Solid State Physics Notes

AL_ABBAS Notes Solid State Physics
Solids: Solids consists of atoms, ions or molecules packed closely together, and
the forces that hold them in place give rise to the distinctive properties of
various kinds of solids.
Solid state Physics: The branch of Physics which deals with Study of structure
and properties of solids in terms of crystals and electrons in crystals is called
solid state Physics.
Types of solids: There are mainly two types of solids depending upon the
arrangement of atoms and molecules
I. Crystalline solids
II. Amorphous solids
Crystalline solids: The solids in which atoms and molecules are arranged in
regular array and having periodicity in the atomic structure are called crystalline
solids.
Example: Quartz, rock salt and calcite etc
Properties: There are following properties of crystalline solids
 They have sharp melting point
 They show anisotropy(The ability of crystalline solids to change their
physical properties when measured in different directions)
 Most of solids are crystalline in nature because energy released during the
formation of an ordered structure is greater than energy released in
formation of disordered structure; therefore most of solids are crystalline
in nature.
 The crystalline state is low energy state that’s why most of the solids are in
crystalline state.
Amorphous solids: The solids which has no regular internal structure i.e the
atoms and molecules are not arranged regularly but arranged randomly are
called amorphous solids.
Example: Glass, plastic and rubber
Properties: There are following properties of amorphous solids
AL-ABBAS NOTES SOLID STATE PHYSICS BY ASAD ABBAS (SUBJECT SPECIALIST PHYSICS) 0303-9251414 1
 They do not have definite melting point
 They show isotropy(similar properties along different directions)
 They have short range order.
A relationship b/w plane faces, sharp straight edges and interfacial edges: This
is defined by formula f+ c=e+2 where
Here f is no of faces, c is no of angles, e is no of edges
Example: If f=18,c=14, e=? Then put in above formula 18+14=e+2 so e=30
Growth rate or phase is rapid in polycrystalline and slow in single crystals.
Solids are classified into two type’s namely single crystal solids and poly crystal
solids.
Single crystal solids: The crystal in which periodicity of structure extends
throughout the material is called single crystal e.g. diamond and quartz.
Properties of single crystals: There are following properties of single crystals
 They have long range order
 They have periodicity throughout the material
 They have sharp melting point and boiling point
 These are invariant crystals
Poly-crystal: The material which is composed of small single crystal section is
separated by well defined boundaries are called poly crystals.
Grain and grain boundaries: In case of poly crystal, small crystalline are called
grains and boundaries are known as grain boundaries. For example rock salt and
ceramic are poly crystals.
Space lattice: A set of infinite number of imaginary points in three dimensional
spaces with each point having identical surrounding is known as space lattice.
These are also called point lattices.
Identical surrounding means that lattice has same appearance when it is
viewed.
A small group of points is called point lattice which repeat itself by means of
translations vectors.
Lattice: A lattice is a set of regularly spaced points with positions defined as
multiples of generating vectors.
OR: The regular arrangement of atoms which are joined together by mass less
elastic springs (2-D) is called lattice.
Homogeneous medium: The medium in which the atoms are directly attached to
each other, such that these are attached by spring is called homogeneous medium.
Non Homogeneous medium: The medium in which atoms are attached by slinky
springs such that in real they are not spring but they are just shown.
In two dimensions, a lattice can be defined as all the points that can be reached by
the vectors , created from two vectors and = m + n , where n and m are
integers
In three dimensions, the definition is =m +n +o .
Such a lattice of points is also called a Bravais lattice.
The number of possible Bravais lattices that differ by symmetry is limited to 5 in two
dimensions and to 14 in three dimensions.
An example of a two-dimensional Bravais lattice is given in Figure 1.1.
The lengths of the vectors and are often called the lattice constants.
Primitive unit cell. This is any volume of space that, when translated through all the
vectors of the Bravais lattice, fills space without overlap and without leaving voids.
The primitive unit cell of a lattice contains only one lattice point.
Non primitive unit cells contain several lattice points.
Wigner–Seitz cell: It is the region of space that is closer to one given lattice point
than to any other.
Basis: The basis is what we “put” on the lattice points, that is, the building block for
the real crystal. The basis can consist of one or several atoms. It can even consist of
complex molecules as in the case of protein crystals.
Bravious lattice+ Basis=crystal as shown in fig
Basis: These are the building block of crystal. It may be one atom or group which is
placed at lattice point is called Basis.
A regular arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms on each lattice point for the
formation of a crystal structure. Such an atom or group of atoms is called basis.
Lattice: The regular periodic arrangement of points in space is called lattice
The lattice in two dimension is called plane lattice
The lattice in three dimension is called space lattice.
The knowledge of symmetries (mirror lines/translational symmetry, a rotational axis,
and inversion symmetry can be very useful for the description of crystal properties.
Effective number: In permitive lattice, the point of lattice is contributing with how
much other points, then effective number in permitive is 4(1/4)=1
In non permitive effective number remains greater than one because now points are
also on surface and also inside than 4(1/4)+1=02
Unit cell: The basic building block for construction of complete lattice is called unit
cell. OR A unit cell is smallest unit of lattice which on continuous repetition
generates the complete lattice. For three dimensions, unit cell has parallelepiped
shape.
Permitive unit cell Non permitive unit cell

When number of effective atoms/ lattice A unit cell having two or more than two
point in a unit cell is one is called no of effective atoms/lattice points is
permitive unit cell. called non permitive.
Effective no of atoms=01 Effective no of atoms=02
Symmetry operations: A symmetry operation which transform the crystal to itself

i.e crystal remains invariant under a symmetry operation. These operations are
1) Translation
2) Rotation
3) Reflection
4) Inversion
Translation: The translation symmetry follows from the orderly arrangement of a
lattice, A lattice point “r” under lattice translation vector operation T gives another
point “ r’ ” which is identical to “r” r’=r+T
Rotation: A lattice is said to be posses the rotation symmetry if it rotates by an
angle Ѳ about an axis transform the lattice to itself.
A lattice remains invariant by a rotation of 2π. The angle 2π must be integral
multiple of Ѳ , nѲ=2π, Ѳ=2π/n
Example: for one fold n= n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 2π=1
For two fold n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 180 =2
For three fold n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 120 =2π/ (2π/3) =3
For four fold n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 90 =2π/ (π/2) =4
For fivefold not exist b/c n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 72 =not equal to 5
For six fold n =2π/ Ѳ=2π/ 60 =2π/ (π/3) =6
A rotation corresponding to the value of n is called n-fold rotation.
Reflections: A lattice is said to be posse’s reflection if there exist a plane in the
lattice which divides it into two identical halves, which are mirror image of each
other.
Such a plane is represented by m. Each rotation axis has two possibilities
One is rotation with reflection and other is rotation without reflection.
Since there five allowed rotation axis, so possible number of combinations are 10.
1,1m,2,2mm,3,3m,4,4mm,6,6mm. no mirror exist in 1,2,3 where 2mm,4mm,6mm
first m represent a plane parallel to rotation axis.
Inversion: It is applicable only to three dimensional lattices.
This symmetry operation implies each point located at r to a lattice point have an
identical point located at –r, relative to same lattice point.
There are 09 planes(03 surface, 06 diagonal) and 13 symmetry axis across 2,3,4
fold..
Atomic packing fraction:
Definition:
“The ratio of volume occupying the unit cell to the volume relating to the structure of
crystal is called atomic packing fraction”.
 Simple cubic: No of atoms per unit cell are one so the value of packing fraction for
simple cubic is 52%
 Body centred cubic: No of atoms per unit cell are 2 so the value of packing fraction
for bcc is 68%
 Face centered cubic: No of atoms per unit cell are 4 so the value of packing fraction
for fcc is 74%
 Hexagonal close-packed structure (hcp): No of atoms per unit cell are “6” so
the value of packing fraction for hcp is 74%.
17 elements crystallize in the BCC structure and 24 elements in the FCC structure.
36 elements crystallize as hcp.
Only for the simple cubic structure, the cube is identical with the Bravais lattice.
For the BCC and FCC lattices, the cube is also a unit cell, but not the primitive one.
For example CsCl, the structure can be thought of as two simple cubic structures
stacked into each other
For NaCl, it consists of two FCC lattices stacked into each other.
Which structure is preferred for such ionic crystals depends on the relative size of
the ions.
Structures also maximize the number of nearest neighbors for a given atom, the so-
called coordination number. OR
Number of atoms closest to individual atoms is called coordination number.
Coordination number for simple cubic 06, for BCC it is 08.
For both the fcc and the hcp lattice, the coordination number is 12.
Bond : A bond is a force that holds groups of two or more atoms together and make
them function as a unit.
Interatomic forces are responsible for holding atoms together to form solid structure.
Bond energy: Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break a particular
bond. It determines the strength of bond.
Mixed bonding types are found, for example, a combination of metallic and covalent
bonding in the transition metals.
Only a fraction of the electrons, the so-called valence electrons, participate in the
bonding. These are the electrons in the outermost shell(s) of an atom.
The electrons in the inner shells, or core electrons, are bound so tightly to the
nucleus that their energies and wave functions are hardly influenced by the
presence of other atoms in their neighborhood.
Attractive and Repulsive Forces: Two different forces must be present to establish
bonding in a solid or in a molecule.
An attractive force is necessary for any bonding.
A repulsive force, on the other hand, is required in order to keep the atoms from
getting too close to each other.
Repulsive forces are known as short range force then attractive because of
repulsive interaction b/w nuclei become appreciable only for very small distance.
Equilibrium distance: The distance at which energy of system becomes minimum
is called equilibrium distance.
Primary and secondary bond: A primary bond is the bond formed by sharing
electrons b/w two atoms or transfer of electron from one atom to another atom.
Primary bonds are covalent, ionic and coordinate covalent bonds.
The bond where no sharing of electrons or transfer of electron occurs is called
secondary bonds. E.g Hydrogen bonding, vandervalls forces or dipole dipole
interaction.
Chemical bond: A bond results from the attraction of nuclei for electrons is called
chemical bond.
Ionic bonding: This occurs when there is an attraction between oppositely charge
ions like NaCl. This is between atoms of metals and non metals with very different
electronegativity. This is formed by transfer of electrons.
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from an electropositive atom to an
electronegative atom.
In the case of NaCl, the ionization energy of Na is 5.1 eV and the electron affinity of
Cl is 3.6 eV. The net energy cost for creating a pair of ions is thus 5.1 3.6 = 1.5
eV.
Cohesive energy It is the total energy difference between any solid and the isolated
atoms it is made of.
Lattice energy: The total electrostatic energy gain for the crystal needs to be
calculated using the known crystal structure. This energy gain is called the lattice
energy.
Electro negativity: It is the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared
electrons to it. EN increases across the period and decrease down the group.
Fluorine is the most electronegative atom and Nobel gases have no EN.
Covalent bond: This is formed by the sharing of electrons.
When electrons shared equally like H2 and Cl2 are called non polar covalent bonds
When electrons are shared unequally like H2O are polar covalent bonds.
Metallic bond: The bond formed between atoms of metallic elements. This is found
in metals, hold metal atoms together very strongly.
Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen atoms have only one electron and can form one
covalent bond.
If the bond is formed with a very electronegative atom (like F or O), the electron is
mostly located close to that atom and the hydrogen nucleus represents an isolated
positive (partial) charge.
This can lead to a considerable charge density because of the small size, and it can
therefore attract negative (partial) charges in other molecules to form an
electrostatic bond.
This type of bonding is called hydrogen bonding. It is usually quite weak but in some
cases, the cohesive energy can be up to several hundred meV per atom.
It is responsible for the intermolecular attraction in water ice and for the bonding of
the double helix in DNA.
Types Ionic Covalent Molecular Metallic

Lattice Negative ions Shared Instantaneous Metal ions
and positive ions electrons charge Electron gas
separation in
molecule
Bond Electric attraction Shared Wander wall Electron gas
electrons forces
Properties Hard, high MP, Very hard, high Soft, low MP, Ductile, metallic
may soluable in MP, insoluable soluable in luster, high
polar liquids such nearly in liquid, covalent liquid electrical and
as water semiconductor Electrical thermal
Except insulators conductivity
diamond)
Example NaCl Diamond, Methane,CH4 Sodium
Ecohesive= carbon Ecoh=0.1 Ecoh=1.1eV/atom
3.28eV/atom Ecoh=7.4eV/atom eV/molecule
Van der Waals Bonding: The term van der Waals bonding refers to a weak and
purely quantum mechanical effect.
The electron cloud around an atom or a molecule has no static charge distribution
but one governed by quantum mechanical fluctuations
This type of interaction is present in every solid but it is much weaker than ionic,
covalent, or metallic bonding.
Van der Waals bonding is only observable for solids that do not show other bonding
behavior, for example, noble gases
Pure van der Waals crystals can only exist at very low temperatures.
X-ray diffraction:
X-ray diffraction of crystals was discovered and described by M. von Laue in 1912.
Bragg treated the problem as the reflection of the incoming X-rays at flat crystal
planes.
These planes could, for example, be the close-packed planes making up the fcc and
hcp crystals. He gives an equation which is called Bragg eq. 2dsin = n .The Bragg
condition can obviously only be fulfilled for < 2d.
The Bragg theory for X-ray diffraction is useful for extracting the distances between
lattice planes in a crystal, but it has its limitations. Most importantly, it does not give
any information on what the lattice actually consists of, that is, the basis.
The highest possible order in Bragg diffraction occurs when wavelength is
comparable to interplaner spacing.
If wavelength is less than spacing then Bragg’s reflection does not occur and
continuous pattern will be observed.
Van Lau equation: He treated the diffraction phenomenon by considering the

scattering of X-rays from individual atoms.
It also proved that validity of Bragg’s treatment and Bragg’s law can be proved from
Lau’s equation.
Lattice plane: It can be defined as a plane containing at least three non collinear
points of a given Bravais lattice.
If it contains three, it will actually contain infinitely many because of translational
symmetry.
The lattice planes can be characterized by a set of three integers, the so-called
Miller indices.
In 1839, the British crystallographers used the indices to represent the direction of
planes such as(hkl)
Three steps for finding Miller indices
1) We find the intercepts of the plane with the crystallographic axes in units of the
lattice vectors for example, (1, ∞, ∞).
2) We take the “reciprocal value” of these three numbers. For our example, this
gives (1, 0, 0).
3) Remove fractions and take LCM then enclose by small brackets
Such a set of three integers can then be used to denote any given lattice plane.
Interplaner spacing: The perpendicular distance between two successive parallel
a
planes is called interplaner spacing in given unit cell. d  .
h  k 2  l2
2
Diffraction: The bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or aperture into
the region of the geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction.
Diffraction means the formation of maxima and minima by passing light through slits.
Diffraction grating: Diffraction grating can be used for the diffraction of visible light.
There are following conditions to occur diffraction
1) The incident light must be at some angle to the plane of grating element.
2) The wavelength of incident ray must be equal to the size of the distance b/w
two slits of the diffraction.
3) X-ray diffraction cannot be produced by ordinary grating because wavelength
of X-rays is very shorter than comparison with the distance b/w two adjacent
slit of diffraction grating.
The difference b/w the angles of two or more wave simultaneously originating from
one point is called phase.
Reciprocal Lattice
 Every crystal has two lattices associated with it, the crystal lattice and reciprocal
lattice
 The concept of reciprocal lattice was devised for the purpose of tabulating two
important properties of crystal planes, their slope and their interplaner spacing.
 Each of parallel planes in a direct lattice can be represented by a normal to these
plane having length equal to the reciprocal of the interplaner spacing
 The normal are drawn with reference to any arbitrary origin and points are marked at
their ends, these points form a regular arrangement which is called reciprocal lattice
 Thus each point in a reciprocal lattice is a representative point of a particular parallel
set of planes
 It is easier to deal with such points than to deal with set of planes.
 That is why we use reciprocal lattice
 Reciprocal lattice vectors are orthogonal to two axis vectors
 The direct lattice is the reciprocal lattice to its own reciprocal lattice
 SC is self-reciprocal, bcc and fcc lattices are reciprocal of each other
 Each point in these lattice belongs to a particular set of parallel planes of the direct
lattice
 The distance of a reciprocal lattice point from an arbitrary fixed origin is inversely
proportional to the interplaner spacing of the corresponding parallel planes of direct
lattice
 The unit cell of reciprocal lattice is not necessarily a parallelepiped.
 We deal with wignerr seitz of reciprocal lattice whch constitute brillouine zone
 The volume of a unit cell of reciprocal lattice is inversely proportional to the volume
of corresponding unit cell of the direct lattice.
 Bragg’s law will be satisfied when the surface of sphere interest any point of
reciprocal lattice.
 If point does not lie on surface or that surface does not intersect any point on
reciprocal lattice, the Bragg law will not be satisfied.
 In direct lattice the distance between two points is a while in reciprocal lattice it is
2π/a.
Unit cell
 A repetitive arrangement pure translation of them can be build up the whole crystal
without overlap gap is called unit cell
 There is no further partition of the unit cell that could itself be used as a unit cell
Permitive cell
 It is a unit cell that contain exactly one lattice point
 It is the smallest possible cell
 If there is a lattice point at the edge of a cell and thus shared with another cell, it is
only counted half
 A point located on the corner of a cube is shared by 8 cubes and would count with
18,18
Wigner seitz cell
 It is special type of permitive cell known as wigner seitz cell
 It is of a lattice defined as that volume that encloses all points in space which are
closer to this particular lattice point than to any other
 One chooses any lattice point and draws connecting lines to its closest neighbor
 In a second step one constructs the perpendicular bisectors of the connecting lines
 The enclosed area is the Wigner Seitz cell
 It forms a unit cell
Brillouine zone
 Brillion zone is the locus of all those K-values in the reciprocal lattice which are the
Bragg’s reflected.
 It is defined as primitive cell in reciprocal space
 Bravious lattice is divided up into Wigner Seitz cells in real lattice
 The reciprocal lattice is broken up into brillouin zone
 First zone is the locus of points in reciprocal space that are closer to the origin of
reciprocal lattice than they are to any other reciprocal lattice points.
 Brillion zone of region is –π/a≤ ≤π/a in first Brillion zone where h=0 and K=±1
 For 2nd Brillion zone Kx±Ky=-2π/a.
Phase velocity Group velocity
The rate of advance of a point of The velocity of a group of waves and it
constant phase along the direction of the represents the velocity with which these
wave propagation is called phase waves transmit energy along the
velocity. direction of propagation is called group
Phase velocity describe the state of the velocity
wave vp=w/K Vg=dw/dK
In longer wavelength all the waves pass through crystal easily and then group and
phase velocities are same/equal.
Cohesive energy:
The energy that must be added to crystal to separate its components into
neutral free atoms at rest an infinite separation with same atomic configuration is called
cohesive energy.
Lattice energy:
The energy that must be added to crystal to separate its components ions into
free ions at rest at infinite separation is called lattice energy.
Crystal of inert gases
 The inert gases form the simplest crystals
 The electron distribution is very close to that of free atoms.
 The crystals are transparent insulator weakly bound with low melting temperature.
 The atoms have very high ionization energies
 Outermost shell of the atoms are completely filled and distribution of charge in free
atom is spherical symmetric
Ionic crystal:
The crystal which are made up of positive and negative ions. The ionic bond results into
electro static interaction of oppositely charged particles..
Covelent crystals:
The crystals in usually from two electrons are from each atom in bond tend to be
participate localized in the region between two atoms joining the bond. This bond has
strong directional properties.
Metals:
These have high values of electrical conductivity and having large no of electrons in metals
which are free to move about usually one or two per atoms.
Hydrogen bond:
The neutral hydrogen has only one electron. It should form a covalent bond with only one
another atom.
Atomic radius.
The distance between atoms in crystal. The charge distribution around an atom is not
limited by liquid spherical boundary1-105.
London Ginsburg Parameter:
The ratio of London penetration depth Ad to the pipparrd coherence length is called
London Ginsburg parameter.
London penetration depth
The distance to which a magnetic field penetrates into a superconductor and becomes
equal to 1/10 times that of the magnetic field at the surface of superconductor.. Typical
value of it range from 50 to 500 nm.
BCS theory
The theory of superconductivity was given by Bardeen, cooper and Shriffer in 1957 and
short known as BCS theory… according to it
 An electron moving through a crystal lattice has self energy accompanied by virtual
phonon when electrons moving through the lattice, it distorts the lattice. The lattice
in turn acts on the electron by virtue of electrostatic types between them…
 The oscillatory distortion of lattice is quantized in therms phonons.
Virtual phonons
The interaction between the lattice and phonon is in the form of constant emission and re
absorption of phonons by electron. These phonons are called virtual phonons.
Electron lattice and electron interaction
Two electrons via the lattice distortion or the phonon field. This lowering the energy of
electron. This type of interaction is called electron lattice electron interaction.
Cooper pair
 The two electrons form a weakly bond state called cooper pair.
 It has energy of the order of 10-3 eV in super conductor.
 This pair formed behave as a single entity
 They are spin zero bosons and can be in same state
Coherent length
Pair electrons behave as a single unit upto a specific length called coherent length
This is the length in which gap parameter does not change in varying magnetic field
Energy gap
The energy difference between the normal state of electron and pair or superconductivity
state
Hall effect
 An electron moving within a conductor can be deflected by a magnetic field
 Hall electric field: Due to alignment or build up of charge carriers along the sides of
conductor, an electric field is established within conductor, which is called hall
electric field and voltage is established by it is called hall voltage.
Hall effect in semiconductor
Hall Effect in semiconductor starts from the motion of both holes and electrons. It provides
the equipment of the motion of holes
Hall effect multiple
If magnetic field B is produced by passing a current through air coil B will be proportional to
current, hall voltage Vh is proportional to the product of both current multiply B is not
permanent.
Lattice heat capacity
If we denote the energy contribution due to atomic vibrations in crystal as lattice and
thermal excitation of electron.. Then sum of lattice energy of electron and excitation energy
of electron is known as lattice heat capacity… the rate of change of lattice energy wrt
temperature
Dulong Petit’s law
The particle with harmonic forces the average total energy per degree of freedom
1/2KT+1/2KT=KT. As point particles has three degrees of freedom the total energy per atom
is 3KT.U=3NKT
Cv=dU/dT)v=d/dt(3NKT)= 3NK=3R K=1.99 Kcal/Kg
According to Dulong and petit law and classical theory, specific heat is independent of
temperature
Dulong and petit law obey at higher temperature. At low temperature hf/KT is a large
quanity and can be neglected..
De bye frequency
The highest frequency propagating through crystal is called debye frequency.
Phonon
A quantum of vibrational energy is called phonon.
A photon is quanta of energy while quanta of sound waves is called phonons.
In case of inelastic collision phonons emit or absorb so to conserve momentum, we add or
subtract phonons.
The energy of lattice vibrations or elastic wave is also quantized and that quantum of this
energy is called phonons.
The mode of vibration having n number of phonons is E=nhw. No of phonons depend on
temperature.
Elastic and inelastic scattering: The scattering in which frequency, momentum and energy
remains conserved is called elastic scattering and in which they are not conserved is called
inelastic scattering.
Specific heat: The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram molecule of
substance through 1oC is called specific heat.
Specific heat of solid is sum of specific heat of lattice and specific heat of electronic system.
Assumptions of Einstein Theory of specific heat of solids
In 1911, Einstein attempted to resolve the discrepancies of classical theory of specific heat
by applying Plank’s quantum theory.
 A solid consisting of N-atoms is equivalent to 3N 1D harmonic oscillator.
 Atoms are identical independent simple harmonic oscillator
 All atoms vibrate in identical environment and have the same natural frequency
 The energy spectrum of atomic oscillations is not continuous as assured in classical
theory
 The vibrations of each atom in the solids may be resolved into components
Debye T3 law
Specific heat is proportional to T3 at very lower temperature constant for substance. This is
called Debye T3 law.
Limitations
 It is valid for long wavelength i.e only low frequencies are active in solids. It neglects
the dispersion of waves
 Total number of vibrational modes are assumed to be 3N.
 The cut off frequency is assumed to be the same for both longitudinal and transverse
waves
 The experimental agree at higher temperature
 At low temperature it is not obey
Comparison with Einstein model
At higher temperature both debye and Einstein model give the same result Cv=3R.
Free electron theory
Conduction electrons are assumed to be completely free except for the potential at surface
which has the effect of confining the electrons to the interior of the specimen.
The conduction electrons move inside the specimen without any collision except for any
occasional reflection from the surface like the molecule in the ideal gas because of this we
call it free electron gas and this theory is called free electron gas theory.
Metals conduct electricity because of the presence of free electrons in it.
The outermost shells of metal atoms will be loosely bound with their atoms.
So the electrons in it are free to move anywhere in the solid.
These electrons are called free electrons and responsible for conduction of electricity.
Drud Lorentz classical theory: In 1900, Drude postulated that metals consists of positive
ionic cores with the valence electrons moving freely along with cores. The electrons are
bound to move inside metal due to electrostatic interaction b/w positive ionic cores and
electrons, where potential field of these cores is assumed to be constant throughout metal
and mutual repulsion among electrons is neglected. Using these assumptions, Lorentz
postulated in 1909 and their combined ideas is known as Drude Lorentz classical theory.
1. In an atom electrons revolve around the nucleus and a metal is then composed of
such atoms.
2. The valence electrons of atoms are free to move about the whole volume of the
metals like the molecule of perfect gas in a container.
3. These free electrons move in random directions and collide with either positive ions
fixed to lattice or other free electrons. All the collisions are elastic.
4. The moments of the free electrons obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gases.
5. The electron velocity in a metal obey Maxwell Boltzman distribution of velocities.
6. The electrons move in a completely uniform potential field due to ions fixed in the
lattice
7. When an electric field is applied to metal, then the electron are accelerated in the
direction opposite to the direction of applied field.
Success of Free electron gas theory:
1. FEG verifies Ohm’s law V=IR
2. It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
3. It derives Wiedmann Franz law
Wiedmann Franz law: At constant temperature, the ratio of electrical conductivity to
thermal conductivity K should be constant for all metals.
4. It explains the optical properties of metals.
Drawbacks of FEG:
i. It correctly predicts the room temperature depends on resistivity could not
determine accurately.
ii. It predicted that resistivity is proportional to the square root of temperature but
actually it is linear variant mean simply proportional to temperature.
iii. It fails to explain heat capacity and paramagnetic susceptibility.
iv. It fails to explain account the occurrence of long free mean path.
Difference between free electron gas and ordinary gas
Free electron gas Ordinary gas
The free electron gas is negatively charged The molecules of ordinary gas are neutral.
ions
The concentration of free electron gas is The concentration of ordinary gas is 1025
about N=1029 molecule/m3 molecules/m3
The free electron gas is widely the plasma The ordinary gas is not the plasma which is
the molecule
Sommerfeld Quantum theory
In 1928, Sommerfeld developed a new theory applying, Quantum mechanical concepts and
Fermi Dirac Statistics to free electrons in the metal; this theory is called quantum free
electron theory.
The classical free electron theory permits all electrons to gain energy while quantum theory
permits only fraction of electrons to gain energy.
Fermi energy: The top most filled energy level at 0K is called as Fermi level and energy
corresponding to this level is called Fermi energy. For one Dimension the average kinetic
energy in the ground state is the one third of Fermi energy.
Only the Fermi level electrons jump to higher level because below the Fermi level electrons
don’t have vacant level to jump in.
Fermi distribution function: This indicates that all energy states below Fermi energy are
occupied and all the states above it are empty. It is slope function so that at 0K, the Fermi
energy level shows the highest filled energy level.
Band theory of solids
 As solids assumed to contain many band in which the electrons in it are packed
 The most important are valence and conduction band
 The energy of electrons in these band are different
 The difference in energies of valence and conduction band determines whether the
solid is conductor, semiconductor or insulator.
 For insulator the difference between energies of them energy gap is very high
 For conductor these band overlap each other
This theory is called band theory of solids
Band theory explains distinction between metals and insulators which free electrons theory
cannot do so.
Bloch Theorem: According to this theorem the solution of Schrodinger equation are plane
waves of the equation ψ(x)  e  ikx which are modulated by a function having the same
periodicity as that of lattice.
Semi-conductors: Any class of solids such Si and Ge where electrical conductivity is b/w
that of conductor and insulator nearly great as that of metal at high temperature and nearly
absent at low temperature. Such materials are called semiconductors.
There are two types of semiconductors
Pure/undoped or intrinsic semiconductor
Impure/doped or Extrinsic semiconductor(further subdivided into n-type and p-type)
Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
Drift velocity: The extra velocity acquired by the carriers in the presence of electric field is
called drift velocity. The drift velocity is proportional to the strength of electric field.
Mobility: The drift velocity acquired by the carriers per unit electric field strength is called
mobility. M=Vd/E
Electric conductivity: The current density per unit electric field intensity is called electrical
conductivity. EC= J/E
Law of mass action: In intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor, the product of the electron
concentration and hole concentration always remains constant.
Degenerated semiconductor: A type of semiconductor with such a high level of doping
(1023 to 1024 atom/m3), that the material starts to act more like a metal than as a
semiconductor.
Magnetization:
“The study of magnetic materials is called Magnetization”
Origin: The origin of magnetization is the force which generated by the motion of electrons
within its atoms.
Permanent magnetic materials can be drive from
Orbital motion of electrons
Spin motion of electrons
Spin motion of nucleus
Magnetic materials: The materials in which magnet is exist are called magnetic materials.
Magnetic field is produced by the
i. Orbital motion of electrons
ii. Spin motion of electrons
Types of magnetism
i. Paramagnetism
ii. Dia magnetism
iii. Ferro magnetism
iv. Ferri magnetism
v. Anti ferro magnetism
Magnetic susceptibility:
 The ratio of magnetization (magnetic moment per unit volume) to applied
magnetizing field intensity H.
 It is one measure of the magnetic properties of a material. It indicates whether a
material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field, which in turn has
implication for practical applications.
 If the value of it is greater than zero substance is paramagnetic and the
magnetization is of substance is higher than empty space
 If the value of it is less than zero the substance is diamagnetic it tends to exclude a
magnetic field from its interior
Magnetic permeability
 The ratio of magnetic flux density B to magnetic field intensity H is called..
 It is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic
field within itself.
 It is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied
magnetic field.
 The inverse of it is magnetic reluctance
 Measured in henry per meter
Para magnetic materials:
 The materials show behavior when external field is applied.
 They are attached to magnetic field.
 It has relative permeability greater than one and susceptibility is greater than 0.
 In homogeneous magnetic field they show attraction property and in inhomgeneus
magnetic field they move from weaker to strong B.
 All para magnetic materials will not completely filled outer most shell but partially
filled.
Dia magnetic materials:
 The type of magnetic materials in which field produced by the spin and orbital
motion of electrons cancel out and net field is zero
 For example water copper bismuth and antimony
 All magnetic materials show diamagnetic materials in an applied magnetic field
 They relative permeability less than one and susceptibility value is negative
Ferromagnetic materials:
 These are exhibited by the orbital and spin magnetic moment orient in such a way as
to give a strong magnetic field and affects like iron.
 In this every group is domain in specific direction 1012 to 1016 atoms.
Spontaneous magnetization:
 The magnetization existing in ferromagnetism materials in the absence of an
applied field is called spontaneous magnetization
 These materials have low value of it.
Wies Theory of ferromagnetism: It was explain by Wies in 1907, based upon the postulates
The spontaneous magnetization of ferromagnetic materials is then determined by vector
sum of magnetic moments of individual atoms
Spontaneous magnetization in each domain is due to presence of the exchange
field/nuclear field/wies field.
Types of Ferromagnetic materials
There are two types of ferromagnetic materials
1. Soft magnetic materials
2. Hard magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials:
 They have large values of susceptibility as 1,2,…
Hard magnetic materials:
They show no magnetization at a time again and again applied magnetize materials thus
material behavior is shown by hysteresis loop or BH curve
Curie temperature:
 Certain critical temperature below which sample is ferromagnetic and above which
sample is paramagnetic is called curie temperature
 Curie temperature for iron is 750° C
Correcivity:
The value of applied field for spontaneous magnetization is called …. Which is reduced to
zero?
Anti-Ferro magnetic substance
 The materials in which magnetic moment of atoms or molecules commonly related
to the spins of electrons align in regular pattern with neighboring spin pointing in
opposite directions.
 A type of magnetism in solids such MnO in which adjacent ions that behave as tiny
magnets spontaneously align themselves t relatively low temperatures into opposite
or anti parallel arrangement through out the materials so that it show no gross
magnetism.
Neel temperature: The temperature at which antiferromagnetic becomes paramagnetic is
called neel temperature.
Ferri magnetism:
 These are the materials in which magnetic moment of the atoms on different sub
lattices are opposed as in anti ferromagnetism.
 The opposing moments are unequal and spontaneous magnetization remains same.
Ferrites:
 These are the class of chemical compounds with formula AB2O4 where A and B
represents various metals contains inducting iron.
 They are used in application ranging from magnetic component in micro electronics
Properties of ferrites:
 They are usually non conductive ferromagnetic ceramic compound derived from iron
oxide such as hematite
 High frequency application
 Low eddy current losses
 Usefulness at microwave frequencies
 Mechanical stiffness
 High correcivity in selection ferrites
Types of ferrites:
Soft ferrites:
Soft ferrites: The ferrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain
nickel and low value of correcivity are called soft ferrites because low losses comparatively
at higher frequency.
Hard ferrites: Permanent magnet ferrites which have a high remanance after magnetization
are composed of iron bismuth or strontium.
Hund’s rule: It is used to find ground state of magnetic ions/atoms and the ground state of
magnetic ions with partly filled orbital.
Dielectric: A dielectric is an electrical insulators, in which electrons are very tightly bound to
atoms and can be polarized by applying the external field are called dielectric.
They have no free charges but they have bound charges
There are two types of dielectric
Non polar dielectric: An atom consists of positive and negative charges, when the center of
mass of positive and negative charges coincides in a molecule then it is called non polar
dielectrics such as H2, O2, and CO2.
Polar dielectric: When the center of mass do not coincide to their respective charges i.e
their dipole moment don’t coincide, they are called polar dielectric such as H2O,HCl
Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges placed at small distance d formed an electric
dipole.
Dipole moment: The product of separation of end of dipole d and magnitude of charge q is
called dipole moment. p=qd.
Polarization: The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarization. P=p/volume.
Electric susceptibility: The measure of produced polarization in a material per unit electric
field is called electric susceptibility. ES=P/E
Polarizing field/local field: The electric field acting on an atom in a dielectric is called
polarizing field or local field.
Dielectric constant: The ratio of permittivity of any substance to the permittivity of free
space is called dielectric constant.
In case of capacitance, The ratio of capacitance of a capacitor’s capacitance with dielectric
as medium to the capacitance with air as medium b/w plates.
clousis Mossostti relation: It relates the dielectric constant to the atomic polarizablity
provided the condition of cubic symmetry hold.
Electronic polarizability: This arises due to the displacement of electrons in an atom
relative to nucleus in the presence of electric field.
Ionic polarizability: Displacement of charged ions relative to the other charged ions.
Dipolar polarizablity: In the presence of electric field, dipole molecules are present,
align/orient themselves along the field and produce orientation or dipolar polarizablity.
Super conductivity:
The phenomenon in which electrical resistivity suddenly drop to zero when the material is
cooled to sufficiently low temperature is called superconductivity and the materials formed
are called super conductor.
Critical temperature:
 Certain critical temperature at which the resistance of materials suddenly drops to
zero is called critical temperature. It is also called super conducting transition
temperature...
 It is also observed in many metals alloy and compounds.
Critical magnetic field.
The magnetic field where half the normal resistance has returned using small measuring
current
The minimum magnetic field which is necessary to destroy super conductivity is called
critical field Hc.
Type-1 soft conductor
 The super conductor which are perfectly diamagnetic and exhibit Meissner effect
completely are called type one or soft conductor
 It has low magnetic field
Type-2 or hard super conductor
 In this super conductor Meissner effect is not completely fulfilled.
 These conductor produce high steady magnetic field such as alloy or transition metals
 These material is threaded by flux lines and said to vertex state
Meissner Effect
In 1933, Meissner and Ochenfeld discovered that below the super conductivity transition
temperature T<Tc the magnetic field is expelled from interior of superconductor. This is
called Meissner effect.
The explanation of magnetic field from the interior of material that is in the process of
becoming a superconductor, that is losing its resistance to flow of electric current when
cooled below a certain temperature is called Meissner effect.
Meissner observed that the superconductors show perfect diamagnetism.
Penetration depth: The distance inside a super conductor where the magnetic field reduces
to its λc at surface is called penetration depth. Its value is 103 to 104Ao.
Multivibrators
 The electronic circuits which are used to generate non sinusoidal waveform are
called multi vibrator
 Non sinusoidal wave form include the waveforms such as square wave, rectangular
wave, triangular wave, saw tooth etc
 It is nothing but a two stage amplifier
 It is operating in two modes, the modes are called states of multi vibrator
 The output of the first stage is fed to the input of the second stage while the output
of second stage is fed back to the input of first stage
 Overall operation of multi vibrator is based on the fact that no two active devices
have exactly identical properties
Types of Multivibrators
There are three types
1. Bistable mutivibrators
2. Mono stable
3. Astable
Bistable multivibrator
 It has two stable states
 It can exist indefinitely in either of two stable states
 It requires an external trigger pulse to change from one stable state to another
 The circuit remains in one stable state unless an external trigger pulse is applied
 It is also known by variety of other names Eccles Jordan circuit, trigger circuit, scale of
2 toggle circuit, flip flop and binary circuit
 It is used for the performance of many digital operations such as counting and
storing of the binary information
Monostable Multivibrators
 It has only one stable state
 The other state is unstable referred as quasi stable state
 When an external trigger pulse is applied to the circuit, the circuit goes into the quasi
stable state from its normal stable state
 After some time interval the circuit automatically return to its stable state
 The circuit does not requires any external pulse to change from quasi stable to stable
state
 The time interval for which the circuit remains in the quasi stable state is determined
by the circuit component and can be designed as per the requirement
 It is also known by variety of other names such one shot, single shot, a single cycle, a
single swing, a single step multi vibrator or uni vibrator, it is also called gating circuit
or delay circuit
 The circuit is used to generate the rectangular waveform and hence can be used to
gate other circuit hence called gating circuit
 The time between the transition from quasi stable state to stable state can be
predetermined and hence it can be used to introduce time delays with help of fast
transition
 Due to this application it is also called delay circuit
Astable Multivibrators
 It has both the states as quasi stable states
 None the states is stable state
 Due to this, multi vibrator automatically makes the successive transitions from one
quasi stable state other without any external triggering pulse
 The rate of transition from one quasi stable state to other is determined by circuit
components
 As this does not requires external pulse for the transition, so called free running multi
vibrator
 It is nothing but an oscillator,
 It is used as the generator of square waves.
 As it requires no triggering it is used as a basic source of fast waveform.

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AL_ABBAS Notes Solid State Physics

Bravious lattice+ Basis=crystal as shown in fig

Permitive unit cell Non permitive unit cell

Symmetry operations: A symmetry operation which transform the crystal to itself

Types Ionic Covalent Molecular Metallic

Van Lau equation: He treated the diffraction phenomenon by considering the

Sommerfeld Quantum theory

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