INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

• Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing safe and economical
structures that will serve their intended purposes. Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural
engineering project, its function being the prediction of the performance of the proposed structure.

• Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

Classification of Structures
1. Tension Structures – The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the
action of external loads. Because tensile stress is distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional
areas of members, the material of such a structure is utilized in the most efficient manner. Tension
structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently employed to support bridges and long
span roofs. Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can develop
only tension. Thus, under external loads, a cable adopts a shape that enables it to support the
load by tensile forces alone.

The figure shows the shapes of that single cable that may
assume under two different loading conditions

Besides cable structures, other examples of tension structures include vertical rods used as hangers (for
example, to support balconies or tanks) and membrane structures such as tents and roofs of large-span
domes.

2. Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of external loads.
Two common examples of such structures are columns and arches.

Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads. When a straight member is
subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in addition to axial loads, it is called a beam-column.

An arch is a curve structure with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable. Such structures are
frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs. Arches develop mainly compressive stresses
when subjected to loads and are usually designed so that they will develop only compression under a
major design loading.

Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections to form a
stable configuration.

3. Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in multistory buildings to reduce
lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations

4. Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In some
structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may also be significant
and should be considered in their design.

Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be
classified as bending structures.

A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis

Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by rigid (moment-resisting)
connections or by hinged connections to form stable configurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected
only to joint loads, the external loads on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the joints
(see Fig. 1.14). The members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending moment, shear, and
axial compression or tension under the action of external loads.

Frames, like trusses, are among the most commonly used types of structures. Structural steel and
reinforced concrete frames are commonly used in multistory buildings (Fig. 1.15), bridges, and industrial
plants.

Plane Versus Space Structure

If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a single plane, the structure is called a
plane structure. The analysis of plane, or two-dimensional, structures is considerably simpler than the
analysis of space, or three-dimensional, structures. Fortunately, many actual three-dimensional
structures can be subdivided into plane structures for analysis

Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural systems can be subdivided into plane
structures for the purpose of analysis, some structures, such as latticed domes, aerospace structures,
and transmission towers, cannot, due to their shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading, be
subdivided into planar components. Such structures, called space structures, are analyzed as three-
dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.

The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected for analysis is represented by a line
diagram. On this diagram, each member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with its
centroidal axis.

Connections

Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of structures: (1) rigid connections and
(2) flexible, or hinged, connections. (A third type of connection, termed a semirigid connection, although
recognized by structural steel design codes, is not commonly used in practice.
Supports

Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either fixed supports, which do not allow any
movement; hinged supports, which can prevent translation but permit rotation; or roller, or link,
supports, which can prevent translation in only one direction.

Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads

In most common buildings, bridges and other civil engineering facilities, two or more of the basic
structural types described in Section 1.3 (e.g., beams, columns, slabs and trusses, etc.) are assembled
together to form a structural system that can transmit the applied loads to the ground through the
foundation. Such structural systems are also referred to as framing systems or frameworks, and the
components of such an assemblage are called structural members.

Floor Systems and Tributary Areas

As in the case of the single-story building discussed previously, the floor and roof slabs of multi-story
buildings, and the deck slabs of bridges, are often supported on rectangular grids of beams and girders
called floor systems.

Loads on Structures

Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on the
structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other material and
equipment permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the dead loads for a building
structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls,
stairways, heating and air conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and so forth.

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the structure.
Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the structure that are not dead loads,
including environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads. However, since the probabilities of
occurrence for environmental loads are different from those due to the use of structures, the current
codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by the use of the structure.

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind loads that
may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its
surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of
the structure itself.

In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be considered in designing
structures. The design snow load for a structure is based on the ground snow load for its geographical
location, which can be obtained from building codes or meteorological data for that region.

Earthquake load

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although the ground surface
moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical
component of ground motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most structures.
It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone areas.
Load Combinations

As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure have been estimated, an
engineer must consider all loads that might act simultaneously on the structure at a given time. For
example, it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and the maximum wind loads will occur simultaneously.
Based on past experience and probability analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard specifies that the buildings be
designed so that their strength equals or exceeds the following combinations of factored loads:

Equilibrium of Structures

A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a
system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also in
equilibrium.

In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples (including support reactions)
acting on it must balance each other, and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple
acting on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to
three-dimensional systems of forces and couples (Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and
zero resultant couple can be expressed in a Cartesian (xyz) coordinate system as
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space structures and are the necessary
and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force
acting on the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is no resultant couple
acting on the structure.

Types of Supports for Plane Structures

Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby restricting their
movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures; but supports
prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces, or reactions, to neutralize the effects of loads,
thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium.

The type of reaction a support exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and
the type of movement it prevents. A support that prevents translation of the structure in a particular
direction exerts a reaction force on the structure in that direction. Similarly, a support that prevents
rotation of the structure about a particular axis exerts a reaction couple on the structure about that axis.
Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability

Internal Stability

A structure is considered to be internally stable, or rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a rigid
body when detached from the supports. Conversely, a structure is termed internally unstable (or
nonrigid) if it cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large displacements under small disturbances
when not supported externally.

The term rigid structure as used here implies that the structure offers significant resistance to its change
of shape, whereas a nonrigid structure offers negligible resistance to its change of shape when detached
from the supports and would often collapse under its own weight when not supported externally.

Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate externally if all its support
reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium.

Since a plane internally stable structure can be treated as a plane rigid body, in order for it to be in
equilibrium under a general system of coplanar loads, it must be supported by at least three reactions
that satisfy the three equations of equilibrium. Also, since there are only three equilibrium equations,
they cannot be used to determine more than three reactions. Thus, a plane structure that is statically
determinate externally must be supported by exactly three reactions.

If a structure is supported by more than three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be determined
from the three equations of equilibrium. Such structures are termed statically indeterminate externally.
The reactions in excess of those necessary for equilibrium are called external redundants, and the
number of external redundants is referred to as the degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if a
structure has r reactions (r > 3), then the degree of external indeterminacy can be written as:

If a structure is supported by fewer than three support reactions, the reactions are not sufficient to
prevent all possible movements of the structure in its plane. Such a structure cannot remain in
equilibrium under a general system of loads and is, therefore, referred to as statically unstable
externally.

The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane internally stable structures
can be summarized as follows:

r < 3 the structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3 the structure is statically determinate externally

r > 3 the structure is statically indeterminate externally

where r = number of reactions.

In other words, a structure may be supported by a sufficient number of reactions (r >=3) but may still be
unstable due to improper arrangement of supports. Such structures are referred to as geometrically
unstable externally.

Static Determinacy of Internally Unstable Structures—Equations of Condition

From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec equations of condition (one equation
for each internal hinge and two equation for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if:

r<3 + ec the structure is statically unstable externally

r=3 + ec the structure is statically determinate externally

r>3 + ec the structure is statically indeterminate externally

for an externally indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy is expressed as

ie= r-(3+ ec)