppose a
psychologist thinks that male police officers may have better memories
than female officers. The psychologist might wish to check whether this is
the case and set up an experiment to test the hypothesis: The psychologist
may invite a number of male and female officers to view a videotape of a
crime taking place and then ask each person a series of questions about the
event.
38
He/she could then compare the results from the male and female officers to
see whether there is any difference in how much information they could
recall, and also whether one group was more accurate than the other in the
details they provide (The Open University of Hong Kong, 2001).
Think about the example cited above and decide whether it would be a
good way of obtaining information about sex difference and memory.
Let us continue our discussion.
A couple of questions might be asked about the example cited above.

Firstly why did the psychologist choose to test a number of male and
female officers; rather than just one of each? Secondly, if differences were
found between the two groups, how would the psychologist know whether
such differences were ‘real’ or whether they were due to chance?
The answer to the first question is that it would have been inappropriate for
the psychologist to test just one male and one female because if differences
were found, the psychologist would not know whether such differences
were because he/she had chosen a male with a good memory. For this
reason, psychologists always try to test a reasonable size sample of
individuals in their studies. However, you must note that we are not
necessarily talking about a large number of people. The psychologist would
also need to be sure that members of the same group were ‘typical’ or
representative of their groups.
For example, a particularly sexist male psychologist might attempt to prove

his theory about women performing less well than men by selecting women
he already knew were not very bright, and men he knew were highly
intelligent. The sexist psychologist may claim that he did find differences
proving his theory, but his colleagues may not accept his views because of
how the study was carried out. It may be that if any differences were found,
they could be accounted for entirely by the fact that one group was, on
average, more intelligent than the other and this fact rather than gender
differences accounts for the results.
In comparing two groups of people and trying to find differences, the

psychologist would need to be sure that members in his/her sample were
representative .of the groups from which they were drawn. If the average
female police officer's I.Q. score was 110, it would be unfair if the
39
psychologist deliberately included only people with a score well below this
average in his sample. Similarly, the psychologist would need to be sure
that his comparison group of male officers contained those who were
normal or representative of the whole population of male police officers.
Good research thus always tries to compare a reasonable size sample of

individuals, and also tries to be sure that members of the sample are largely
representative of the groups from which they were drawn. In order to avoid
the accusation that he/she was still biased in the way in which the samples
were selected, the psychologist might try to obtain ‘random sample’ rather
than one based on certain selection criterion. The psychologist might obtain
a list of all local male and female officers and include every tenth name on
the list until samples of a roughly equal size were obtained. This random
sampling would negate any accusation that certain individuals were more
likely to ‘prove’ that the researcher’s theory was correct.
At this stage, you deserve to clap for your active participation. Now, we
must continue our discussion.
The psychologist would therefore want to compare a random, comparable

and representative sample of male and female officers. However: he/she
would still need to be able to prove that if any differences were found, they
were real as opposed to chance differences. If the psychologist found that
an average male officer correctly recalled 15 details and female 14, he/she
should be able to say that this difference was so large that it could not be
explained by chance. In order to do-this, the psychologist would analyse the
results using an appropriate statistical measure that could then prove the
differences were 'real' differences and could not be explained by luck or
chance.
You need to remember that psychologists routinely subject their results to

statistical analysis in order to prove to themselves and to others that any
differences are real differences. Proof that a difference is ‘statistically
significant’ allows the researcher to state ‘with a high degree of certainty’
that the results are not due to chance. In this way a psychologist is in a
better position to make objective (as opposed to subjective) claims about
the data.
As you read about various psychology experiments, you will often see
sentences such as ‘the results were found to be significant at the 0.05 level’.
You are eager to know what that means. You will not wait for too long.
40
What this means is that the psychologist has carried out an appropriate
statistical test proving that the chances that, any differences between two
groups might be due to chance are less than one in 20.
Similarly, if a researcher states that ‘The difference was found to be

significant at the 0.0 1111 level’ this would mean that the probability that
any differences found were due to chance were one in 100.
It should be noted that just because a finding is proved to be statistically

significant does not necessarily mean that the researcher has proved
absolutely that his/her theory is true. For example, Alhassan (2000) states
that some early research on intelligence appeared to show a statistically
significant difference between the I.Q. score of African-Americans and
Americans. However, the actual test used was biased in favour of
Americans (one group) and against the African- Americans (the other).
It should be noted that one basic rule is that the larger the size of any
sample, the more likely it is that small differences will prove to be
statistically significant. We should however bear in mind a point made
earlier -any statistically significant differences found will only be accepted
if the researcher can demonstrate that the samples were comparable.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt how psychologists develop and test their
theories. You have therefore learnt the scientific method. For example, as
we discussed earlier, we must have awareness of the problem, location and
definition of the problem, collection of data, formulation of hypotheses,
testing the hypotheses and verification of the hypotheses as steps in the
scientific method.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns how psychologists

develop and test their theories.
2. You have also learnt that psychologists usually use a scientific
method in carrying out their research. This has advantages over other
types of research as it:
a.. allows researchers to test a hypothesis in a systematic way,

b. allows researchers to be confident about the tact that their results are
not likely to be due to chance.
41
c. allows other researchers to see how studies were carried out and to
replicate them.
1 a. state 4 reasons why psychologists usually use a scientific

method in carrying out their research
b. if a psychologist states that the results of his research were found to
be significant at the 0.05 level, what does he or she mean?
c. the same psychologist reports the results of another investigation to
be significant at the 0.01 level. What does he/she mean?

Publishing Co. Ltd. Zaria, Nigeria.
The Open University of Hong Kong (2001) p. 203.
42
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Definitions of Intelligence

Unit 2 Individual Differences in Intelligence
Unit 3 Explaining Behaviour-Genetic Influences and Environmental
Influences
Unit 4 Applying Psychology to Policing
Unit 5 Perception: A Basic Process
UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Intelligence in the Early Days
3.2 Definitions
3.3 The Concept of Intelligence Quotient
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, we discussed how psychologists develop and test their theories.

The unit also served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can
now identify and explain steps in the scientific method. In addition, you can
explain how a psychologist can test an hypothesis at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of
significance. You are about to study another unit that you are likely to find
relevant and interesting: Definitions of Intelligence. We will now consider
conceptual clarification. Let us look at what other content you should learn
in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
describe what intelligence is from the perspective of the layman;

define the concept of intelligence; and
explain the concept of intelligence quotient.
43
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Conceptual Clarification
Undoubtedly, ‘intelligence’ is a concept of theory and educational practice.

Intelligence remains a major concern of psychology. Intelligence is an
abstract noun.
The early days of this century witnessed little usage of the term intelligence
in psychology or in the classroom. According to Spencer and Galton, there
is an important general ability which is super-ordinate to and distinct from
special abilities. Burt equally accepted the theory of a general cognitive
capacity that is probably dependent upon the number, complexity or
connection of the organization of the nerve cells in the cerebral context.
There was the technique of factor analysis which was introduced by

Pearson at a time when Alfred Binet in France was working with French
children of different pre-school and school ages to arrive at some answers
explaining the underlying factors of the different performances of children
at home and in school.
The importance of the general ability was strongly recognized in Britain

and Europe while in the USA, it was questioned. The emphasis here was
laid on the breakdown of the specific abilities explaining different types of
activities and the performance of these activities.
3.2 Definitions
Of all the words used by professionals, no other word seems so clear when
we hear it, and yet is so difficult to define, as intelligence. There is a
massive research on the development of a child. Such research generates
explanations on the definition of intelligence which for Piaget (1950:3) is
‘the concept of growth’.
The concept of growth has been taken up by the environmentalists who

claim that intelligence is not determined by heredity but by the type of
environmental interaction in the history of early childhood. It is important
for you to note that the type of environment and interaction will shape and
determine a child’s adult .intelligence. But you must remember that all
children, given the same history of environmental interaction, will attain the
same level of intelligence in adult life (we will discuss more on this in units
7 & 8 of this course). The definition of intelligence based on the growth
theory does not explain completely why there are some amounts of
44
individual differences in cognitive behaviour. By implication, intelligence

is also determined by heredity.
Of recent; prominent radical sociologists argued that the definition of

intelligence is a socia1-class based one. They argued further that the
differences in the social class origins of individuals compelled them to
undergo differential environmental changes and hence differential levels of
intelligent behaviour in later life. Had there been no differences in the class
structures of societies, they argued then, the emphasis given on intelligence
will most probably disappear as everybody will manifest the same level of
intelligent behaviour eventually.
Also recently, there has been emphasis in the understanding of the

definition of intelligence from psychological experiment and research
evidence where the importance of parental attitudes toward education and
of the home-background factors has been established. For example,
Mukherjee (1972) showed that while attitudes towards mathematics and
previous experience in mathematics explained most of the transferred task
variance, intelligence was the least important factor in terms of the task
explained.
I can see that you are more eager to learn about more definitions of
intelligence. That is nice. Let us go on.
It is generally agreed that many degrees of intelligence exist, that even an

imbecile exhibits some manifestations of intelligent behaviour. But when
we refer to an intelligent person we mean only someone who is at the upper
end of the distribution of I.Q. scores. Such an individual is one who
exceeds a hypothetical cut-off point separating intelligent individuals from
the general run of humans. Thus, although 1 e creativity undoubtedly varies
along a continuum, only the rare individual who makes a singularly original
(unusual) and significant contribution to art, science, literature, philosophy,
government, and so forth, can be called a creative person. Note that a
creative person is by definition a much rarer individual than the intelligent
person. Thousands of intelligent individuals exist for every one who is truly
creative.
If we observe events and behaviour which are concrete things as they can
be e recorded and measured. Let us cite an example so that you can have a
clear f understanding. We observe the difference between individuals of the
same background, same chronological age and same previous history of
learning in l problems-solving. If one individual solves the problem more
quickly than the other, we say the former individual is more intelligent,
45
thereby implying that the former individual has something to a greater

degree than the latter. It is the 'something' that is called intelligence.
Intelligence is therefore a kind of mental or cognitive ability which comes
to play in problem solving.
Intelligence is also referred to as the reasoning ability of individuals. These

reasoning abilities are of many types, for example understanding relations,
comprehension of series, drawing analogies, completing patterns on the
basis of symmetry and meaningful asymmetry, permutations and
combinations, drawing inferences, understanding logic, deductive and
inductive, verbal ability, and so on. We can therefore say that intelligence is
a cluster of psychological traits. If valid instruments exist to measure these
traits, then intelligence can as well be measured. Any trait or characteristic
which is a continuum (continuous in nature) is amenable to statistical
techniques leading to factor analysis. Thus when an experienced motor- car
driver wants to negotiate a comer, he skips gear easily and the [mal
function is still the same. The same technique is used by stenographers,
textile workers, who usually produce more than their fellows.
According to Ryle (1952), there is no kind of performance or behaviour

which can be described without qualification as ‘intelligence’. Confronted
with such diversity in the nature of intelligence behaviour, it is not
surprising that psychologists have often failed to agree on a comprehensive
definition. Years ago, the editors of Journal of Educational Psychology,
London, invited seventeen leading scholars to express their opinions on the
nature of intelligence. While they achieved some agreement, nearly
seventeen different definitions of intelligence emerged from this
symposium (Thorndike, 195 1). Some of these definitions are:
The ability to carry on abstract thinking (Terman,1910).

The capacity to acquire capacity (Woodrow)
The power of good responses from the point of truth or fact (Thorndike,
1927). Vernon (1950) classified the description of intelligence as
biological, psychological or operational.
Freeman (1936) classified descriptions of intelligence into those
emphasizing:
1. Power of adaptation to the environment;

2. Capacity for learning;
3. Ability for abstract thinking.
Let us carry on our discussion.
46
Although modem psychologists know much more about mental abilities,

the difficulty is far from resolved. One possible solution is to create a broad
definition that addresses the complexity .of the word ‘intelligence’.
Wechsler (1975) is one psychologist who has attempted such a definition.
He believes that intelligence is the capacity to understand the world and the
resourcefulness to cope with its challenges. Much earlier, Wechsler (1958)
suggested that intelligence is ‘the capacity to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment’. By these broad
standards, people act intelligently when they learn from past experiences,
seek effective solutions to every day problems, and adapt to the world
around them.
Wechsler’s definitions provide a useful overview of the meaning of

intelligence, but difficulties 5till persist. For instance, the issue of value
judgment remains. Although Wechsler used broad terms-coping,
resourcefulness, and rationality - they, all the same, imply particular values.
You must remember that in any given culture different circumstances
demand different types of coping and resourcefulness. Clearly, what is
required of the ambitious distance learner undergraduate student is different
from what is demanded of the child whose unemployed parents have been
living in impoverished conditions for over a decade. We have many of such
children in Nigeria particularly, and developing countries in general.
Find out your level of understanding by trying your hands on this question.
i. Will you describe yourself as intelligent?

ii. Explain why you so describe yourself?
We must continue our discussion.
3.3 The Concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
I.Q. is the result obtained when an individual's mental age (MA) is divided
by his/ her chronological age (that is biological age) and multiplied by 100.
Mental age refers to an individual’s level of intellectual development.
Alfred Brinet (1905) was credited with the first successful attempt to
measure intelligence. He was asked by the French government to
investigate the causes of retardation in the schools of Paris. Through a
sampling process he identified the questions that would be solved easily by
the children. From there, he developed the concept of units on MA.
Average MA scores correspond to chronological age (CA). A bright child’s
47
MA is above his CA; while a dull child has an MA below his CA. Thus, the
index of brightness is the IQ which indicates how an individual scores
relative to others of comparable age. Note that Alfred Binet was called the
father of intelligence testing. The Binet scale was later revised and named
the Stanford-Binet scale. Table 1 shows the distribution of IQ scores.
Table 1: Intelligence Quotient on the Standford-Binet: Distribution

of IQ scores
IQ Range of Verbal Description Approximate % of

Score People in each Group
Above 130 Very superior 1
120 – 129 Superior 11
111 – 119 High average 18
90 – 109 Average 46
80 – 89 Low average 15
70 – 79 Borderline 6
Below 70 Mentally retarded 3
Source: Hilgard et. Al. (1975: 405)
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt how the layman describes intelligence, how
psychologists define intelligence and what we mean by intelligence
quotient. For example, the layman sees intelligence as the ability to do
things correctly, while to the psychologists, intelligence is a psychological
construct which implies the ability to carry on abstract thinking, the power
of adaptation to the environment, and capacity for learning amongst others.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns descriptions and
definitions of intelligence
2. You also learnt that psychologists define intelligence differently.
3. This enables us to have various definitions of the concept of
intelligence some of which are stated below:
48
a. What the intelligence tests measure (Berelson and Steriner, 1964),

b. It consists of 120 .different abilities, (Guliford, 1980),
c. It is the totality of an individual’s ability in solving problems of
every day life, how best an individual succeeds is open to question
(Alhassan, 1.981).
4. Intelligence quotient reflects the extent to which a child is mentally

advanced or backward for his/her age.
1 a. Two things that determine intelligence are:

i. …………………………………………………...……………
ii. ………………………………………………………...………
b. Define intelligence from the perspective of a sociologist.
c. Define intelligence from the standpoint of a psychologist.
d. Four reasoning abilities are:
49
Alhassan, A.B. (1981). ‘Intellectual Development in Children’ Seminar

Paper, Department of Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Berelson, B. & Steiner, G. (1964). Human Behaviour: An Inventory of

Scientific Findings. 1964), Har court, New York..
Freeman, F. (1936). Intellectual Growth of Children as Indicated by

Repeated Tests.
Guilford, J.P. (1959.) ‘Three Faces of Intellect’ in American Psychologist.

14.469-79.
Hilgard S. (1975). Human Development and Education. Longmans. New

York..
Mukherjee, M. (1972). ‘Investigation of Personality Factors on Transfer

of Learning’, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of London,
Institute of Education.
Ryle, D. (1952). Intelligence and Human Performance McGraw-Hill, New

York..
Thorndike, E. (1951). Measurement of Intelligence. Columbia, New York..
Vernon, P.E. (1950). The Structure of Human Abilities.
Wechester, D. (1958). The Measurement and Appraisal of Adult

Intelligence.
Williams & -Wilkins. Baltimore, MD.
Woodrow, S. (1975). Human Abilities. Pergamon, London.
50
UNIT 2 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Intellectual Performance
3.2 Mental Ability
3.3 Normal Curve
3.4 Defects in I.Q.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Individuals differ in different ways. There are many theories about

individual differences. In this unit, the various reasons that may account
for differences in intelligence are examined. The unit also examines the
concept of intelligent quotient (I.Q.) and its dynamics.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
explain what is meant by normal distribution;

identify different forms in which intelligence comes into play; and
state the defect in IQ.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Intellectual Performance
Globally, people differ greatly in intelligence, aptitudes, physical strength,

manual dexterity, knowledge, skill, interests, personality traits, motivation,
threshold of tolerance, and many other attributes which potentially
influence behaviour and productivity.
Of a group of exceptionally intelligent persons, one may be an artist,

another writer, a third a mathematician, a fourth a historian, and so on.
51
Their high intelligence comprises a high general factor plus one or more
specific factors. This theory helps to explain why some bright pupils may
be outstanding in certain subjects and only mediocre in others. We all know
a pupil who is clever at mathematics and dull in languages or vice-versa.
Gardener suggests that intelligence comes in at least the following forms:
(a) Musical Intelligence or Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and

tone.
(b) Linguistic intelligence, or sensitivity to the meaning and order of
words and varied uses of languages.
(c) Logical-mathematical intelligence or the ability to handle long
chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns and order in the world.
(d) Spatial intelligence or the ability to perceive the visual world
accurately and to recreate, transform, or modify aspects of that world
based on one's perceptions.
(e) Interpersonal intelligence or access to one’s own ‘feeling of life’.
We will now consider two styles of reasoning. ‘Convergent and divergent’.

We will describe the boys as convergers and divergers.
.
The converger is the boy who is substantially better at the intelligence tests
than he is at the open-ended tests; the diverger is the reverse. By open-
ended tests, we mean objective/multiple-choice test. In addition to this
categorisation, there are the all-rounders, the boys who are more or less
equally good (or bad) on both types of text. It may well be that 30% are
divergers, and the remaining 40% could be in the middle as all-rounders. In
a typical classroom, we may find extreme divergers (10%); moderate
divergers (20%): all-rounders (40%); moderate convergers (20%); extreme
convergers (10%).
3.2 Mental Ability
As it has been argued elsewhere (Alhassan, 1989), the most important

element in all of education is the element of individual differences. If there
is anyone characteristic of people which is universally valid and important,
it is that they differ. To say that all persons are created equal is a statement
of human rights under the law. It communicates nothing at all about human
nature.
52
Five attributes which influence behaviour are:
3.3 Normal Probability Curve
Let us continue our discussion by looking at figure 1 which is generated by

graphically plotting the distribution of IQ scores we discussed in unit 6.
Fig. 1: A Normal Distribution Curve of Intelligent Quotient (IQ)
Figure 1 suggests that mental ability essentially follows a normal

probability or bell shaped curve. The figure looks simple, but it is
significant that most people are jus average and, therefore, cannot be
expected to perform well on many jobs that demand the complex mental
process required, for example in most scientific and professional positions.
It is important for you to note that an individual’s IQ, would be equal to

100 if his mental age exactly matched his chronological age. Thus, IQ’s
greater that 100 reflect advanced or accelerated intellectual development,
while those below 100 reflect some degree of intellectual slowness or
backwardness. It is to be noted that any plan for Universal Basic Education
in Nigeria must provide for the intellectual diversity of children. It is clearly
undesirable to educate children to take an examination which they are
unlikely to pass. A secondary school which concentrates on getting as many
senior secondary school students as possible to the university would
provide a poor education for children of low IQ.
53
3.4 Defects in I.Q.
Although the intelligence quotient reflects the extent to which a child is

mentally advanced or backward for his/her age, this particular index of
intelligence has a weakness: while mental age must necessarily stop
increasing at some point during an individual’s life, chronological age, alas,
does not. Referring to this major weakness in the IQ, Baron et. al. (19-70)
argues that scores determined in this simple manner begin to decrease as
maturity is attained. As students of Developmental Psychology, we know
that mental development seems to reach a maximum in the late teens or
early twenties.
I am sure you feel something should be done to remove the weakness in IQ.
It is not surprising, therefore, that in the face of this serious weakness; IQ

scores based on the concept of mental age were replaced some years ago by
another measure called deviation IQ.
Remember that scores derived by this new measure represent an

individual’s performance on the test relative to those of other persons of
his/her age. Thus, the average performance of all such persons is arbitrarily
set equal to 100, and the individual's IQ then expresses the extent to which
his/her own performance departs (that is deviates) from this level. You
must note that a major advantage of such scores is that they are statistically
adjusted in such a manner that it is possible to tell, from appropriate
mathematical tables, precisely what proportion of others taking the test
score higher or lower than a given individual.
Complete the following sentence:…………………….essentially follows a

………………………………….probability curve.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that the most important element in all of
education is the element of individual differences. You have therefore
learnt that universally, people 100 if differ greatly in intelligence, aptitudes,
manual dexterity, and personality traits, amongst others.
5.0 SUMMARY
54
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns differences in

intelligence.
2. You also learnt that mental ability essentially follows a normal
probability curve
3. You equally learnt that IQ is defective and the concept of deviation
IQ was explained and understood.
1. a. State the most important element in all of education.

b. State attributes which may influence behaviour and productivity
c. Describe the importance of the normal probability curve
d. Who is a converger?
Alhassan, A.B. (1980). Creativity and the Teacher: Department of

Education, ABU, Zaria.
Baron, R., Byrne, D. & Kantowits, B. (1978). Psychology: Understanding

Behaviour: Saunder Co. Ltd. Toronto.
55
UNIT 3 EXPLAINING BEHAVIOUR-GENETIC

INFLUENCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Behaviour-Genetic Influences
3.2 Behaviour-Environmental Influences
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assessment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed individual differences in intelligence. The unit also

served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can now explain
normal probability curve, identify different forms in which inte1ligence
comes into play. In addition, you can describe the concept of IQ and
explain its defect. Right now, you will study another unit that is very topical
and interesting; explaining behaviour-genetic influences and environmental
influences. We will now consider influences on behaviour. Let us look at
what other content you should learn in this unit as specified in the objective
below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
describe some of the main psychological influences on human

behaviour.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Behaviour – Genetic Influences
One of the longest running debates in psychology is the ‘nature versus

nurture’ debate. This relates to the question of whether behaviour is best
explained by reference to genetic or to environmental factors. Note that at
56
times the issue divides the academic community, with proponents of both
schools of thought providing evidence supporting their own viewpoint and
challenging that of their opponents.
The question is important for a number of reasons. If it is possible to prove

that a person's genes predominantly determine certain aspects of behaviour,
then there is little point in trying to change people by using external
influences. Let us cite an example to ensure clear understanding. If
intelligence was found to be almost entirely determined by genetic factors,
then there would be little point in spending billions of naira on providing a
good education for those who are low in intelligence. To do so would be a
'wasted effort, as any such attempts would be unproductive.
Similarly, if genetics were found to largely determine criminality, there

would be profound implications regarding how society deals with those
who exhibit criminal tendencies from an early age. If one were to believe
in' such a viewpoint, then one would want to adv6cate that such individuals
be incarcerated at an early age and not be released. Punishment and
rehabilitation would presumably be a waste of time because such
individuals would be unable to overturn the powerful effects of their
genetic make-up.
While it is true that a person's genetic make-up does affect their behaviour,
it is rarely in such an absolute way as implied by the examples above. It is
important for you to note that these days, psychologists rarely talk about
behaviour being determined by either heredity or the environment. Most
psychologists would accept that any behaviour results from the interaction
between genetic factors and the environment.
1. a. Explain what you understand by nature.

b. What is nurture?
Let us continue our discussion. Now, we need to consider how genetic

influences might affect behaviour.
Every human being comes into this world with a genetic make-up. Note
that this is the blueprint for the individual’s passage through life and as
originating from his or her parents. When a baby is first born, relatives
often look to see whether the child looks more like the mother or father.
Each new child results from the combination of elements from both the
mother and father. The human reproduction system ensures that, with the
57
exception of identical twins, there are no two genetically identical people in

the world. You must note that, although there can be nothing in the child
that has not come from the mother or father, each child will be genetically
different.
If you think about a large family with a number of brothers and sisters, each
family member may share common characteristics but there will also be
identifiable differences between each individual. I know you are eager to
know why this is so: This may be partly due to the different genetic make-
up of each individual, but also partly because each child will have slightly
different experiences as he/she grows up.
Let us consider the example of criminality. You may have your own view
as to whether or not crime runs in families. The evidence suggests that
children born to criminal parents run an increased risk of becoming
criminals themselves. It is to be noted that while crime may run in families,
this does not necessarily prove that genetics is the correct or the only
explanation. It may be that criminal parents instill values in their children
that make them more likely to adopt a criminal lifestyle as they grow up.
While most parents would punish their child if they committed a criminal
act, criminal parents may encourage or reward their own child for following
in their footsteps.
Those who wish to argue for the importance of genetic factors often look to
the study of twins for evidence to support their viewpoint. There are two
distinct types of twins, that is identical and non-identical. As the name
implies, identical twins are genetically identical and result from a splitting
of the zygote around the time of conception. Such twins are referred to as
monozygotic or MZ. Non-identical twins are the result of two different
eggs being fertilized by two different sperms around the same point in time.
Non-identical twins are also known as dizygotic or DZ. Note that although
they are conceived at the same time, they are genetically no more similar
than brothers or sisters conceived and born at different times. Because they
are genetically identical, MZ twins will always be the same sex, whereas
DZ twins are sometimes of the same, but sometimes of different sexes.
You deserve commendation for active participation in our discussion. Let

us continue by attempting this question.
Have you ever come across any set of twins? What were your impressions?
We must now go on.
58
If genetics is important, then we would expect identical twins to be more

similar than non-identical twins. For research purposes, the ideal study
would be to examine pairs of twins who were separated from teach other
early in life, to see whether they still ended up with similar behavioural
characteristics. If this was the case, it might be suggested that genetic
Influences are perhaps more important than those of the environment.
Where such research has been carried out it shows consistently that
identical twin pairs do often end up more similar that non-identical twin
pairs, even when they have been raised in different environment. Where
such research has been carried out it shows consistently that identical twin
pairs do often end up more similar that non-identical twin pairs, even when
they have been raised in different environments. Research of this kind
would lead us to believe that genes have some influence over behaviour,
but this influence is not all embracing. You must note that our genes set
some limits on what can be achieved, but the exact result will be
determined by our life experiences. This can be illustrated by research on
identical twins. We saw earlier that identical twins are of great interest to
psychologists because they can help us unravel the relative contribution of
genetics and the environments.
Let us now consider crime and genetics. Dilalla and Gottessman (1990)
reviewed some 40 years of twin studies and claimed to have found some
evidence to support the view that criminal behaviour might have a genetic
component. You must note that criminal behaviour covers such a vast array
of actions that there can be few people who have never committed a
criminal act during their lifetime.
3.2 Determinants of Editorial Subject
We saw in the previous section that genetics can play an important role in
understanding human behaviour. We also noted that genetics alone can
never fully explain why people behave as they do. It is important for you to
note that while all individuals enter the world with a genetic make-up, they
are not raised in a social or environmental vacuum. If we are to fully
understand why people behave as they do, we need to consider both their
genetic make-up and the environment in which they are raised.
From the moment of conception, the developing child is subject to all sorts
of environmental influences. Even in the womb, the child may develop
differently if the mother smokes, takes drugs or is ill while pregnant
(Alhassan, 2000). Once born, the baby will be subject to a vast array of
environment influences that will help to shape him/her. As this writer
explained elsewhere (Alhassan, 1983:450), environment is the aggregate of
59
all external and internal conditions affecting the existence, growth, and
welfare of organisms in general and the child in particular. A child’s
environment commences from within her mother’s womb. Thereafter, a
child experiences a social environment, a physical environment, an
economic environment, and in fact, a political environment. Of course the
cultural environment is all-embracing. Both heredity and environment
contribute to an individual’s intelligence.
It is obvious that the environment can exert a powerful influence on

behaviour but when it comes to explaining our own behaviour, humans are
not always willing to accept this fact. If you were asked whether you are an
independent sort of person, or whether you simply go along with the crowd,
you would probably say that while you are influenced by others to some
extent, you are still capable of independent thought and decision making.
Yet social psychology (which we discussed in unit 4) provides ample
evidence of the powerful effects that social situations can have.
Let us cite an example. Police Officers will tend to presume that the vast
majority of people who are arrested and questioned might initially deny the
offence but may eventually confess to the crime. It may never occur to the
officer concerned that if a person does confess, this results from the
powerful situational environmental forces to which the suspect is subjected.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt influences on behaviour. You have therefore
learnt the important role of genetics in all human behaviour but genetics
rarely has a direct or total influence. We also learnt that the environment in
which people are raised must be considered.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the role of genetics and
environment on behaviour.
2. You also learnt that genetics may set the limits within which certain
types of behaviour will fall, but the environment may determine
which aspects of our genetic inheritance are revealed.
3. You equally learnt that situations exert a powerful influence over
people’s behaviour and make them do things that we might not
predict.
60
1. a. State what you understand by ‘nature’

b. Explain ‘nurture’
c. State two reasons why the nature vs nurture debate is important.
d. Complete this sentence:
Human behaviour is the result of a complex interaction between a
large number of variables, perhaps the most important of which
are……………..and……..………….
Duyile, D (2005). Writing For the Media – A Manual for African

Journalists. 2nd edition. Lagos: Gong Communication.
Ate, A.A. (2006). “Editorial Writing.” Unpublished Work.
61
UNIT 4 APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO POLICING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What Policing Involves
3.2 The Psychological Consultant
3.3 The In-House (Staff) Psychologist
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed behaviour-genetic influences and environmental

influences. The .unit on it also served to introduce us to other units in this
course. You can now explain what we mean by ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’. In
addition, you can explain the relative influences of nature and nurture on
human behaviour. It is now time for you to study another interesting and
practical unit: Applying psychology to policing. We will now consider what
policing involves. Let us take a look at what other contents you should
learn in this unit as specified in the objective below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
provide examples of how psychology can be applied to policing the

environment.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What Policing Involves
In the previous units, we have seen some of the ways in which

psychologists conduct their research and gather information. We have noted
that only by carefully considering internal and external factors can we hope
to understand or offer explanations for human behaviour. We have also
seen that theories and research findings can be applied to many everyday
62
situations. Throughout this course you will encounter a great deal of

information that you can reflect upon in explaining your own and others'
behaviour.
One of the areas to which psychology can be applied is policing. A great

deal of policing involves interacting with others, be they citizens in distress,
witnesses, colleagues, suspects or whatever. Psychology can be of great
benefit in helping police officers understand human behaviour and so deal
with others in a more effective way.
Policing involves the use of a. wide range of skills, and over the years
police organizations in Nigeria have built up array of techniques that help
their officers do their job. There is the need for police officers to accept that
psychology can be of benefit to individual police officers and to the
organization. Police psychologists may, for example, offer advice on the
selection of the most able candidates for promotion, or help counsel those
who have been traumatized by particular incidents, and so on. They will
also be able to help with a number of practical policing tasks including
hostage negotiation, interviewing of witnesses and suspects, and even
offender profiling. It is important for you to note that even where police
forces do not employ psychologists directly, there are many areas of
applied psychology that will be of great benefit to officers within the
service.
Describe how you will persuade police officers in your state of origin that
psychologists can offer valuable help and understanding.
Having read this unit, it should be apparent that psychology can be

extremely useful when applied to the area of policing. Remember that
psychology can never be a substitute for knowledge about the law, powers
of arrest, and so on, but it can add to other knowledge and hopefully
improve individual officers' effective and efficient functioning within the
society.
3.2The Psychological Consultant
Most psychologists who work with law enforcement agencies act as

consultants. The degree to which a consultant can be effective in police
work depends a great deal on who the consultant serves and to whom the
63
consultant reports. If the consultant has been retained and have initial
contact with upper management; there will probably be a good deal of
involvement in organizational diagnosis and development issue. The higher
the level of interaction, the more likely the psychologists will be evaluating
the department's states and making recommendations for problems solving.
This might include such issues as poor upward communication among
negative discipline.
It is important for you to note that every consultant can expect a good deal
of initial caution and hostility on the part of the people he or she works
with. Suspicion and distrust may accompany the stereotypes on both sides
of the interface. Remember that openness and sensitivity are required, and
the psychologist must readily present these qualities. An attitude of
humility and willingness to listen is helpful. The psychologist working as a
consultant must be willing to accept and tolerate the slowness of change
commonly found in bureaucratic institutions. One of the most important
attributes for the consultant is patience (Reisen & Klyver, 1987).
If possible, the consultant should report directly to the chief. By having a

close association with the highest possible level in the organization, the
consultant can obtain the support necessary to effect recommendations
involving change and innovation. The advantages and disadvantages of a
psychologist serving as a consultant might be summarized as follows:
Advantages
1. Autonomy and distance can be maintained

2. There is somewhat less bureaucratic interference with the
psychologist’s job
3. There is a minimizing of dual relationship problems
4. It is easier to maintain confidentiality
5. There are fewer pressures for the psychologist to be all things to all
people.
6. The psychologist has the opportunity to serve other agencies
7. It allows for the introduction of broader applications and newer
psychological techniques.
Disadvantages
1. A ‘distance’ or a barrier between the psychologist and the staff tends

to exist because the law enforcement officers form a ‘closed
society’.
64
2. The range of services is generally capped at the narrowest level, for

fiscal and administrative reasons.
3. Psychologists rarely get complete feedback on the services they
provide
4. There is less opportunity for research
5. The psychologist is viewed as an outsider and in some instances
does not get the full story as to how and why services are being
requested. (The Open University of Hong Kong, 2001)
To whom should the psychological consultant report? State reasons for

your response.
Well done, let us continue.
3.3 The In-House (Staff) Psychologist
The psychologist who is a staff member in a law enforcement agency has

certain advantages as a member of the establishment. There is a ready
access to confidential personnel information. The psychologist acquires
credibility and confidence as member of the department.
Advantages
Salary is predictable.
There are health and retirement benefits.
There is a sense of identification and involvement with the organization.
The Psychologist knows the clear-cut lines of authority and his or her
responsibilities.
The psychologist learns the unspoken and unwritten rules that are
practicalised.
It is easier to initiate new kinds of services, by first exploring them
informally.
The psychologist is able to develop a network that helps in dealing with
conflicts and opportunities.
Disadvantages
65
The psychologist is a staff member subject to the bureaucratic stresses

and the anatagonisms of entrenched staff members who may feel
threatened by ‘psychology’
The staff member may be overwhelmed with requests and demands for
service far beyond his/her realistic capabilities.
Along with other law enforcement staff members, the psychologist is
subject to a host of minor criticisms and resentment.
Continual stresses and pressure occur as the psychologist deals with
expectations and demands of staff members that may involve serious
ethical dilemmas.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt what policing involves. You have therefore
learnt that the psychologist may be a consultant in police organizations. We
also learnt the advantages and disadvantages of the psychologist who is a
staff member in a law enforcement agency.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns what policing involves.
2. In some cases this will involve a psychologist working within the
organization, but in others it may involve psychological theories and
principles being incorporated into the training of police officers at
various stages.
1. a. List any 4 groups of citizens with whom the police interacts

b. State one specific instance in which psychology may be of use to the
police
c. Mention 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of a psychologist as a
consultant
Reiser T. & Klyver M. (1987). Training Police Officers to detect Deceptive

Eye-Witness Statements, Social Behaviour, 2, 1-17.
The Open University of Hong Kong (2001).
66
UNIT 5 PERCEPTION: A BASIC PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Perception
3.2 Factors Affecting Perception
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed application of psychology to policing. The

unit also served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can now
identity groups of citizens with whom the police interact. In addition, you
can explain the advantages and disadvantages of a psychologist serving as
consultant. Time is now ripe for you to study another interesting and
relevant unit: perception: a basic process. We will now consider what is
meant by perception. Let us take a close look at what other content you
should learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below:
2.0 OBJECTIVES
define the concept of perception; and

identify the factors affecting perception
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Perception
Perception is a-psychological operation that is basic to the determination of

terminal human behaviour. It is important for you to note that without any
satisfactory perception of this precise nature of the stimulus objects or
things, there cannot be accurate cognition. Without Cognition, there can be
no learning. It is therefore likely .that wrong percepts may lead to wrong or
mistaken concepts, and hence the psychology of perception becomes so
67
basic a topic in any introductory text of educational psychology. In

addition, the psychology of perception and attention are closely interlinked
and the understanding of their functioning becomes very relevant
considered from the teacher’s point of view.
Perception implies the psychological process occurring in the brains of the

organisms. This leads to the organization and interpretation-of sensory
information received from the stimulus or stimuli. Perception mechanisms
include analysis, synthesis, and integration of sensory information. When
several individuals confront an object or thing in their environment, the
input of information that impinges their respective sense organs, for
example, eyes, ears, and so on, is the same for every individual, though
they perceive differently (Mukherjee, 1978).
In your own words, explain what you understand by perception.
Let us go on with our discussion. Various explanations can be offered as to

why individuals perceive differently even when they are all confronted with
the same stimulus. Hebb suggested a model to understand this feature of
individual differences in the perceiving process which with some
modifications is represented in figure 1.
Fig. 1: Model of Perception Mechanism
It is seen from the above model that the input of information from the
stimulus is apt to be same for every individual. But something must be
happening within the organism that tends to alter the organization and
interpretation of the information till it is responded by the organism as
perception of the stimulus. The entire process of filtering the whole range
of information, sensations, and motor activities of the nerves including the
68
features of comparison of errors in interpretation before the response

(perception) is formed, may be termed as ‘mediation’.
Since the individuals are likely to differ among themselves in their

mediation mechanisms, they perceive differently the same stimulus object.
Further, you must understand that the action of the ‘filter’ in the above
model is to allow only the relevant aspects of the information bits to the
organism. In any perceiving situation, the individuals are confronted with a
host of stimuli some of which are irrelevant and some relevant. Let us cite
an example when a teacher is making some statements in the classroom,
some children may be talking with one another, and the children who are
attentive to what their teacher is saying will certainly filter the conversation
of their classmates, and thus the irrelevant aspects of the stimulus situation
will be discounted.
Moreover, the teacher's statements may have several points -a, b, and c, for
example, and a thorough understanding demands that all these points must
be perceived satisfactorily. It is usually noticed how some of the children
miss some of these points thereby achieving a somewhat stunted perception
of the whole situation. It is now necessary for us to consider the factors that
influence individual perception.
3.2 Factors Affecting Perception
Stimulus Configuration Factors
Gestalt school of psychology, a school of the psychology of perception,

originating from Germany, has made a significant contribution in showing
how different configurations of the stimuli in the environment lead to easier
perception. The following are some of the important factors influencing
perception:
i. Grouping of the Stimuli: When many stimuli of different types are

presented to the individuals, it is found that grouping of the stimuli
aids perception. For example in classroom teaching, the children will
perceive better if the materials to be learned are presented in some
well organized groups of similar types, shape or cases, and
categories.
ii. Similarity of the Stimuli: Similar stimuli elements will be more
easily perceived than dissimilar ones. In the teaching of
mathematics, it will help if the mathematics teacher can classify the
problems of a mathematics exercise into sets of similar problems.
69
iii. Proximity of the Stimuli: If the stimuli elements are in close

proximity to one another, the perception becomes an easier process
than when they are remotely associated In blackboard presentation
of any teaching materials, it is a bad habit, if one aspect of the
information is written in one comer of the board, and another aspect
in another comer of the board.
Attention and Perception
Human perception is a selective process. We cannot attend to more than

one thing at a time and perceive all at the same time. For example when
you are listening to a person talking to you, you do not attend to any other
person talking at the same time.
You tend to select that stimulus information in which you are interested or
directed to attend. The unattended messages tend to be filtered out, and the
model of perception represented in Figure I explains this point. If teaching
can be made interesting then there is no reason why the children in the
classroom should fail to attend. It is true that none of us can keep attention
fixed at a thing or object for longer than a few. A simple experiment will
show the validity of the above statement.
When you are reading this unit, take a pencil in your hand and hold it a foot
away from you, trying to keep your attention on it for as long a time as you
possibly can. During this period of your voluntary attention, you will soon
find so many different things or thoughts crossing your mind. Since without
attention, meaningful perception may not be achieved, it is now necessary
to consider the ways and means which would facilitate attention of the
children. Of the various factors facilitating attention of individuals, the
following maybe cited.
a. Novelty of the Stimulus: A novel situation or stimulus will at once

draw the attention of the person confronted with such a situation.
b. Repetition of the Stimulus: A stimulus word or sentence or figure
will be attended t to if the same is repeated frequently.
c. Intensity of the Stimulus: A high pitched sound or a visual stimulus
with a high intensity of illumination will be more attractive for
attention than either a low pitched sound or a less illuminated visual
stimulus.
d. Size of the Stimulus: If the visual stimulus is large and clear, then it
will facilitate attention of the onlookers.
70
e. Contrasting Stimulus: If the stimuli appear in contrast with some

other stimuli at the same time, then the contrasting features of the
stimuli would very likely attract the attention of the subjects.
The importance of the above factors in securing attention of human beings

has long been recognized in the fields of commercial advertisement in the
press or on television. Each advertiser makes use of one or more features of
the stimuli to secure attention of his potential buyers. It is also true that
many aspects of our day to day perception take place without our being
aware of the presence of the stimuli in our environment. This is so evident
when we recall that signboard or that particular advertisement on the screen
or magazine which says: ‘Don’t buy our product’, etc. Here we notice how
a subtle and contrasting message was deliberately put in so that our
attention is automatically directed to the message. This is so because our
normal expectation about all commercial advertisements lies in the
presence of a message exactly opposite in character where we expect to see
or hear: ‘Buy our product because it is so and so, etc’.
If commercial advertisers can make use of these important psychological

findings to draw the attention of their customers, then there is no reason
why the teachers should fail to secure the attention of even the most
inattentive pupils of their classes. Blackboard diagrams, writings, teacher's
utterances and so on, during the imparting of lessons, can at random make
use of any or all of the above features to keep their pupils interested and
attentive during the lesson hours.
Personality Factors
Besides the above factors affecting perception, there are other factors which
differ from individual to individual, and these influence individual
perception to a considerable extent. For example, individual’s interests,
values, and cultural backgrounds. Their experiences in life also differ, and
these experiences generate expectations among them. It is for these reasons
that we should consider each of these factors separately, viz:
i. Learning Style and Perception: Some individuals are reflective in

their learning style, and they take a much longer time to perceive a
stimulus or a stimulus pattern. They are usually more accurate in
their recall of the perceived stimuli, but if the stimuli are presented
only for a short while then these individuals are likely to miss out a
lot of the details of the stimulus though recalling with accuracy the
part of the stimulus situation reflected over.
71
Contrasted with these individuals are those who are called

‘impulsive’ in their learning style. These individuals are quicker in
their perception though they are generally inaccurate in their later
reproductions of the stimulus situations. Reflective pupils learn well
if the teacher is patient with them.
They are usually good in mathematics and problem solving types of
subjects, while the impulsive ones are those who need special care
especially if the topic of learning is complex, that is, problem
solving.
ii. Motivation and Perception: Individuals perceive things according
to their motivation and needs. Children who are motivated to learn
will perceive more easily the lesson materials than those who are not
so motivated to learn.
iii. Interests, Values and Perception: Individuals tend to perceive
according to their interests and values. We frequently come across
children who do not seem to bother with what goes on during
teaching. It may be that such children do not seem to possess ~e
relevant interests or values with the topic of the lessons in the
classrooms. There is therefore the need to modify the interests of
such children.
iv. Culture and Perception: Individuals are influenced by their
respective culture in their perception. In teaching a group of students
coming from various cultures, great care ought to be taken by the
teachers in their teaching and dealing with the various expectations
of these children till they settle down accepting the norms of the
country.
v. Experience and Perception: There is evidence that, we tend to
perceive according to our experience, as we tend to select from a
host of competing stimuli only those which satisfy our experience.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt what perception is; you have therefore learnt
factors affecting perception. You have also learnt stimulus configuration
factors, attention factors, and personality factors.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the process of perception.
2. It can be said that perception is due to the organization of the
sensory information of the data from the stimulus objects.
72
3. The model explaining perception mechanism shows why individuals

differ in perception even when confronted with the same stimulus at
the same time
4. Besides, there are various factors that tend to influence perception,
for example, Gestalt factors of stimulus configurations, factors of
attention, and personality factors.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. a. Define perception.
b. List the stimulus configuration factors.
c. List any 4 attention factors affecting perception.
Hebb, D.O. (1949). The Organization of Behaviour. John Wiley. New

York..
Mukherjee, A. (1978). Educational Psychology. K.P. Basu Publishing Co.

Calcutta, India.
73
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Impression Formation

Unit 2 Understanding some Important Factors in Person Perception
and Impression Formation
Unit 3 Personality Trait Inferences about what the Person is like
Unit 4 Understanding and Attributing Causes to Others’ Behaviour
Unit 5 Accuracy of Judgment
UNIT 1 IMPRESSION FORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Principles
3.2 The Information we use to form Impression
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 5, we discussed perception a basic process. The unit also served to

introduce us to other units in this course. You can now define the concept
of perception. You can also identify and explain the factors affecting
perception. We are now ready to discuss another unit you will find very
interesting and applicable: impression formation. Let us take a look at what
other content you should learn in this unit as specified in the objectives
below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
state the general principles of impression formation; and

describe the type of information that you may use.
74
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Principles
Two freshmen who are destined to be roommates arrive at college and meet
for the first time. Each one’s personality -how easy each one is to get along
with, how considerate each is -will have an important effect on the other’s
life. In the first few minutes of their meeting, each tries to form an
impression of the other because they know they will be spending a great
deal of time together during the year. How late does each one stay studying
at night? What kind of music does the other like? How does each feel about
parties in the room? They try to find out as much about each other as they
can. People use whatever information that is available to form impressions
of others -to make judgments about their personalities or hypotheses about
the kind of persons they are. In thinking about how people form
impressions of others, it is useful to keep in mind six quite simple and
general principles:
1. People form impressions of others quickly, on the basis of minimal

information and go on to impute general traits to them.
2. Perceivers pay special attention to the most salient features of a
person, rather than paying attention to everything. We notice the
qualities that make a person distinctive or unusual.
3. Processing information about people involves perceiving some
coherent meaning in their behaviour. To some degree, we use the
context of a person’s behaviour to if infer its meaning, rather than
interpreting the behaviour in isolation.
4. We organize the perceptual field by categorizing or grouping
stimuli. Rather than seeing each person as a separate individual, we
tend to see people as members of groups -a person wearing white lab
coat is a doctor, even though she may have features that make her
quite different from other doctors,
5. We use our enduring cognitive structures to make sense of people’s
behaviour. Upon identifying a woman as a doctor, we use our
information about doctors more generally to infer the meaning of her
behaviour.
6. A perceiver’s own needs and personal goals influence how he or she
perceives others. For example, the impression you find of someone
you meet only once is different from the impression you form about
your new roommate (Shoda & Mischel, 1993).
75
Think of your arrival at the study centre for your Distance Learning
Programme. You meet a fellow student who also intends to use the library
where you also intend to work. You find out he registers for the same
course as you. In the first minutes of your meeting, state the impressions
you may have of the fellow student.
Well done. Let us continue our discussion
3.2 The Information we use to Form Impression
Our knowledge and expectations about others are determined by the

impressions we form of them. A glance at someone’s picture or at an
individual passing on the street gives us ideas about the kind of person
he/she is. Even learning a name tends to conjure up-images of what its
owner is like. When two people meet, if only for an instant, they form
impression of each other. With more contact, they form fuller and richer
impressions .that determine how they behave towards each other, how
much they like each other, whether they will associate often, and so on. The
following is worthy of note.
Physical Cues
As this discussion implies, generally we draw on other people’s appearance

and behaviour to infer qualities about them. Such factors can lead us to
form remarkably detailed impressions. The observation that a person is
wearing conservative clothes, for example, may lead to the imputation of a
variety of other characteristics, such as being conservative politically. We
also use behaviour to draw inferences about people. We observe a fellow
distance learner helping a primary school pupil across the street and infer
that he is kind.
Salience
People direct their attention to those aspects of the perceptual field that
stand out the figure rather than to the background or setting the ground.
This is termed the ‘figure-ground principle’. In the case of impression
formation, the main implication is that most salient cues will be used most
heavily. If a distance learner appears at the study centre in a wheelchair the
first day of the first semester, everyone else in the library, everyone else in
the room is likely to form an impression that is most heavily influenced by
76
the fact of the person’s physical disability. Clothing, hair style, and perhaps
even age and sex will be secondary.
Let us ask ourselves a relevant question: What determines the salience of a

cue as opposed to another? Brightness, noisiness, motion, or novelties are
the most powerful conditions, according to the Gestalt principles of object
perception (discussed before). A man in a bright red sweater stands out in a
crowded classroom, and the sweater is his most salient feature. The student
who stands up shouting in the middle of a lecture and leaves the room
draws our attention because she is noisy and moving and almost everything
else in the classroom is quiet and stationary. We can therefore say that
anything that makes a cue objectively unusual in its context makes it
subjectively more salient and more likely to be noticed.
It is to be noted that salience has a number of consequences for person

perception. First, salient behaviours draw more attention than do subtler,
less obvious ones, (Taylor& Fiske, 1978). Second, salience influences
perceptions of causality in that more salient people are seen as having
influence over their social context (Taylor & Fiske, 1975). Let us cite other
example. The student who sits in the front row of the classroom and asks an
occasional question is more likely to be perceived as dominating the
discussion than we the student who sits 'in the back and contributes just as
much.
Salience increases the coherence of impression. If the salient person is a

member of a stereotyped group, such as ‘drug addict’, he/she will be seen
as possessing other stereotyped attributes of that group, such as criminal
tendencies, weak moral character, and a lack of honesty.
It is important for you to note that salient stimuli draw the most attention.
They are seen as the most causally powerful, they produce the most
extreme evaluative judgments. The effects of salience are sufficiently
interesting and exciting to attract the perceiver’s attention.
With the use of principles 1, think of situations where you can form
impression of others?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt what the general principles of forming
impressions of others are. You have therefore learnt the information we use
77
to form impressions. The most important of this are physical cues and
salience cues.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have leant in this unit concerns general principles of

impression formation
2. You also learnt the information we use to form impressions.
3. Amongst the most important of such information are physical cues
and salience
1. Explain any three general principles of impression formation.

2. Briefly describe physical cues and salience as some of the
information we use to form impression.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS
Shoda, R. & Mischel T. (1993). Advances in Social Psychology, Academic

Press, San Diego.
Taylor, L. & Fiske, S. (1975). Social Psychology, Prentice Hall, New

Jersey, U.S.A.
Taylor, L. & Fiske, S. (1975). Human Perception, Prentice Hall, New

Jersey, U.S.A.
78
UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING SOME IMPORTANT

FACTORS IN PERSON PERCEPTION AND
IMPRESSION FORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Person Perception
3.2 Important Factors in Person Perception
3.3 The Most Important Aspects of Impressions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed impression formation. The unit also served to
introduce us to other units in this course. You can now state the general
principles of impression formation. You can also describe the type of
information that you may use. We are now ready to discuss another
interesting unit: understanding some important factors in person perception
and impression formation. We will now consider person perception:
impression formation. Let us take a look at what other content you should
learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
describe person perception;

identify important factors in person perception; and
explain the most important aspects of impression.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Person Perception
While perception implies the use of direct sensory information, person

perception is concerned with the process by which impressions, opinions,
79
and feelings about other persons are formed. Often an opinion about
another person is not based on direct information but on statements by
others or knowledge of the person, received from other sources. It is
important for you to note that opinions, feelings, and impressions are rather
on subjective processes, and inferences drawn on the basis of such
subjective judgments go to constitute what person perception is all about.
State the opinions you have of the Librarian at your study center.
There are three sources in forming impressions of personality which are

stimulus information, perceiver variables, and impressions of stimulus
person. Stimulus information comprises of the physical appearance of the
person, and his overt verbal and nonverbal behaviour. Perceiver variables
consist of the perceiver's feelings and cognitions towards stimulus, his self-
concept, and his implicit personality theory and stereotype. The last source
consists of perception of causality, intent, justifiability, attribution of
personality traits and other cognitions towards the stimulus person.
As you can see from the list of the factors above, most of these sources
apart from the source of stimulus information belong to subjective
judgment of the perceiver.
There are however the following modes of perceiving others, viz:
a. From the point of view of the outward appearance and other

superficial characteristics of the person.
b. From the point of view of central traits of the person, for example,
aggressive, shy, and so on.
c. From the point of view of a cluster of congruous traits of the person,
for example strong and bold, polite and kind, and so on.
d. From the point of view of a variety of traits not necessarily
congruous of the person, for example, polite but cruel, kind but
aggressive, and so on.
The above modes of person perception will be clear if we consider the

following factors influencing person perception in the next section of our
discussion.
80
3.2 Important Factors in Person Perception
a. Verbal Cues: In a study conducted by Asch (1986), subjects who

were all college students, were asked to write a brief characterisation
of the person for whom the following traits were given, for example,
energetic, assured, talkative, cold, ironical, impulsive, and
persuasive. In spite of the paucity of information, all subjects readily
accepted the task of completing the sketch of the person. Their
responses showed significant differences in making use of the traits,
though they were all given the same list of traits. Some perceivers
saw the hypothetical person as cold, inquisitive and ironical, others
perceived him as energetic and assured, and some perceived him as
talkative, and persuasive. In all cases, there was one predominant
trait that characterized the hypothetical person. There was also
evidence that new traits were invented, and ascribed to the person.
b. Non-Verbal Cues: As a source of impression formation,

physiognomy has been studied more systematically than other forms
of non-verbal stimulus information. In one study, facial photographs
of women having narrowed eyes, a relaxed and full mouth, and a
smooth skin, were perceived as more feminine and sexually
attractive than others of women lacking these features (Secord,
1955). The classic example that we tend to form opinions about
others from their appearances, is to be found from the frequently
quoted passage from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar Act 1, scene 2:
Let me have men about me that are fats sleek-headed men and such as sleep
O’nights: You Cassius has a lean and hungry look; he thinks too much:
such men are dangerous.
Let us cite another example: Sheldon’s (1982) theory of personality on the

body types, like, ectomorphic, mesomorphic, and endomorphic is a relevant
example.
c. The Social Stereotype: We often find ourselves having only

categorical information concerning a person. We often categories a
person as a policeman, a teacher, or an old man. In all such
categorizing processes, society selects the dominant traits identifying
various categories of persons, for example, age sex, membership of
group, or some behaviour patterns. It is important for you to note
that stereotyping has also two other characteristics:
81
i. perceivers agree on the attributes that the persons in the

category possess, and
ii. a discrepancy exists between the attributed traits and actual
traits.
d. Perceiver Variables: Bruner and Tagiuri (1964) referred to the idea

that perceivers generally have a set of biases in judging others in
their ‘implicit personality theories’. That is, without realizing it, the
perceiver has a theory about what other people are like, and this
theory influences his perception. For example, an individual may
believe that a person who is friendly is also honest, though other
persons may associate friendliness with other traits, each of them
being influenced from his own experience or learning.
In another experiment, a group of children were taught the same lesson by a

‘popular teacher’ who was instructed to make as many ‘mistakes’ in
teaching as possible, and by another 'unpopular teacher’ who was-instructed
to give a ‘copy-book lesson’. A post- text was given to the children asking
them to rate the teaching of the two teachers, and it was found that the
children rated the ‘popular’ teacher who made mistakes during teaching as
a ‘better’ teacher than the other who made no mistakes at all during
teaching. It is obvious from such findings that individual biases towards the
other person had influenced their perception of the teaching methods of the
two different teachers. Many studies have shown that perceivers like
persons they assume to be more similar to themselves than persons towards
whom they feel neutral or whom they dislike. Remember that no hard and
fast generalisation can be made from either of these opposite types of
evidence.
Sometimes, preferences are shown on the basis of similarity, for example,

successful teachers tend to perceive the teaching profession as the only
honest profession worth doing; they even marry within their profession.
There are cases when an individual who is withdrawn and shy, and knows
that he is not rewarded by others for being so, tends to admire one who is
opposite, that is talkative, self-confident, and-persuasive. It is to be noted
that in the latter case, the preferences are based on compatibility and
admiration, and admiration, we all know, arises from one's accepted
knowledge or belief of one’s inferiority in some respect. You must also
remember that one’s self-concept influences one's person perception.
Distinguished between stimulus information and perceiver’s variables.
82
You should commend yourself for actively participating in our discussion.

Let us go on.
3.3 The Most Important Aspect of Impression Evaluation
The most important and powerful aspect of first impression is ‘evaluation.’

Do we like or dislike a person? Put more formally, the evaluative
dimension is the most important of a small number of basic dimensions that
organize our unified impressions of other people.
This point was shown in a study by Osgood (1957) using a measurement

procedure called the semantic differential. In this study, participants were
given a list of trait pairs and asked to indicate which trait more closely
described particular persons and objects. The list consists of such trait pairs
as happy- sad, good- bad, strong- weak, and warm-cold. It is important for
you to no note that these underlying dimensions accounted for most of the
ratings:, potency (strong-weak), and activity (active-passive). Once we
know that someone rate ‘mother’ as very good, moderately, strong, and
somewhat passive, we learn little more about these perceptions of ‘mother’
by asking for additional ratings. It is to be noted that evaluation is the main
dimension that underlines perceptions; potency and activity play lesser
roles.
Positively Bias
A general evaluative bias in person perception is to evaluate people

positively; a phenomenon termed the positively bias. (Sear, 1983a). Let us
cite an example to enhance your level of understanding. In one study,
students rated 97% of their professors in college favorably (that is above
‘average’ on a rating scale), despite all the mixed experiences students have
in their college classes (Sear, 1983a).
There is a hypothesis about why people are evaluated so favorably. It has

been suggested that people feel better when they are surrounded by good
things, pleasant experiences, nice people, good weather, and so on.
There is a special positively bias in people’s evaluation of others, which

Sears describes as the person-positively bias. People feel more similar to
other people than they do to impersonal objects and therefore extend to
them a more generous evaluation.
83
Negativity Effect
During impression formation, we tend to pay special attention to negative

information. And when we come to form an overall impression of the
person, that negative information is weighed more heavily. That is, a
negative trait affects an impression more than a positive trait, everything
else being equal. This has been called the negativity effect. The main
explanation for this effect is based on the figure-ground principle. As just
noted, positive evaluations of other people are much more common than
negative evaluations. Negative traits, which are more unusual, are therefore
more distinctive. People may simply pay more attention to those negative
qualities and give them more weight.
It is important for you to note that the impact of negative information

depends in part on what kind of judgment is being made about a person.
The negativity bias is very strong for moral traits. Thus, if a person engages
in dishonest behaviour that is assumed to be very informative about the
person’s underlying morality. Positive behaviours, in contrast, are
perceived to be performed by both moral and immoral persons.
Emotional Information
As it is true for negative information, perceivers notice emotionally charged

information and make great use of it in their judgments about others. That
is we infer what people are like from the emotions they express. In fact,
emotional information is one of the most difficult sources of information to
ignore when perceiving others.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt person perception. You have therefore learnt
important factors in person perception. In addition you have learnt the most
important aspects of impressions: evaluation, positively bias, negativity
effect and emotional information.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns person perception:

impression formation.
2. You also learnt important factors in person perception.
3. The most important aspects of impressions were learnt.
4. You have therefore learnt the process of putting together information
about people.
84
1. Describe three sources in forming impressions of personality

2. State 4 modes of perceiving others.
Asch, S.E. (1986). ‘Forming Impressions of Personality’ Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47,258-290.
Bruner, J.S. & Tagiuri R. (1964). ‘The Perception of People’ in: Lindzey,
R. (ed). Handbook of Social Psychology. Addison-Wesley. Mass.
Osgood, R. (1957). Social Psychology. Prentice Hall Inc. Chicago. Sears, T.
(1983a). Advances in Social Psychology. Longman, London. Secord, P.F.
(1955). ‘Personalities in Faces’ Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology. 50,238-242.
Sheldon, W.H. (1982). The Values of Temperament: A Psychology of

Constitutional Differences. Harper Row. New York.
85
UNIT 3 PERSONALITY TRAIT INFERENCES ABOUT

WHAT THE PERSON IS LIKE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 From Behaviours to Traits
3.2 Categorisation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 2, we discussed understanding some important factors in person

perception and impression formation. Also, the unit served to introduce us
to other units in this course. You can now describe person perception. You
can also identify important factors in person perception and explain the
most important aspects of impressions. We are now ready to discuss
another interesting unit: personality traits inferences about what the person
is like. We will now consider traits. Let us take a look at what other content
you should learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
identify behaviour traits; and

explain categorization
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 From Behaviour to Traits
We will move from observable information, such as appearance, behaviour,

even gestures, to personality trait inferences about what the person is like.
Note that referring to traits is a more economical and general way of
describing a person than is referring to behaviour. If someone asked you
what your roommate (in the secondary school) was like and you had to
86
recount each behaviour you could remember, it would take you a long time
and the person to whom you were describing your roommate to might not
become much better informed in the process. Instead, you would use traits
to summarize aspect of your roommate.
He was a good-natured, sloppy night person with a penchant for loud rock
music’.
This process appears to occur spontaneously, even automatically, as

behaviour is perceived. These traits, in turn, can act as indicators for
predicting future behaviour (Newman 1996).
The fact that we move from behaviours to traits so quickly is compounded

by the fact that traits imply each other. On observing a person patting a dog
in a friendly manner, we may infer that she is kind, and from our inference
of kindness, we may infer that she is friendly, warm, and helpful to her
friends. From a very simple incident of behaviour, then we can infer almost
a whole personality. The implications that traits have for other traits is
called ‘implicit personality theory’.
People use traits to describe others form the moment they first observe
them, although the more they know someone, the more likely they are to
use traits to describe the person (park, 1986 cited in Taylor 2000).
Nonetheless, there are individual differences in the degree to which people
make trait inferences. People who demonstrate a high need for structure,
that is a need to have organized and distinct patterns of information, are
more likely to make continuous inferences than individuals who do not
demonstrate this quality.
a. Which traits will you use to describe the principal of your secondary
school?
b. Which traits will you use to describe the English language teacher in
your SSS III class?
Well done. Let us go on with our discussion.
Competence and Sociability
The traits inferences that we make about other people fall out along two
important dimensions:
87
1. We tend to evaluate others in terms of their task-related qualities or

intellectual competence.
2. We tend to evaluate others in terms of their interpersonal or social
qualities.
It is important for you to note that within these general dimensions, we also
make more detailed impressions or judgments about a person, such as how
he treats his parents versus his friends or how good he is at physics versus
music.
Central Traits
According to Asch (1986), debate has raged over whether some traits are
more central than others. Let us cite examples to make our discussion
clearer and more understandable. The pair of traits, warm-cold, appears to
be associated with a great number of other characteristics, whereas the pair,
polite-blunt is associated with fewer. Traits that are highly associated with
many other characteristics have been called central traits.
In a unique demonstration of their importance of traits, Kelley (1950) gave

students in psychology course personality trait descriptions of a guest
lecturer before he spoke. Half the students received a description containing
the word ‘warm’, and the other half were told the speaker was ‘cold’; in all
other respects, the lists were identical. The lecturer then came into the class
and led a discussion for about 20 minutes, after which the students were
asked to give their impressions of him. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Effect of ‘Warm’ and ‘Cold’ Description on Ratings of

other Qualities
Quality Warm Cold

Self-centred 6.3 9.6
Unsociable 5.6 10.4
Unpopular 4.0 7.4
Formal 6.3 9.6
Irritable 9.4 12.0
Humorless 8.3 11.7
Ruthless 8.6 11.0
Source: Kelley (1950:434)
Note: The higher the rating, the more the person was perceived as having
the quality.
88
It is to be noted that there were great differences between the impressions

formed by students who were told the lecturer was warm and those who
were told he was cold. In addition, those students who expected the speaker
to be warm tended to interact with him more freely and to initiate more
conversations with him. Remember that different descriptions affected not
only the students’ impressions of the lecturer, but also their behaviour
towards him.
The Perseverance of Traits
Once we have made personality trait inferences about the meaning of

another person’s behaviour, those inferences take on a life of their own. Let
us cite an example. You may recall your impression of your friend as kind
and helpful long after you have forgotten the specific instance when she
helped the elderly person across the street. Asked if your friend is kind and
helpful, you are more likely to refer to your more prior trait judgment than
to a specific event. Trait inferences, then, ale made quickly, great virtually
spontaneously, on the basis of minimal information about a person and then
persists long after the information on which they were originally based has
been forgotten.
i. Will you describe your best friend as ‘cold’?

ii. Will you describe your best friend as ‘warm’?
iii. Will you describe your best friend as ‘cold’ and ‘warm’?
Fine, we must continue our discussion now.
3.2 Categorisation
Social’ categories, such as gender, tribe, religion, and social class influence
our perceptions as well. Perceivers do not respond to salient stimuli in
isolation; they immediately and spontaneously perceive stimuli as part of
some group or category.
Let us give an example. We do not see that unshaven, dirty, disorganized

man in the pork with worn-out shoes and a couple of old shopping bags as
just another human being; we immediately categorize him as a derelict.
When we go to a basketball game, we usually categorize people
immediately as members of one or another of five social groups: members
of one team or the other, referees, cheerleaders, team supporters and
spectators.
89
The categorization or grouping process is immediate and spontaneous and

does not take any time or thought. At the crudest level we categorize on the
basis of natural similarities appearance. We tend to assign people to the
category of ‘men’ or ‘women’ on the basis of their physical characteristics,
usually culturally defined differences in appearance (hair length, make-up,
type of clothing.)
At this stage, we need to ask a relevant question. What are the

consequences of categorization? Determining that an individual is a
member of a particular category may lead to social judgments about that
person that are consistent with the category-based stereotype. The
observation that someone is a Yoruba may call up a stereotype about
Yorubas in general. In addition, categorizing a person also speeds
information processing time: For example, Brewer et. al. (1981 cited in
Taylor, 2000) presented participants with photos of people in three
categories -’grandmother’, ‘young woman’, and ’senior citizen’-along with
verbal labels clearly identifying their category. Then they presented the
participants with additional information about each target person and
measured how long the participants took to incorporate the information into
their impressions.
It is to be noted that if we place a person into category, often our

impression of the person is based on that category, and the person's
individual characteristics are assimilated to the overall impressions we have
of that category.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you learnt behaviours, you have therefore moved from
behaviours to traits. In addition, you have learnt categorization and how
social categories influence our perception.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns how we move from
behaviour to traits.
2. You also learnt that social categories, such as gender, tribe, religion
and social class, influence our perceptions.
3. You have therefore learnt that perceivers immediately and
spontaneously perceive stimuli as part of some group or category.
90
1. a. On what basis are traits inferences made?

b. If you go to a football game, state six (6) categories of people you
will see and
c. State how people use traits
Asch, S.E. (1986). ‘Forming Impression of Personality’ Journal of

Abnormal and Ours to Social Psychology 47,258-90.
Kelley, H. H. (1950). Journey of Personality 18,434.
Newman, R.D. (1996). The Acquaintance Process. Holt, Rinehart &

Winston. New York.
Taylor, S.E., Peplau, L.A. & Sears, D.O. (2000). Social Psychology.
Prentice Hall Inc. New Jersey, USA.
91
UNIT 4 UNDERSTANDING AND ATTRIBUTING CAUSES

TO OTHERS’ BEHAVIOUR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Goals
3.2 Affective Cues
3.3 Attributing the causes of Behaviour
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we discussed personality traits inferences about what the
person is like. Also, the unit served to introduce us to other units in the
course. You can now describe competence and sociability. You can now
move from observable information to personality traits. We are now ready
to discuss another interesting and practical unit: understanding and
attributing causes to others’ behaviour. We will now consider behaviour.
Let us take a look at what other content you will learn in this unit as
specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
identify the goals we have for interacting with people;

explain affective cues; and
describe the causes of behaviour.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Goals
So far, we have discussed person perception as if it were a relatively

rational process of taking in information about others and organizing it
according to particular principles. Our goals and feelings about other people
92
also influence the information that we gather about them. One such factor
that influences how we gather information about others is the goals we have
for interacting with them. In one study, (Klein & Kunda, 1992 cited in
Taylor et. al. 2000) participants were told that another student would be
either their partner or opponent in a forthcoming game. Those who
expected the student to be their partner were motivated to see him as very
high m ability, whereas those who expected him to be an opponent were
motivated to see him as low in ability. After interacting with the student in
a simulated quiz show during which the student answered some questions
correctly and others incorrectly, the participant’s impression corresponded
to their motivations. Those who expected the student to be their partner
thought he was smarter than those who expected him to be their opponent.
This occurred even though the student exhibited exactly the same pattern of
answers in both conditions.
Goals have also been manipulated experimentally by telling participants

either to form a coherent impression of a person (impression formation
goal) or to try to remember the separate bits of information they might be
exposed to (remembering goal). Generally speaking, under impression goal
conditions, people form more organized impressions of others than when
their goal is simply to remember the information (Matheson, et. al. 1991
cited in Taylor et. al. 2000).
List the goals you intend to achieve by applying and getting admitted into
the National Open University of Nigeria to read the Diploma in HIV
Education management programme.
Clap for yourself for your active particil1atio~ in our discussion. Now, let
us continue.
Anticipating future interactions with somebody creates very different social

goals than simply trying to learn about that person, and research shows that
people remember more and organize the information differently when they
expect to interact with someone in the future.
Another important point you must remember is that the need to be accurate
usually produces more extensive and less biased information gathering
about a person. Chen et. al. (1996 cited in Taylor et. al. 2000) also reported
that the need to be accurate generally leads to more thorough and
systematic processing of information about people than is true under
conditions when accuracy is not a goal.
93
The type of impression one forms of another person also depends on the
kind of interaction one anticipates having with that individual. Outcome
dependency that is, the situation in which achievement of an individual’s
own goals depends heavily on the behaviour of another person typically
leads the individual to form a careful impression of the other. Participants
whose goals are not dependent upon the behaviour of another person are
more likely to form their impressions quickly and casually.
Another powerful goal is communication. The process of gathering

information for another person greatly influences not only what information
people communicate to that other person, but also the impression they
finally form themselves.
Sedikides (1990) asked participants to form their own impressions of a

target to a third individual. Communication goals completely determined
the information that was provided to the third individual such that they
overrode the participant's own impressions. In fact, participants actually
reformulated their own impressions in the direction of the positive,
negative, or neutral impression they had been instructed to convey.
When people communicate information about a target individual to a

listener, they not only modify their own perceptions about the target, they
systematically affect the impressions formed by the listener.
The influence of social goals on the kinds of impressions that people form
of others is substantial. People who have a particular social goal when they
interact with another person appear to make inferences that are consistent
with their goals about the other person, even when they do not intend to do
so or are completely unaware that they are doing so.
Try your hand on this question.
How will you describe the process of gathering information on your study
centre to another distance learner whom you come across in the bookshop?
Let us go on.
3.2 Affective Cues
Sometimes we use our internal state as a basis for judging other people, and
this can lead to systematic errors. When people are emotional, they are
more likely to attend to emotional information and use that in their
94
impression. Let us cite an example to drive the point home. When we are
aroused, we tend to perceive other people in a more extreme manner than
when we are not aroused (Stangor, 1990 cited in Taylor et. al. 2000). If you
have just finished playing a table tennis game and you meet someone who
strikes you as sleazy, your impression of the person as sleazy is likely to be
more extreme than if you met the person having just come from reading a
book.
Mood is another factor that can influence how another person is perceived.
When we are in a good mood, we tend to see another person more
positively, and when we are in a bad mood, we tend to view that person
more negatively. The effects of mood appear to be stronger for judgments
about unusual people than for more ordinary individuals. The reason is .that
unusual people elicit extensive processing; therefore more information is
available, and there is a longer time for mood to have an influence (Forgas,
1992).
Mood may influence not only1he content of impressions we form of others,

but also the process we use in forming them. A negative mood makes
people more likely to use piecemeal processing in impression formation
than categorical processing, even when categorical information is available
to them.
3.3 Attributing Causes to Behaviour
One of the most important influences we make about other people is why
they behave as they do. What causes one individual to be shy at a party and
another to be outgoing? What prompts a romantic breakup between two
people who had seemed so close? Attribution theory is the area of
psychology concerned with when and how people ask ‘why’ questions.
Theorizing about causal attributions that is, how and why people infer what
causes what began with Heider (1958 cited in Taylor el. al. 2000). He
argued that all human beings have two strong motives: the need to form a
coherent understanding of the world and the need to control the
environment. In order to achieve understanding and control, we need to be
able to predict how people are going to behave. Otherwise, the world is
random, surprising, and incoherent.
We are especially likely to make causal attribution when something

unexpected or negative events create a need for greater predictability
(Kanazawa, 1992, cited in Taylor et. al. 2000). To illustrate this point,
researchers talked with distressed married couples who had come to a clinic
95
for marital therapy. Each person was asked to list positive and negative
events that had happened in their marriage and to indicate how frequently
those events occurred. They were then asked their thoughts about the
events, which were coded for the presence of causal attributions. The
researchers found that the most attributional thoughts were made about the
most distressing event: their partner’s frequent negative behaviours or
infrequent positive behaviours (Holtzworth et. al. 1985).
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt about goals, you have therefore learnt about
affective cues. In addition you have learnt about attributing causes to
behaviour.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you learnt in this unit concerns goals and feelings about other
people.
2. You also learnt affective cues.
3. Often we are in the position of wanting to know why a person
committed a particular action. .
4. You have therefore learnt attributing causes to behaviour.
1. a. State the reason the effects of mood appear to be stronger for

judgments, about unusual people than for more ordinary individuals.
b. State the two strong motives that all human beings have and
c. What do you understand by outcome dependency in relation to
impression one forms of another person?
Forgas, S.A. (1992). Physique and Character, Harcount Brace, New York
Holtz G.C.
Katona, G. & Hudson, L. (1985). Social Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms

Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York,
Taylor, S. E., Peplau, L. A., & Sears D.O. (2000). Social Psychology.
96
UNIT 5 ACCURACY OF JUDGMENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Accurate Person Perception
3.2 Cues used to make Judgments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed understanding and attributing causes to others’

behaviour. In addition the unit served to introduce us to other units in this
course. You can now explain goals and affective cues. Time is now ripe for
us to discuss a most interesting unit: accuracy of judgment. We will now
consider the need for society to function smoothly. Let us take a closer look
at what other content you should learn in this unit as specified in the
objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
describe accurate person perception; and

explain cues used to make judgment.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Accurate Person Perception
How accurately do people perceive others? As we will see, this is a thorny

question. On the one hand, people must be reasonably accurate in their
judgment of others for society to function as smoothly as it does. On the
other hand, having considered various evaluative and cognitive subjects, the
research suggests that under many circumstances, person perception may be
quite inaccurate. The answer is that we are both accurate and inaccurate.
97
It is important for you to note that people perceive external visible

attributes fairly accurately. A man in the blue uniform with a gun strapped
to his side is a police officer, and we must treat him accordingly. Note that
person perception becomes difficult when we try to infer internal states,
such as traits, feelings, emotions, or personalities.
Complete the following statements.
i. A man in a white top coat with a stethoscope on his neck is a person

who works in an…………………………………
ii. A woman in a ………………………skirt suit wearing a white belt,
putting on a pair of white shoes is a ………………………who
works in the city………………..…………….
That is good of you. Let us go on with our discussion.
We will now identify and explain the cues used to make judgments
3.2 Cues used to make Judgments
The Eye of the Beholder
One of the most surprising aspects of person perception is the fact that
different people observing the same individual can come to quite different
conclusions about that person’s personality. Thus observing a talkative,
cheerful and outgoing young woman, one person may conclude that she is
warm and appealing, while another may infer that she is shallow and rather
silly. Not only do people emphasize different aspects of other people and
their impressions, they often put information together in playful ways (Pack
et. al., 1994 cited in Taylor et. al., 2000). This finding implies that the more
complex and integrated our impression of someone becomes, the more
likely it is to diverge from that of others.
An interesting study with children illustrates this point (Richardson et. al.,
1965 cited in Taylor et. al., 2000). Each child was asked to describe all the
other children in the camp. The experimenters then looked at the
characteristics each child used in making descriptions of other children and
the characteristics used for describing each child. They could then examine
whether the same child was described the same way by most people or
whether the same perceiver used the same characteristics to describe all the
other children.
98
It is important for you to note that overall, the researchers found little
agreement about which dimensions described any given child. Rather, each
rater tended to use the same characteristics no matter which child he or she
was describing. Older children and adults share more consistent perceptions
of attributes and behaviour than is true for young children. Sometimes what
we notice in another person is influenced more by our ways of looking at
people than by that person’s actual characteristics.
Judging Personality
There is some research on how accurate people are in judging others’

personality traits, such as dominance or sociability. Accuracy is found to be
compromised by several factors.
First, people’s perceptions of others are sometimes determined by their

playful preferences for particular personality dimensions than by objective
attributes of the .person being evaluated.
Second, it is difficult to measure personality traits, and so it is difficult to

establish the proper criteria for accuracy.
The third factor has to do with how consistent people’s personality traits
are, especially in predicting their behaviour. Note that often, personality
traits predict behaviour in only a limited set of circumstances. Let us cite an
example: If a man cheats at pool but is very honest in dealing with his co-
workers and subordinates, is he an honest or dishonest person?
Some traits have behavioural manifestations that are especially observable.

Observable traits show high levels of agreement. For example, people show
a lot of agreement in their ratings of whether someone is extroverted or not.
Accuracy has also been measured by whether a rater’s judgments of another
person match that person’s own self-perception. For example, if you were
asked to rate your senior secondary school roommate, Samuel's
friendliness, your rating would be compared with Samuel’s self-rating to
see how much you agree. Generally speaking, agreement between peer
ratings depends upon how well the two people are acquainted (Malloy &
Albright, 1990 cited in Taylor et. al., 2000). When you know a person less
well, agreement may be high on publicly visible qualities, but not on
qualities less open to observation.
It is important for you to note that accurate perception of another person's

attributes can be improved when we have information about situation in
which the traits occur. For example, if people learn that an individual has a
99
particular goal in a situation, they are more likely to make a trait inference
from observation of behaviour.
Surprisingly, even strangers are able to rate others in a manner consistent

with those others’ self-perceptions after relatively brief exposures to their
behaviours. Sharing the same cultural background usually leads to more
accurate inferences than if the perceiver and the perceived come from
different cultures.
Remember that when we attempt to predict future behaviour, we fare rather

badly. That is for the most part we are overconfident about predicting the
behaviour of both other people and of ourselves (Ross, 1990 cited in
Taylor, 2000). This inaccuracy seems to be due to two factors. First, when
people express high confidence that certain things will happen to
themselves or others in the future, it is rarely warranted.
As confidence increases, the gap between accuracy and confidence widens.
Recognition of Emotions
Much of the work on the accuracy of person perception has focused on the
recognition- of emotions on whether a person is happy or afraid, horrified
or disgusted. In a typical study, a person is presented with a set of
photographs of people portraying different emotions and asked to judge
what those emotions are. More recent research has made use of video taped
chips of emotional reactions. Research has now shown e the virtual
universal recognition of several facial expressions of emotion in both
literate (Izard, 971) and pre literate Friesen, (1969) cultures.
It is now time to ask a relevant question. Why are we fairly accurate in our
perception of emotional state? (I know you are eager to read the answer to
this question) In 1871, on the basis of his evolutionary theory, Charles
Darwin proposed that facial expressions convey the same emotional states
in all cultures. His argument was that universal expressions have evolved
because they have great survival value: they allow animals to communicate
emotions and thereby control the behaviour of others.
One reason why people are quite accurate in judging the emotional states of
others may then be because all people use the same facial expression to
show a given underlying emotion. People smile when they feel happy,
grimace when they feel pain, frown when they are worried, and so on.
100
A number of empirical investigations have supported this point Craig and

Patrick (1985) induced pain by immersing participants’ hands and wrists
into icy water just at freezing temperature. They found consistent responses
across cultures in response to this task, including raising the cheeks and
tightening the eyelids, raising upper eyelids, parting the lips, and closing
the eyes or blinking.
It is to be noted that while not all individual emotions can be discriminated

well, people can typically distinguish the major groups of emotions using
facial cues. In an earlier study, Woodworth (1938 cited in Taylor et. al.
2000) suggested that emotions can be arranged on a continuum. The
continuum of emotion is:
1. Happiness, joy
2. Surprise, amazement.
3. Fear
4. Sadness
5. Anger
6. Disgust, contempt
7. Interest, attractiveness
Two basic dimensions of emotional expression are pleasantness and arousal

and people are reasonable judges of emotional states within the categories
that these dimensions form. For example, positive emotions such as
excitement and happiness are easily distinguished from negative ones such
as fear, anger, and disgust. Among the positive emotions such as fear and
anger can be distinguished from non arousing ones such as sadness.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt the need for society to function smoothly. You
have therefore learnt accurate person perception. In addition, you have
learnt cues used to make judgments.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the need for society to
function smoothly.
2. You also learnt accurate person perception and cues used to make
judgments: the eye of the beholder, judging personality and
recognition of emotions.
3. People universally draw on the same highly specific cues for judging
emotions.
101
1. a. Why do we fare rather badly when we attempt to predict

future behaviour?
b. State the basis of this inaccuracy.
c. Explain why we are fairly accurate in our perception of emotional
states?
d. Describe the continuum of emotions.
Craig, S.A. & Patrick, T.D. (1985). Principles of Behaviour: Appleton-

Century Crofts, New York.
Friesen, P. (1969). The Basis of Social Behaviour: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, London.
Izard, F. (1971). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, Wiley, New

York. Taylor, S.E.
Peplau, L.A. & Sears, D.O (2000). Social Psychology, Prentice Hall. Inc.
New Jersey, USA.
102
MODULE 4
Unit 1 The Problem of Deception

Unit 2 Socialization
Unit 3 Juvenile Delinquency
Unit 4 Behaviour Modification
Unit 5 Human Aggression
UNIT 1 THE PROBLEM OF DECEPTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Channels of Non-Verbal Communication
3.2 Explanations for Deceptive Non-Verbal Cues
3.3 Factors Influencing Deception Attempts
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed accuracy of judgments. In addition, the unit

served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can now describe
person perception and explain cues used to make judgments. It is now time
for us to discuss another interesting unit: the problem of deception. We will
how consider non-verbal behaviour. Let us look at what other content you
should learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
identify channels of communication;

eExplain deceptive non-verbal cues; and
list factors influencing deception attempts.
103
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Channels of Non-Verbal Communication
It is frequently assumed that certain aspects of non-verbal behaviour are not

under voluntary control. Thus a look, or glance, or tone of voice may be
involuntary or unintentional. However, a number or provisos need to be
kept in mind. First not all channels of non-verbal communication are alike,
some seem to be more under voluntary control than others. Leakage cues
are defined as those non-verbal acts which give away information the
sender wishes to conceal, while deception cues are those non-verbal acts
which indicate that deception is occurring without revealing the concealed
content of the message.
Second, a number of factors influence success in deceiving others. Let us

cite an example. Highly motivated deceivers seem more likely to fail to
deceive observers, while experienced and confident lairs and those with the
opportunity to plan their deceit seem to be more adept at deceiving.
Thirdly, situational factors such as the degree of stressfulness of the

situation influence detection of deceit.
Finally, a range of factors associated with the observer or message recipient

influences the extent of detecting deception. For example, degree of
suspicion, extent of probing questions asked and experience.
How will you define leakage cues?
3.2 Explanation for Deceptive Non-Verbal Cues
A number of psychological processes underpin deceptive communication

(Zuckeerman and Driver, 1985). These are listed as control, arousal, felt
emotion and cognitive processing. Lie tellers are insecure, more concerned
with the impression they are making, more guilty or anxious or more
aroused than truth tellers.
Because most people tell lies rather less frequently than they tell the truth
there may be a general tendency to feel less confident and insecure when
trying to deceive. As a result, deceptive behaviour may appear to be
104
planned, rehearsed or lacking in spontaneity. This is more apparent for

those non verbal bebaviours over which some degree of voluntary control
can be exerted; for example taking a longer time to respond before
speaking, or speaking more slowly.
Those who are socially anxious also exhibit a longer response time and
slower speech. That is, they are by nature concerned about making a
particular impression but are insecure about doing so. Hence their non-
verbal style is a characteristic sign of deceit.
I know you are enjoying our discussion given your active participation.
That is nice. We must go on now.
It is important for you to note that deception seems to increase body

arousal. .Behaviours associated with arousal includes increased pupil
dilation, eye blinks, voice pitch, speech errors and hesitations. Given the
stressful nature of most interrogative interview, such signs would be the
norm rather than the exception. For example, it would be quite usual when
someone is telling the truth but is highly motivated to be believed.
It must also be noted that telling lies is likely to require thought and may
well be a more cognitively complex task than telling the truth. A number of
non-verbal behaviours are associated with cognitive demand including
pupil dilation, pausing and decreased number of illustrative hand
movements. An opportunity to plan and rehearse may thus be advantageous
to some deceivers. It is worth bearing in mind also that thought and
planning may be required when truthful message senders are highly
motivated to convince others they are telling the truth. Note that this is not
unusual in many interrogative interviews.
Thus, although it may well be the case that lie tellers, in comparison to truth
tellers, are more concerned with the impression they are making, they may
appear more guilty or more anxious or more aroused but there are certain
instances when these same motives and feeling may be affected in truth
tellers; for example, during interrogative interviews when it is important
that a truthful message is believed.
3.3 Factors Influencing Deception Attempts
Motivation
The research literature suggests that the behaviour of highly motivated

deceivers differs from the behaviour of less motivated ones. To get away
105
with lying, their lies become more obvious to observers. De Paulo et. at
(1983 cited in Taylor et. al. 2000) found that judges who could see the
speakers’ facial expressions and body movements, or hear the tone of voice
cues, were more successful at detecting the lies of motivated than
unmotivated speakers. In contrast, those judges who only had access to the
typed transcript of what had been said were relatively less successful at
detecting lies told by motivated speakers.
A similar effect was suggested by De Paulo (1985) in another study where

undergraduates were urged to make a good impression while telling lies and
truths to attractive or unattractive members of the same sex or opposite sex.
The author argued that subjects would be more highly motivated to lie to
members of the opposite sex and indeed lies were more readily detected in
this instance.
Reviews of a range of studies suggest that, in comparison to less highly

motivated senders, those who are more highly motivated to deceive give
slower, shorter, more negative and more highly pitched responses which are
accompanied by less eye contact, 1ess blinking, fewer head movements,
and fewer postural shifts and fewer adaptive gestures, (De Paulo et. al. 1983
cited in Taylor et. al. 2000). Motivated deceivers try hard to either suppress
or control their behaviour and, as a result, end up over controlling it.
Observers notice this and infer that the person might be lying.
Highly motivated liars may also be those who are likely to plan their
response, be more practiced and more confident in their ability to deceive.
Will you be motivated to be a member of a discussion group with female

student) be reading or studying the same course with you and with whom
you regularly meet at the study centre?
Let us continue
Experienced Deceivers
The ability to use non-verbal behaviour is gained by practice and

experience. For example, there is some evidence that experienced sales
people are effective liars (De Paulo and De Paulo, 1989). In this study,
sales people were videotaped while making pitches for products they liked
and products they disliked but still had to try to sell. With these more
experienced liars, observers were unable to detect lies from the truth even
106
when they were directed towards cues which typically help people to detect
them. This failure to detect deception showed that the relevant cues were
simply not present.
De Paulo and De Paulo suggest four possible explanations for their results:
1. Sales people may be more practiced or experienced at telling similar

lies.
2. They may have confidence in their ability to deceive.
3. They may have a natural ability to deceive or may lack guilt about
lying in relation to selling.
You must also remember that individual differences (which we have

discussed) in communication skills are closely linked to deception ability
and that confidence in one’s ability to deceive plays an important role.
Self-Confidence
Individuals who are skilled communicators of posed emotions tend to be

more successful deceivers, whereas socially anxious subjects are less
successful. Lies, in comparison to truths are particularly detectable when it
is important for the deception to be successful but the deceiver has a low
expectation of their likely success.
Message Planning
The opportunity to plan and rehearse deceptive messages makes them more
difficult to detect. Spontaneous deception contains more speech errors and
pauses than spontaneous truthful messages. In contrast, there may be no
difference between truth- tellers and liars that are given the opportunity to
plan their messages. It is to be noted that truth-tellers may be even more
highly motivated than deceivers in interrogative situations and yet they are
frequently assumed to be lying.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you learnt non-verbal behaviour. You have therefore learnt
channels of non-verbal communication. In addition, you have learnt
explanations for deceptive non-verbal cues and factors influencing
deception attempts.
107
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns non-verbal behaviour.

2. You also learnt channels of non-verbal communication, explanations
for deceptive non-verbal cues, and factors influencing deception
attempts.
3. It is more likely that a highly experienced, self-confident and
socially skilled liar who has taken the opportunity to plan their lies
but is not highly motivated to deceive will be erroneously assumed
to be telling the truth.
1. a) Distinguish between leakage cues and deception cues

b. Three factors that influence success in deceiving other are:
c. Four psychological processes that underpin deceptive
communication are:
De Paulo, S.R. (1985). Analyzing Social Behaviour Addison-Wesley, New

York.
De Paulo, S.R. & De Paulo, H.M. (1989). Social Behaviour: Its Elementary
Forms, Harcourt Braces World Inc, New York..
Taylor, S.E., Peplau L.A. & Sears, D.O. (2000). Social Psychology.
108
UNIT 2 SOCIALISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Socialization
3.2 Socializing Agents
3.3 Sociometry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed the problem of deception. Also, the unit
served to introduce us to other units in this course. You can now identify
channels of communication, explain deceptive non-verbal cues, and list
factors influencing deception attempts. .Time is now ripe for us to discuss
another interesting and relevant unit: socialization. We will now consider a
significant process. Let us take a look at other content you should learn in
this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
define socializing;
identify socializing agents; and
specify the values of interpersonal relationships.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Socialization
At birth, the human baby is entirely dependent on others. It is subject to

certain biological pressures such as hunger, thirst, and the need to eliminate
waste. This is referred to as physiological needs in psychology. The human
baby has no means of avoiding these tensions and may even be unaware of
the precise cause of the discomfort. The mother waits upon its needs,
109
communicates in an elementary way, and allays fear. Early in this process,

an incipient social relationship is established between the baby and its
mother, when the former cries and the latter responds.
The human being, though born with the potential for social life, must
nevertheless undergo a long and often arduous process of socialization. He
must learn first to live with others and then to participate in his society in
satisfying and rewarding ways. This by no means requires the slavish
acquisition of conventional values, it does require, however, that some
ethics of self-discipline and self-respect be transmitted, not merely for the
sake of the social order but for the sake of individual happiness(Alhassan,
2000:180).
For any society to survive, it is necessary, to transmit to all new members

the system of shared meanings, language, customs, values, ideas and
material goods that are called culture. Socialization refers to the process of
growing up into a human being, a process which necessitates contact with
other people. It is through this process that the growing child acquires the
language and standards of the social group into which it has been born.
Research studies indicate that deprivation of human contact in early life

inhibits the development of normal social responses. Note that all human
beings, except those born with severe physical handicaps, have the inborn
capacity to become fully mature members of society but, in order for this
capacity to be realized, the child has to have adequate social relationships
with others. It is to be noted that social behaviour in humans is not inborn.
In a very important sense, we have to “learn” to be human beings. Ogburn
and Nimkoff (1964) describe socialization as a process whereby the
individual becomes a person.
Will you say that social behaviour in human beings is inherited? Think very
well about this. Respond now.
According to some psychologists, socialization includes the following

aspects:
1. Imitation, identification, and role learning.

2. Acquiring internal controls or conscience, the self-concept; and
social roles.
110
3. Development of various behaviour systems of dependency,

aggression, and social affiliations.
4. The relation of the social structure to the processes of socialization,
and to their effects (Mukherjee, 1978).
It is important for you to note that the term socialization is broad enough to
cover all types of learning. In brief, these include the following:
1. Fundamental psychomotor skills, for example, walking.

2. The communication skills, for example, the ability to use a language.
3. Acquiring to use a language.
4. Other patterns of behaviour expected of an adult, for example,
independence from the mother and development of an awareness of
and control over self.
5. Social skills, for example, the art of conducting oneself among a
group of strangers.
6. Ideas, attitudes and values either of the dominant group in society.
7. Occupational skills, for example, the ability to teach in a secondary
school.
8. Ideas regarding specific status, for example, the rights and
obligations of a husband (Datta, 1986:55).
Will you say socialization and learning are one and the same process?
Think before you respond.
3.2 Socializing Agents
The first point you must note in this section is that socialization is not
accomplished, willy-nilly, in accordance with personal tastes. Every society
has developed specific ways and means of accomplishing it. It may well be
that probably all institutions are pertinent to the socialization processes
because in all, new members are to be taught the do’s and don’ts of the
established order. Obviously, some of them are more important than others
to the individual’s induction into the value of his society. The major
socializing agents are:
a. The Family: Everywhere, the family plays a central role in

socializing the child. Typically, parenting includes a major
responsibility for socialization. It is in the family that the child is
111
born, it is there he spends his early years and learns his first
language. The family is the single most important agency for the
inculcation of these basic social values and character traits, which
make .for the child’s eventual responsible participation in the life of
society. It is important for you to note that the recent history of the
family represents a gradual but inexorable loss of function and
importance in the larger community, but the job of child rearing still
belongs to it. The family is of course responsible for the physical and
material care of the young ones, but to it is also entrusted their moral
education. When things go wrong, as in juvenile delinquency,
common sense tends to place the onus squarely upon the family and
to look for shortcomings in the home.
The ultimate origin of personality and character is traced to the

dynamics of the parent-child relation, and early childhood
experiences within the home is seen as the most important single
factor in formation of basic adult attitudes and behaviour. Because
family life revolves around basic needs and satisfactions, both
physical and emotional, parents are in a position to inflict painful
deprivations and thereby exercise considerable influence in
moulding their children.
b. The School: Beginning with nursery school, the family now

relinquishes the child to other people and other more impersonal
institutions for a good part of the day and for almost the entire period
of youthful dependence. The relinquishing of the family’s educative
role to the school is most important during adolescence and early
adulthood, when the problem of relating to society and to people
outside the family becomes acute. There are teachers at all levels of
the educational systems, and there are all those who are involved in
the production of books, magazines, newspapers and television
programmes all contributing individually and severally to the
socialization process.
c. The Peer Group: Although relationship with parents and the school
is important to the child, it is not the only influence in the
socialization process. In recent years, psychologists have become
interested in peer relationships. Peers are children of roughly the
same age who share similar interests. Children all over the world
form peer groups. The young spend most of their time with one
another, and this strengthens their tendency to the approval of their
peers at least as much as that of their family. When family ideas are
in sharp conflict with peer group ideas, this creates tension between
112
parents and children and tends to reduce the effectiveness of parental

control.
The interrelatedness of age-mates in peer groups has come to have a

new significance in modem society. Where the family is the
important unit of social participation, relation cuts across the
generations. A peer group shelters and protects its members. It gives
them psychological sustenance by meeting emotional needs of
affection, understanding and acceptance. It invests individuals with
specific status. Since it comprises a small number of persons of
equal rank, a peer group can operate as a medium of communication.
In all these, it is not surprising that a peer group provides effective
learning situations. It transmits the culture of society in a diluted
form, it teaches certain roles and social expectations, and conditions
the attitudes and sentiments of its members. Datta (1986) observes
that in Africa, much of the peer group socialization was achieved
traditionally through the age set system where it was prevalent,
though l in most other societies, peers had considerable influence on
shaping the behaviour of young adolescents.
d. The Mass Media: The mass media print and electronic are playing
an increasingly important role in the socialization process. One
index of this is the increasing numbers of newspapers, magazines,
periodicals, and comic booklets that seem to be enjoying increasing
patronage. The influence of radio is most pervasive, especially after
the introduction of the battery-operated set. The radio has now
penetrated remote corners of every country in Africa. It is cheap to
operate, and programmes in many indigenous languages are
available. Hachten (1971) reported that the number of transmitters in
the whole of Africa jumped to 370 in 1964 from 151 in 1955. During
the same period, the number of radio receivers increased from
350,000 to about 12 million. We can rightly say that the expansion
of broadcasting is a measure of its popularity as a source of
information. Remember that religious authorities have
responsibilities for certain aspects of socialization. So do many
others.
You deserve commendation for active participation in our discussion. Now,

we must go on.
113
3.3 Sociometry
Successful school work depends, among other things, on such

characteristics as the pupil’s personal adjustment, attitudes, and social or
group skills. It is therefore important that teachers know how to measure
and interpret these personal and social factors and to use the test results in
planning classroom activities. Sociometry is the study of patterns of
interrelationship existing in a group of people. Essentially, from the
measure of interrelationships it is possible to draw up a chart that will give
a pictorial representation of some aspects of interpersonal relations. The
teacher could generate sociometric data by asking the pupils different
questions: for example, the teacher can ask the children to ‘list the person
you would like to invite to your birthday party; ‘list the person you would
like to sit next to you in class; whom do you prefer as the class game’s
master’. The children may be requested to make a single choice or two or
three choices. The teacher obtains different kinds of information about the
pupil’s preferences from these differently focused questions. For purpose of
illustration, suppose we ask twelve children, ‘Whom would you like to sit
next to in class?’
Each child is allowed two choices. The teacher charts the answers she
receives on a specially constructed table. The teacher then transfers the
information from her table to a sociogram (see Figure 1).
If you look at the figure, you will see that a sociogram allows you to see
how the cliques in the class are distributed. In our example, you will note
that we have represented each child by a circle, and indicated choices by
means of arrows pointing from the child who made choice to the child he
preferred. In our sociogram, Audu, Bala, and Charles are the most popular
in the class. These children are designated the stars. Arrows pointing both
to and from them show that their attraction to each other as friends is
reciprocated. They also form a clique. The single arrows from Eze, Gab,
Kim and Usman to Audu indicate that these children desire friendship and
more interactions with Audu but their preferences are not reciprocated.
Chide and Usman aspire friendship with other members of the class but no
child in the class
114
Fig. 1: Sociogram showing Sitting Preferences in the Classroom
would like to sit with them since none of the other children chose them. We
would regard them as isolates on the basis of the question we asked.
Sometimes a true isolate is neither chosen by anyone nor does he choose
anybody. In our sociogram Mabel is a ‘true isolate’. Feeling rejected or
isolated can lead to loss of self-esteem and, indeed, sometimes to
depression. Experienced teachers are often able to identify rejected or
isolated children or young people by watching classroom or playground
interactions. Frandsen (1967) suggests that the teacher should compare the
pupils' preferences with other information available to her. Such
information includes the teacher's classroom observations interviews and
other procedures. If these sources support the children’s responses, then the
teacher will know that her sociogram is valid, and if a particular child is the
isolate, the teacher will be alerted to the need to provide special help to
remove the causes of rejection.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, yon have learnt significant processes. You have therefore learnt
the concept of socialization. In addition, you have learnt agents of
socialization and sociometry.
5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this unit concerns a significant process. You also
learnt concept of socialization. In addition, you learnt major socialization
115
agent: the family, for school, the peer group and the mass media.
Sociometry is the study of patterns of interrelationship existing in a group
of people.
1. a. How will you define socialization?

b. List 4 socializing agents?
c. State 3 types of learning covered by socialization?

Publishing Coy Ltd Zaria, Nigeria.
Datta, A. (1986). Education and Society: A Sociology of African Education.

Macmillan Publishers, Nairobi.
Frandsen, T. (1967). Educational Psychology, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hachten, W. (1971) Muffled drums: The New Media in Africa. Iowa State
University Press, Ammes.
Mukherje, A. (1978) Educational Psychology. K.P. Basu Publishing Coy.

Calcoutta, India.
Ogburn, W. & Nimkoff, F. (1964) A Handbook of Sociology. Routledge &

Keegan Paul, London.
116
UNIT 3 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Delinquency
3.2 Places where Delinquent Personality Operates
3.3 Remediation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed socialization. In addition, the unit served to

introduce us to other units in this course. You can now define socialization,
identify and discuss the agents of socialization, and specify the values of
interpersonal relationships. It is now time for us to discuss a very relevant
and useful unit: juvenile delinquency. Let us take a look at what other
content you should learn in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
define the concept of juvenile delinquency;

identify the places where delinquent personality operates; and
describe how the situation of juvenile delinquency may be remedied.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Delinquency
By legal definition, the juvenile delinquent is neither a neglected youngster

nor a young criminal but one who occupies instead some twilight zone
between the two. According to the law, if a young lawbreaker is legally
defined as a juvenile delinquent, he cannot be charged with crime or treated
as a criminal. Like the neglected and dependent child, he becomes a ward
of the state. Sometimes, as in the case of murder, the young lawbreaker is
117
charged with a crime, tried and punished in the regular courts. For most
other offences, however, the law requires that an offender under a certain
age be adjudged delinquent and not criminal. On the face of it, the concept
of juvenile delinquency may be said to be one of pro-criminality, the
youthful violator in adult law is regarded as pre-criminal and as someone
not only in need of rehabilitation but likely to be amenable to it. The
incorrigible child, even though he violates an adult law, is also regarded as
probably pre-criminal. The breakdown of parental authority is by itself
considered ominous. The concept of juvenile delinquency automatically
places the 17-year-old habitual committer of crime in the same legal
category of responsibility with the 10-year-old child who steals a tyre as an
escapade. Care must be taken to ensure that the concept of juvenile
delinquency does not blur our perception of the distinction between
delinquent youths and those who are, to all intents and purposes youthful
criminals.
The special importance which delinquency has acquired in relevant years in

the public mind may be traceable to a growing conviction that delinquent
behaviour patterns are spreading among young people formerly relatively
immune to them. Children who pickpocket with a view to buying sweets, or
anything else are delinquents. Unlicensed schoolboys and undergraduate
students riding automobile machines and or driving cars are delinquents.
Vibrant Lagos youths who found the wild afternoon bar beach sun in 1985
a perfect rendezvous for their adventure when they were supposed to be in
school or at work are delinquents. As Omotunde (1985:6) reveals, alcohol
was unabashedly consumed and assorted weeds freely puffed by the youths.
Such was the situation in July, 1.985 when a news crew of the Nigerian
Television Authority (NTA) recorded the level of juvenile moral
degeneration as was often exhibited at the Lagos bar beach. It was intended
for a documentary, but a one-.minute clip during the evening network news
was enough to cause a stir in the then Lagos State Government of Governor
Mudashiru who swiftly set up a 4-member tribunal to probe what later
became commonly known as the ‘bar beach show of shame’ and other
issues relating to juvenile delinquency tribunal. It is important for you to
note that its findings revealed that many of the principal actors were mainly
school drop-outs.
3.2 Places where Delinquent Personality Operates
There are certain conditions in some places that make it more likely that the
delinquent learning and the development of the delinquent personality will
operate. Amongst such places and conditions are:
118
The Family: Dacey (1989 cited in Alhassan, 2000) writes that the family
is, and for millennia has been the social group that has the most influence
on individual behaviour. Negative feelings within the family or the sudden
alteration of family life can create disturbances that lead to juvenile
delinquency. Burt (1925) in his book, The young delinquent, opined that the
most favorable condition associated with delinquent acts is ‘a defected
home discipline’.
I want you to note that discipline in such a home may be too strict, too
lenient or worst of all, alternating between strictness and leniency. Merrill
(1947) reports ‘good’ discipline in 15% of the delinquent homes and 63%
of the non-delinquent homes. The Gluecks (1950) report ‘lax’ discipline in
57% of the delinquent cases and 12% of the non-delinquent ones. In deeper
analysis, the Gluecks found that the fathers typically used physical
punishment as a method of control in 68% of the delinquent cases, they
used reasoning as a method of control in 11 % of the former as and in 24%
of the latter.
So many things may happen within the family: It is through the family that
the child most directly comes into contact with the value conflicts that exist
in society. Not uncommon are the parents whose own overwhelming drive
for success is all too obvious. Children who experience unhappy home
lives, rejection by parents and inferiority complex are usually delinquent.
Let us note that conflicts within the family, parental rejection, delinquent
parents who take to alcoholism and lack of parental supervision of their
children could easily bring about delinquency in children.
In addition, the size of the family, which is usually large in African

societies, the emotional climate of the home caused by parental coldness
and lack of any appreciable degree of freedom could bring about
delinquency in children. Delinquency rates has been found to be high in
homes broken by death, divorce, desertion or prison terms, and in homes
where there is lack of emotional security.
The Peer Group: Juvenile gangs recruit, stimulate, and teach delinquents.
Shaw and Mckay (1961) and the Gluecks (1950) and others have concluded
that delinquency is largely a gang operation. Of 5,480 offenders, Shaw
found that only 18% had committed their delinquency alone, 30% had a
single companion, 27% had three or more. 89% of those charged with theft
had at least one accomplice. Note that the gang contributes to delinquency
rates in several connected ways.
119
The adolescent tends to want to conform to the ways of his peers. Because
delinquent gangs are organized groups, they are in a particularly good
position to exercise pressure for conformity.
Delinquent gangs provide ready antisocial channels for the energies and the
normal and special personality needs of the adolescent.
It is to be noted that a gang can provide security, recognition, affection, and

new experience when these are not provided by the family or elsewhere in
society.
The Mass Media: The mass media are a key factor in the generation of
delinquency. Radio, television, films, comic books, and newspapers
contribute to delinquency by glorifying, overemphasizing and giving
instruction in crime. It is important for you to note that this is one of the
theories of delinquency causation that has attracted the most popular
support from the public.
I am sure you are eager to know what the public reaction is against the mass
media. Among the charges against the mass media are that they stimulate
the juvenile appetite for adventure; glorify the criminal; impart knowledge
of criminal techniques; and overemphasize the extent of criminal life in our
society.
Children tend to remember good or bad acts learnt in movies more easily.
We know that motion pictures can affect attitude towards social groups.
Children who watch a sex act in a film tend to imitate such action. And this
is seen as an aspect of delinquency. In a highly delinquent area,
newspapers, which are sensational and which glorify various crimes and
offences are usually in great demand. It is not therefore surprising that
Lagos Weekend, Africa’s largest-circulation week-end daily, is printed and
published in Lagos and not in Lokoja.
Take a close look at your immediate community. Are there delinquent

gangs there? How do they operate?
Let us continue our discussion by looking at what we may do to sufficiently

reduce the incidence of delinquency.
120
3.3 Remediation
Note that preventive measures are more reassuring. To prevent

delinquency, it becomes necessary to deal with both personality factors and
environmental influences, especially those coming from home, intimate
associates and the community. Creating a wholesome environment and
eliminating undesirable influences are two important phases of a
constructive preventive programme. For instance, the Lagos state
Government in 1985 accepted the recommendation of the Lagos Bar Beach
Juvenile Delinquency Tribunal and banned the sale of cigarettes and
alcohol to persons under 18 years while the doors of hotels and pub houses
were shut .against them. Police patrol at the bar beach was made more
effective at all times so as to rid the resort of malingering and criminals
while the government stopped further approval of beer parlours and liquor
sales points within school vicinities. The principal actors among the youths
were sent to approved schools and foster homes as applicable where they
can be conditioned to grow to become useful citizens.
We must embark on a genuine and sustained reconstruction of the Nigerian

society. There are several ways that schools and teachers can facilitate the
instruction of Nigerian youths and aid them in the solution of their personal
problems.
1. Be alert to the symptoms of the delinquent-prone such as extreme

restlessness, hostility, truancy, and any apparent lack of moral
standards. Other aspects of indiscipline such as lateness, absence
from school without permission from home and school, truancy and
improper dressing should attract proportional and relevant sanction.
2. Separate the fact from the fiction about delinquency. There are no
physical differences between the delinquent and non-delinquent
(Glueck and Glueck, 1952); they differ emotionally, since
delinquents are more sadistic, impulsive, defiant, and destructive.
3. Be certain that school conditions are not causing or intensifying

delinquent behaviour. Schools may cause delinquency, prevent
delinquency, and help to treat the delinquent.
4. Provide curriculum materials, and methods that are designed to

enable the child to utilize them effectively.
5. Maintain good community relations to receive necessary support for

varied programmes, both curricular and extra-curricular.
121
Effort to lead juvenile gangs and clubs into socially acceptable .avenue of
behaviour must be embarked upon on a sustained basis. The government
should make provision for social services agency that would give adequate
and continuous attention to family.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt maladjustment. You have therefore learnt the
concept of delinquency. In addition, you have learnt where delinquent
personality operates and remediation strategies that may be employed.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns maladjustment.

2. You also learnt concept of delinquency.
3. The family, the peer group, and the mass media are among the
factors that generate delinquency.
4. Towards solving this problem, the school and teachers have been
caned upon to be alert to the symptoms of the delinquent-prone such
as extreme restlessness, hostility, truancy, and any apparent lack of
moral standards, .amongst others.
5. The government should make provision for social service agency
that would give adequate and continuous attention to family
situations and parent education.
1. a. Complete this statement:

‘For preadolescents and adolescents, the law requires that an
offender under a certain age be adjudged……...…and not…………..
b. Among the places and conditions where the delinquent personality
operates are:
c. State any three (3) ways in which the gang contributes to
delinquency rates in Nigeria.
122
Alhassan, A.B.(2000). Understanding Educational Psychology. Tamaza

Publishing .Co. Ltd. Zaria, Nigeria.
Burt, C. (19.25). The Young Delinquent. Routledge and Kegan Paul.

London.
Glueck, S. & Glueck, E. (1950). Unraveling Juvenile Delinquent.

Commonwealth Fund, New York.
Merrill, (1947). Problems of Child Delinquency. Boston: Houghton
Omotunde, S. (1947). 25 Minutes of Delinquency in Newswatch Magazine

(September 23) 6.
Shaw, C. & Mckay, H. (1961). Juvenile Delinquency in Urban Area.

University of Chicago, Chicago.
123
UNIT 4 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types and Frequency of Deviant Behaviour
3.2 Methods for Controlling Behaviour
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed juvenile delinquency. The unit also served to
introduce us to the other units in this course. You can now define the
concept of juvenile delinquency and identify the places and conditions
where delinquent personality operates. You can also explain how the
situation of juvenile delinquency may be remedied. Time is now ripe for us
to discuss a most relevant and applicable unit: behaviour modification. We
will now consider managing human behaviour. Let us take a look at what
other content.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
explain what is meant by behaviour modification; and

list the methods for controlling behaviour.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types and Frequency of Deviant Behaviour
It is possible for students of educational psychology with some training to

‘shape’ the desired behaviour, and to minimize the deviant behaviour of
children in classrooms. Some parents with the awareness of the psychology
of operant conditioning can shape the desired behaviour of children. What
is behaviour modification? By behaviour modification we mean a formal
technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviour and
124
decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. Note that behaviour

modification has been used in a variety of situations ranging from teaching
severely retarded people the rudiments of language to helping people stick
to diets (Whaley & Malott, 1993).
Before any behaviour modification is attempted, it is however necessary for

the manipulator of the experiment to have a detailed knowledge of the type
and frequency of the deviant behaviour needed to be eliminated from the
child or the person concerned. For example, if a child is observed to rise
from his seat and run to some other child frequently during the lesson hour,
then the ‘baseline’ or operant level of this deviant behaviour of the child
has to be determined first. That means the number of times per lesson hour
during the morning, for example, the child rises from his seat, and
manifests this disturbing behaviour. This has to be assessed to determine
the frequency and nature of this distracting behaviour. Then the next step is
to determine the ‘terminal behaviour’ wanted to be seen in the behaviour
manifestations of the child or the person concerned.
Think of a deviant behaviour that a child has been manifesting and which
you will prefer modified. Is the deviant behaviour disturbing to the child
alone?
Clap for yourself for having participated so actively in our discussion. Now,
let us go.
3.2 Methods for Controlling Behaviour
Various methods can be employed for controlling behaviour, and some of

them are as follows:
(a) Operant conditioning

(b) Shaping
(c) Scheduling various types of reinforcements
(d) Modeling or imitations
(e) Extinction
(f) Satiation
(g) Aversion therapy
(h) Conditioning incompatible behaviour
(i) Self-control
125
If a child manifests some form of deviant behaviour then it is also very

likely that the same mild manifests some forms of other socially approved
behaviour as well. During the initial period of observation of the child’s
behaviour to determine the baseline of the deviant behaviour, these
elements of socially approved behaviour can also be spotted. It now
necessary to quote some examples of modifications of different types of
deviant behaviour that has been reported in the relevant literature.
A technique, often employed in behaviour modification is the use of the

'free method’. This implies that the individual manifests his behaviour
‘freely’ preferably when he is left alone, and the emphasis is on the
performances of the individual. Hart and her collaborators (1964) employed
the technique of the free operant method to eliminate the crying behaviour
of a four-year old child. Firstly, the baseline of the child’s crying responses
was determined from observing the child’s crying behaviour for a ten-day
period’ morning sessions. It was found that eye-contact with the person
present reinforced the crying response of the child.
Then a period of experimentation followed which lasted three more periods,

each of ten days. During the first of these experimental periods, the teacher
avoided making eye-contacts with the child which produced extinction of
the crying behaviour, but other behaviour of the child was reinforced
positively. One thing that is to be noted in the experiment is that eliminated
behaviour is likely to reappear if the child or the person gets reinforcement
of these deviant responses from different environments. This implies that
the behaviour that is modified in the school or the clinic should in no
circumstances be reinforced elsewhere, and in this regard, parents’
cooperation is of great importance to the teacher. The methods we have
discussed is the ‘free operant method’ where extinction, reinforcement of
the desired behaviour element, and a correct scheduling of the
reinforcements of .the operant were used in modifying the crying operant
behaviour of let us go the child.
Mention any two deviant behaviours that you will like to remedy by using
the method just discussed?
We must continue our discussion now.
Another method that is frequently used is the method of ‘shaping’. It

implies reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of the desired
behaviour. Isaacs et. al. (1960) used the method of shaping to reinstate
126
verbal behaviour in an hospitalized patient who had been mute for several
years. It was found that the patient would sit at a place without any signs of
any movement of eyes or lips. Various methods to draw the attention of the
patient, for example, waving cigarettes or other things before his eyes had
already failed.
The experimenters then found that while taking a packet of cigarettes, a

packet of gum accidentally dropped to the floor and this made the patient
move his eyes to the floor.
Two things became clear from the shaping experiment: extreme patience on
the part of the experimenters and successive reinforcements of closer and
closer approximations of the desired behaviour: If the behaviour of the
hospitalized patient having being mute for nineteen years could be shaped
in course of 18 sessions only, then there is no reason why the behaviour of
children in the classroom cannot be shaped by teachers with experience and
patience.
The withdrawal of reinforcement is aversive in nature, and it is found that

subjects will learn a response that prevents the withdrawal of
reinforcement, since withdrawal of reinforcement contingent upon a
response decreases the strength of that response. Let us cite an example. If a
(hungry) child is sent to his bedroom every time he puts his elbows on a
dinner table, then the rate at which he puts his elbows on the table
decreases. If the rate of his putting his elbows on the table increases
following his experiences of being sent away from the table, then by
definition, ‘sending away’ from the table is positively reinforcing the child.
Let us consider another example. We notice that when mothers often say to
their children: ‘If you do this I will not speak to you, but if you stop doing
this or that, I will love you all the more’ children respond to this treatment
from their mothers and learn to behave accordingly. Mothers, though
inexperienced and untrained in the psychology of avoidance responses and
withdrawal of reinforcements, are continually engaged in the process of
shaping their children’s behaviour.
Another experimental technique that decreases the strength of a deviant

behaviour is called satiation. Under this concept, it is implied that the
strength of a response will decrease under the influence: of continued
reinforcement. For example, if a teacher continually says to a child for
every manifestation of a particular behaviour of his that he is a good child,
and then it is likely that the child will get bored with hearing that he is good
all the time and out of satiating experience he will refrain from emitting that
behaviour.
127
With aggressive children who must show various forms of aggression, as in

the case of children processed by the law, this method has been used where
the children are allowed to display their aggression in any manner they like
with only safeguard being taken that the lives of the persons dealing with
the children, and of the children themselves are not endangered.
It is important for you to note that deviant behaviour observed commonly in

the classroom can be successfully tackled by experienced and trained
teachers though difficult cases should be referred to the specialists in this
field. The importance of the psychology of behaviour modification is
relevant to teachers as it unfolds to him avenues which produce a congenial
atmosphere in the classroom for further progress of lessons. The importance
of parental cooperation in achieving the objective to modify deviant
behaviour of children cannot be overstated.
It is to be noted that any attempt to modify deviant behaviours

presupposes .the following:
(a) Determining the baseline of the deviant behaviour.

(b) Determining the terminal behaviour, and close approximations of it.
(c) Deciding on the nature of positive reinforcement that will be
attractive to the child.
(d) Locating the nearest possible avoidance responses available in the
behaviour repertoire of the child.
(e) Reinforcing the child during adaptation while extinction continued.
(f) Taking recourse to predetermined schedule of reinforcement while
shaping of the child’s behaviour is continued.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt how human behaviour may be managed. You
also have learnt about types and frequency of deviant behaviour as well as
the methods for controlling behaviour: operant method, shaping, scheduling
various types of reinforcements, modelling or imitation, satiation, and
aversion therapy, amongst others.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. What you have learnt in this unit concerns the management of

deviant behaviour.
2. You also learnt types and frequency of deviant behaviour.
3. In addition you have learnt methods for controlling behaviour.
128
1. a. Explain what you understand by behaviour modification?

b. What for m of knowledge must an experimenter interested in
modifying behaviour have?
c. List six (6) methods for controlling behaviour
d. State four (4) suppositions that an experimenter must take into
consideration in an attempt to modify behaviour.
Hart, B.M., Allen, K.E. & Wolf, M..M: (1964). ‘Effect of Social
Reinforcement on Operant Crying’ Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 1, 145-153.
Isaacs, W. Thomas J. & Golddiamond, (1960). ‘Application of operant and

conditioning to Reinstate Verbal Behaviour in Psychotics’ Journal
of Speech for Hearing Disorders, 25,8-12.
Whaley, S. T. & Mallot, R.W. (1993). Personality and Adjustment.

Longmans, London.
129
UNIT 5 HUMAN AGGRESSION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Word Aggression
3.2 Theories of Aggression
3.3 Additional Determination of Aggression
3.4 Management of Aggression
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 4, we discussed behaviour modification. The unit also served to

introduce us to other units in this course. You can now explain what is
meant by behaviour modification and list and explain its major methods.
We are now going to discuss another very interesting and very applicable
unit: human aggression. We will now consider the important part of the
human condition. Let us take a look at what other content you should learn
in this unit as specified in the objectives below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
define the concept of aggression;

explain theories of aggression;
describe additional determinants of aggression; and
discuss how aggression may be managed.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Word Aggression
Semantically speaking, the word ‘aggression’ or the phrase ‘aggressive

behaviour’ may arouse different, wide or varied connotative meanings to
different individuals, though the denotative meaning of the word, according
130
to the Pocket Oxford English Dictionary, is simply ‘unprovoked attack’. To

students of the science of behaviour, that denotative meaning of the word is
not satisfactory since under aggressive behaviour, psychologists list a great
variety of behaviour. Such behaviour may be both verbal and non-verbal
where the apparent cause creating aggressive behaviour may or may not be
present.
Freud and others argued that aggression is a primary instinct in the living
species who have survived through the ages during evolution. There is
some evidence as to show how pacifism, a supposed contrasting type of
behaviour, has led to complete extermination of species including members
of the human race. The primitives of Tasmania were renowned for their
isolation and pacifist life style. Today they have been exterminated from
the face of this earth. Another human race, the Veddas of Sri Lanka is
nearing extinction and complete extermination due to their complete
isolation and pacifist life style. Traditionally, an example can be quoted
from the story depicted in the puppet theatre of the NTA Jos, Nigeria where
the members of a town are all the time conspiring to get ‘the innocent man’
exterminated for his isolation and love for peace. We can cite many of such
instances to show that pacifism leads to extermination of the species while
aggression contributes towards survival.
Martin Luther King, Anwar Sadat, Mahatma Ghandi, Murtala Mohammed,

Dele Giwa, Kudirat Abiola, Alfred Rewane, and Bola Ige all died by the
assassins’ bullets and all were known for their love for peace and goodwill.
It is on record that King trained his followers (most of them workers and
students) in the tactics of non-violence. He made them sign non-violence
pledges and made them watch plays where the white man’s police
brutalized the African-Americans without the latter raising a finger. We
know also how Sadat tried to settle the Middle East crises peacefully
through diplomatic maneuvers.
From your personal experience, identify any three individuals known for
their love of peace and avoidance of violence.
Well done. Let us continue our discussion by looking at aggression from a

psychological standpoint.
Psychologically speaking, aggression has been defined as a sequence of

behaviour ‘the goal response to which is the injury of the person toward
whom it is directed’ (Dollard, et. al. 1939:7). Most subsequent theorizing
131
and research into aggressive behaviour have adopted injurious intent as an

essential aspect of aggression. But we know that aggression serves more
than the infliction of injury. Aggression is a normal component of sexuality,
as indeed it is of any activity in which human beings express themselves.
The failure of a love-relation is inevitably accompanied by hostility, as the
pathetic records of divorce courts bear witness.
In point of tact, there are different types of aggression some of which are
examine below:
Instrumental Aggression: This is aimed at securing extraneous (external)

rewards other than the victim’s suffering. The Nigerian Civil War
(1967-1970) is a classic example of instrumental aggression -it was ‘used’
as an instrument for maintaining national unity and national cohesion by the
Federal Military Government of General Yakubu Gowon. Any act of war is
instrumental aggression.
Hostile Aggression: The sole aim of this is to inflict injury on others.

Physical assertiveness is more likely to be defined as aggression if
preformed by a female than by a male because such behaviour departs more
widely from common expectations of appropriate female conduct. On the
other hand similar assertiveness by boys in a delinquent gang would be
underrated with respect to aggressiveness.
Displaced Aggression: This means aggressive behaviour directed

against some object than the one actually causing the feelings. It is a
defence mechanism and it is common in everyday affairs.
Which type(s) of aggressive is (are) widely manifested in Nigeria?
Now, let us go on with our discussion.
3.2 Theories of Aggression
Some psychologists still hold that aggression stems from biological or

genetic causes, and should be viewed as a natural aspect of human
behaviour (Johnson, 1972). Reports from the mass medial print and
electronic of murder, and brutal assaults tend to suggest that violence is
purely a random event one which strikes innocent victims from out of the
blue without warning or even apparent cause. It is relevant for you to note
that in some instances, this is certainly true. When armed robbers go on a
132
shooting spree during which they gun down total strangers, or when street-
corner gangs attack and brutally beat innocent pedestrians on the streets of
large cities, violence does indeed seem to be both pointless and random. It
is to be noted that aggression does not occur in a social, vacuum: rather, it
springs from specific conditions which pave the way for its occurrence. In
the occurrence of aggression; three factors which have often been
implicated are frustration, physical or verbal attack, and exposure to the
actions of highly aggressive models.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
The most striking point that you must take note of with respect to the
frustration aggression theory is that it sees the source of violence in a
person’s relationship to his social environment. It states that aggressive
behaviour of which violent conduct is a major form, results when
purposeful activities are interrupted. The classical proponents of this theory
often cite an example of a boy being prevented by his mother from getting
an ice cream cone after the ice cream vendor’s bell has been heard and the
boy is on his way to buy it.
You must note that the frustration aggression theory is frequently criticized
for not explaining the circumstances under which frustration leads to
aggression and under which it does not. Some children regress rather than
aggress; for example, when toys are taken from them, they wet their pants
rather than attack other children. In fact, the theory does not differentiate
between aggression that is violent and aggression that is not (which may
take the form of personal insult rather than physical assault):We also know
that aggression may be evoked by other factors other than by frustration, for
example, by boredom or by disrupting physiological and non- purposeful
activities, such as sleep.
The frustration aggression theory is often cited to suggest that if people’s

aspirations are kept from outpacing the opportunities available to them,
violence will be less common than in our own frustrating world, where
everyone is encouraged to strive for economic and social success but the
avenues are not equally available to all. Taking the case of Hitler and
Germany and the accusation of causing World War II, the British called it
‘unprovoked attack’. Germany was frustrated by the treaty of 1919 which
stripped her of all powers. She became frustrated and took to aggression.
Yates (1967) puts it that ‘an individual strongly motivated to reach a goal
will be instigated to aggression and aggressive forms of behaviour if the
goal is unattainable and the barrier to the goal is held constant in each case’.
133
In the trial of Adolf Hitler, Hitler’s defence counsel argued that Hitler
should not be sentenced for causing World War II. He went further to say
that war was a biological necessity and an indispensable regulator of
mankind. He said, ‘If you want peace, prepare for war’.
I can see that you are enjoying our discussion. Remember I told you that
this unit was very interesting and applicable, let us continue.
We know that not all forms of aggression result from frustration. For
example, soldiers often inflict greater harm and suffering on others in time
of war when ordered to do so by their superiors, even in the total absence of
frustration. Hired assassins (as has been witnessed in Nigeria from 1988)
cold-bloodedly murder persons they have never met even on days when
they are in particularly fine spirits, simply because they are paid to do so.
Such cases indicate that aggression may stem from many factors besides
frustration, and occur in total absence of frustration.
Then after watching non aggressive shows (Liebert & Schewartzberg,

1977). We can conclude that the high level of violence prevailing in many
popular television shows has adverse effects upon the persons who view
them, though not all experimental findings support this conclusion
(Manning & Taylor, 1975). But the weight of existing evidence does seem
to suggest that exposure to televised violence may weaken children’s
restraints against attacking or harming others.
Let us now consider other sources of aggression.
3.3 Additional Determination of Aggression
Many individuals can readily be induced to inflict pain and discomfort on

others by the command of an authority figure. Among the many other
factors that can influence aggression are uncomfortable heat, heightened
physiological arousal, exposure to unpleasant noise, crowding, and even
darkness. Obviously, it is reasonable for us to conclude that aggression
springs from many different sources, and is influenced by many different
conditions. The occasional emotive outbursts in the national dailies by
some Nigerians are certainly aggressive in connotations but they are also
beneficial to the mental health of those individuals who by catharsis tend to
release their emotion of anger and frustration. This point is worth taking
notice of as it shows how different the Nigerian culture is from the Western
culture where the training is to suppress or even repress emotions.
134
Alhassan (1981) writes that overcrowding is an environmental condition

often involved as an aversive instigator of aggression. There are certain
features of density groupings that could facilitate aggressive prowess. At
the familiar level, children who live in cramped quarters are likely to spend
more time on neighbourhood streets, than those residing in spacious
households. To the extent that neighbourhood influences foster antisocial
styles of life, the probability of developing aggressive conduct is thereby
increased. Besides, note that parents who have to cope with many children
in congested quarters are often forced to punitive measures to halt
squabbles between family members who repeatedly get in one another’s
way.
At the broader social level, the immense logistic problems of servicing

hordes of people inevitably create annoyances. Crowding heightens
competitiveness for services and desired resources as is commonly seen on
Lagos, Ibadan, Onitsha, Port Harcourt, Enugu, Abuja and Kano streets
where people really struggle every moment they are to catch a bus of the
Lagos State Transport Service and those of other cities and towns: it is
always exasperating. Dense1y crowded conditions not only increase the
likelihood of interpersonal friction, but also pollute and otherwise intensify
the aversive qualities of the physical environment. In addition to the
irritants of crowded living, they foster a sense of anonymity and
impersonality conducive to inconsiderate behaviour. Remember that the
psychological consequences of overcrowding are difficult to isolate because
it is usually associated with, among other factors, poverty, ethnicity,
unemployment, and inadequate law enforcement, which compound the
causes. At this stage, we need to ask a relevant question. What can we do to
control aggression? Think about this. Let us go on.
3.4 Management of Aggression
It has often been suggested that neither punishing aggressors for their
violent acts or merely threatening to do so may be a highly effective means
of preventing these persons from engaging in such activities: For example,
Walters (1966:69), a noted child psychologist, states that ‘it is only the
continual expectation of retaliation by the recipient or other members of
society that prevents many individuals from more freely expressing
aggression’. It is apparent that punishment is sometimes quite effective in
deterring aggression.
In addition, several experiments conducted with children indicate that the

frequency or intensity of such behaviour can often be sharply reduced by
even such wild forms of punishment as social disapproval (Brown & Elliot,
135
1965). Notwithstanding such findings, there are strong grounds for

doubting that punishment will always serve as an effective deterrent to
human violence as treatment often produces only a temporary suppression
of punished acts. Individuals on the receiving end of punishment may
interpret such disciplinary actions as attacks against them. It is to be
remembered that aggression often breeds aggression and this may 1ead to
an increase rather than a reduction in the overall level of violence. Direct
punishment may often fail to reduce the likelihood of overt aggression:
indeed, in some cases, it may actually tend to enhance such behaviour
(Baron, 1973a).
As a practical system for controlling and making use of the competitive

aggression which is so evident in political controversy, democracy still
seems to be the best system yet devised in spite of its apparent drawbacks.
Although slow and uncertain in operation, democracy has the decided
advantage over other political systems of providing an opposition which not
only acts as a check on government, but also asserts that political opponent,
in countries where free speech is allowed, may be apparently friendly
though bitterly antagonistic in reality.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt an important part of the human condition. You
also have learnt about the word aggression, the concept of aggression, and
theories of aggression. You also learnt how the situation of aggression
could be managed.
5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this unit concerns human aggression.

You also learnt theories of aggression.
In addition, you learnt additional determinants of aggression.
Finally, you learnt Strategies for managing aggression.
1. Define the concept of aggression

2. List three types of aggression
3. State one weakness of the frustration aggression theory
4. Four other factors that can influence aggression are:
136
Alhassan, A. B. (1981). The Psychology of Aggression Re-examined within

the Nigerian Context. Unpublished M. ED. Study of Educational
Psychology Department, Ahmadu_Bello University, Zaria.
Baron, R. A. (1973). ‘Threatened Retaliation from the Victim as an

Inhibitor of Physical Aggression’ in: ‘Journal of Experimental
Research in Personality’. 7, 103-15.
Baron, R.A. (1974a). ‘Aggression as a Function of the Victim’s Pain Cues,

Level of Prior Anger are usual and Exposure to an Aggressive
Model’. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 29,
117-124.
Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological analysis.

McGraw-Hill, New York..
Brown, P. & Elliot, R. (1965). ‘Control of Aggression in a Nursery School

Class’ in: -Journal of Exceptional Child Psychology. 2, 103-9.
Dollard J., Docb L., Miller N. & Sears R. (1939). Frustration and
Aggression. .University Press. New Haven, Yale.
Green, R. & Stonner, D. (1973). ‘Context Effects in Observed Violence’

in: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 25, 145-50.
Johnson, R.N. (1972). Aggression in Man and Animals. W.B. Saunders

Company, Philadelphia.
Liebert, R. & Chwartzberg, N. (1977). ‘Effects of Mass Media in: M.

Rosenzweig & Porter (eds) Annual Review of Psychology:
Longmans, California.
Manning, S. & Taylor, D. (1975). ‘Effects of Viewed Violence and

Aggression: Stimulation and Catharsis. Journal of Personality &
Social P vsychology. 31, 180-8.
Yaters, A..J. (1961). ‘Hypnotic Age Regression’. Psychological Bulletin.

58, 249.
137

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: CSS 121

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Course Developer/Writer Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

Course Co-ordinator Dr. (Mrs) Inyang Udofot

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2006

All Rights Reserved

Introduction to psychology is a year one, three credit-foundation course.

This course will introduce to you ways in which psychological theories

The course consists of 20 units, which involve definitions of

What You will Learn in this Course

The overall aim of CSS 1 03 -Introduction to psychology -is to introduce

intelligence, explanation of behaviour in relation to genetic influences

Psychology is vital to the understanding and prediction of human

This course aims to give you an understanding of the definitions of

1. Introducing you to the definitions of psychology.

On successful completion of the course you should be able to:

1. Define the concept of psychology.

Working through this Course

Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains self- assessment exercises, and at

Major components of the course are:

The study units in this course are as follows:

Unit 1 Definitions of Psychology

Unit 1 Individual Differences in Intelligence

Unit 1 Understanding and Attributing causes to others’ Behaviour

Unit 3 The Problem of Deception

The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to be sincere in attempting

There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You are

Final Examinations and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Assessments 50% of course marks

How to Get the Most from this Course

Unit Title of Work Weekly Assessment

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

1. Read this course guide thoroughly.

2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

working on and one of the materials for further reading on your

9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s

10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 17 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion

CSS 103 intends to introduce psychology to you. Upon completing this

You will be able to answer questions like these ones.

Course Code CSS 103

Course Title Introduction to Psychology

Course Developer/Writer Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

Course Coordinator Dr. (Mrs) Inyang Udofot

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2006

All Rights Reserved