Virgin

 Coconut  Oil  as  a  

Abstract

Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO), although saturated, is a cholesterol-free fat that can be used in

place of traditional fats such as butter in baking. Current research suggests that VCO, when used in

place of saturated fats of animal origin, can lower total cholesterol and increase both insulin

sensitivity and immunity. These benefits make VCO a promising alternative to butter for populations

which require low cholesterol diets. We substituted VCO in place of butter in a Mrs. Fields

Chocolate Chip Coconut Macadamia Nut cookie recipe in order to test changes in and acceptability

of flavor, texture and appearance. Three types of cookies were prepared with either butter, VCO or a

combination of both. Twenty –five tasters with no knowledge of these changes were recruited to

sample the cookies. The results of our experiment indicate that people slightly prefer cookies made

with butter in comparison to cookies made with VCO.

Introduction and Purpose:

According to epidemiological and clinical studies, elevated cholesterol levels are correlated

with coronary heart disease (Nevin and Rajamohan, 2004, p.1). Nutrition experts and medical

professionals have strongly recommended that a diet low in fat and cholesterol can reduce the chance

of developing hypertension, atherosclerosis and heart attack and patients exhibiting these symptoms

are often advised to limit their intake of animal fats. Animal fats are naturally high in saturated fat

and cholesterol and contribute to increased serum cholesterol levels. Butter, for example contains 31

mg of cholesterol per tablespoon (McWilliams, 2012, p 259). While, saturated fats are also found in

tropical oils such as coconut oil, they may be preferential to fats like butter because they contain no

cholesterol.

Coconut oil has been the main source of dietary fat in countries around the world such as Sri

Lanka, Philippines, and India (Enig, 2010). It has recently become a popular choice for American

consumers. The health benefits attributed to coconut oil include lowered cholesterol and increased
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insulin sensitivity, however ingestion of coconut oil is controversial because of the oil’s high degree

of saturation. Current research is reexamining saturated fat’s effect on heart health and suggests that

shorter chain fatty acids, like those in coconut oil, are metabolized differently than the fatty acids

contained in butter or lard. We propose that substituting virgin coconut oil for butter could be a

healthy and beneficial option for populations diagnosed with hypertension and high cholesterol. We

designed an experiment to test the acceptability of using virgin coconut oil, a cholesterol free fat, in

place of butter in Coconut Chocolate Chip Macadamia Nut Cookies.

Review of Literature:

Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and have chains comprised of carbon atoms

linked by single bonds. Typically, saturated fats used in baking come from animal sources (lard,

butter); however coconut oil is popular with vegans and others who avoid animal foods. Current

research is examining how the number of carbons making up a fatty acid chain can affect health and

metabolism. For example, coconut oil consists of approximately 62% of medium chain fatty acids

(MCFA’s) whereas other saturated fats, such as butter, contain long chain fatty acids (LCFA’s).

MCFA’s are composed of fatty acids with chain lengths of 8-14 carbons (Ceylon) denoted Cn, with n

being the number of carbons. The main constituents of Coconut Oil are lauric (C12) acid, myristic

(C14), and capric acids (C10).

MCFA’s do not get metabolized in the same way as LCFAs, which are packaged into

chylomicrons and bypass the liver via the lymphatic system where they are delivered to tissues and

stored in adipose tissue for later use (Labarthe, Belinas and Rosiers, 2008, p.4). MCFA’s are water

soluble when eaten and are delivered to the liver immediately. In cellular metabolism, MCFAs are

able to enter the mitochondrial matrix at a rate governed by their concentration which allows the cell

to use MCFAs as energy right away (Labarthe, Belinas and Rosiers, 2008, p.4). This type of

metabolism has many benefits and clinical applications.

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Medium Chain triglycerides (MCT’s) or MCFA’s, have been used for over fifty years in

treating those with metabolic disorders, undernourished patients, and patient populations where

eating or retaining weight is a problem (Labarthe, 2008), such as Cystic Fibrosis or cancer patients.

However numerous studies and articles suggest that MCFA s may also decrease LDL oxidation,

increase HDL cholesterol and improve insulin sensitivity, as well as support immune function.

A study performed earlier this year found that medium chain fatty acids, particularly fatty

acids with ten carbons (capric acid), bind to a nuclear hormone receptor called PPAR-y. This

receptor is also the target site for thiazolidinediones (TZDs), a class of drugs that includes Metformin

and is used to increase insulin sensitivity in type 2 Diabetics. TZDs are also used to reduce

inflammation in the arteries but may increase fluid retention, fat accumulation and deposition, and

risk for heart failure (Liberato et al, 2012).

When TZDs bind to PPAR-y, they alter and stabilize its conformation allowing for specific

DNA response elements to modulate transcription of nearby genes. This alteration inhibits the

enzyme activity of Cdk5 and decreases the expression of adipokines, which are cytokines produced

by adipose cells. Medium Chain Fatty Acids can bind to these same receptor sites causing the same

stabilization and altered gene expression. The result is increased insulin sensitivity without the side

effects caused by TZDs. The study stated, “Diets containing decanoic acid improve insulin

sensitivity in animal models. It is also known that dietary MCFAS are abundant in certain foodstuffs,

particularly milk, coconut and palm oil and dietary supplementation of these compounds improves

aspects of metabolic syndrome,” (Liberato et al, p6). However the authors acknowledged that it is

unknown whether dietary MCFA intake would be able to reach sufficient concentrations required to

modulate PPAR-y.

In addition to increased insulin sensitivity, Virgin coconut oil was found to have beneficial

effects on lipid levels in serum and tissues. In a study performed in India in 2004, 45 Sprague-

Dawley rats were fed diets of ground nut oil, coconut oil or virgin coconut oil (VCO). At the end of
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the 45 day trial, the rats were sacrificed and their blood, liver and heart were examined. Those fed

with VCO had significant decreases in serum, liver, heart and kidney levels of total cholesterol,

triglycerides and phospholipids. HDL cholesterol in CVO fed rats was also increased compared to

the other groups. The authors of this study attribute these benefits to the higher concentrations of

polyphenols in VCO and the way in which VCO is metabolized. They conjecture that VCO may

influence the rate of synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids in the liver by inhibiting the activity of

HMG CoA, the rate limiting enzyme for cholesterol synthesis (Nevin and Rajamohan, 2004, p. 3).

There also seems to be differences in the benefits supplied by industrial grade coconut oil,

referred to as RBD coconut oil (Marina et al, 2009, p. 3) and VCO. RBD coconut oil is obtained via

dry processing methods and is widely used. Dried coconut (copra) is cleaned, ground, and steamed

then pressed to obtain oil. The oil is then refined, bleached and deodorized which involves the

application of heat at temperatures of 204-245 C. This process changes the structure of the fatty

acids; increases rancidity and can nullify coconut oil’s antioxidant properties. VCO is obtained via

wet processing which is devoid of bleaching, deodorizing or refining, thus leaving its fatty acids

intact. In wet processing, coconut oil is extracted from the cream of fresh coconut milk without

chemical or heat treatment (Marina et al, 2009, p. 1).

While the chemical composition of coconut oil proves to contribute to many positive health

benefits, it also has interesting antimicrobial properties that have shown to increase immunity against

certain pathogenic microorganisms. Coconut contains large amounts of lauric acid which turns into

monoglycerides when consumed. Monolaurin, a derivative of lauric acid, has been shown to disrupt

the lipid membrane of inactivated microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, fungi and enveloped

viruses (Enig, 2010). Researchers believe that because coconut oil is a lipid, it may be able to

penetrate the lipid bilayer of a virus thereby killing it (Chomchalow, 2011). Current research is being

conducted to measure the effect coconut oil has against new strains of HIV.

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Lauric acid is also present in breast milk. Nearly 18% of breast milk is comprised of lauric

acid is and this is believed to be why breast milk provides immunity against pathogenic

microorganisms for babies who have not yet developed their immune system (Chomchalow,

2011). The consumption of lauric acid then may be beneficial for populations who have weaker

immune systems, such as the elderly population.

Methods/Design

We chose to prepare a chocolate chip macadamia and coconut cookie recipe, where the type

of fat being used was the independent variable. The control sample was prepared using butter, while

the experimental (extreme) sample was prepared using 100% virgin coconut oil (VCO) in place of

butter. We also prepared a third sample, which contained 50% butter, and 50% VCO. Various

“mock trial” runs measuring taste and texture were conducted prior to a public tasting trial.

Prior to preparing all 3 samples, a standardized recipe was retrieved from Mrs. Field’s cookie

recipe collection (see Appendix A). Next, the ingredients listed in household measurements were

converted to weight measurements (oz) for accuracy by the use of a standard ingredient to weight

conversion chart (see Appendix A). These weights were divided by three and measured using an

electronic scale, so that three samples could be prepared using one recipe batch.

In each of the three samples, the fat content and sugar were creamed for about 2 minutes on

high with an electric mixer. Next the wet ingredients were added to the mixture and combined on

high for 1 minute. Then the dry ingredients were incorporated into the mixture with the mixer on

low speed for 30 seconds. Finally, it took roughly five hand strokes to fold in the macadamia nut,

chocolate chips, and shredded coconut into the batter.

We conducted four “mock trials” prior to the public tasting in order to measure acceptability,

flavor differences and textural differences (see notes in Appendix A). We also conducted objective

tests to examine the physical properties of our cookies, such as spreadability and wettability. The

line-spread test was conducted for both raw and baked cookies. Room temperature and refrigerated
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dough were also compared. We placed 0.7oz balls of each raw cookie dough sample on a paper

containing a grid. Then, a 10”x10” square piece of glass was pressed down on each ball for 5

seconds with equal pressure. The diameter of the raw cookie dough was measured and recorded

(Figure 2 in Appendix A).

Wettability is a test used to measure the moisture content in baked products. We conducted

the wettability test by weighing each baked sample prior to submerging it in water for 5 seconds. The

sample was then re-weighed. Its original weight was then subtracted from its post-soak weight and

the difference was used to determine which cookie was the most moist (see figure 3 in Appendix

A).

Two days before the public tasting, each type of dough was prepared, formed into a ball and

weighed to 0.70 oz. The dough balls were stored in the refrigerator and were removed on the day of

the tasting. All samples were baked at 350˚F but had different bake times. The control required 12

minutes while the 50/50 samples required 13 minutes. The extreme samples baked the longest for 15

minutes. Once removed from the oven, the samples were cooled, and cut into fourths. Twenty-five

samples of each type of cookie was assigned to a designated, but random number and placed on a

plate for tasting.

Approximately twenty-five tasters filled out scorecards that we provided (Appendix A).

They ranked flavor, appearance, texture, tenderness and overall acceptability according to a hedonic

scale numbered 1-7. The tasters had no knowledge of any substitutions made to each cookie and

were not told that changes had been made to a recipe. The scorecards were collected and used to

evaluate likeability of our experimental product.

Results:

Samples Appearance Texture Tenderness Flavor Overall Acceptability

#927 5.8 5.6 5.3 5.5 5.3

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#659 5.8 5.9 6.1 5.7 5.8

#353 6.0 5.6 5.5 5.5 5.4

Table 1: Average Ratings for Sample Characteristics. The average values varied no more than 0.6
points. Samples 353 and 927 received the same score most often. Sample 659 (control) was preferred in every
category other than appearance.

Average  Ra6ngs  of  Sample  

6  
5.5  
5  
4.5   #927  (Experimental)    

#659  (Control)  

#353  (50/50)  
Samples  

Figure 1. The 50/50 sample had the highest overall rating for appearance. The Control sample had the highest
rating for all other characteristics. The experimental sample had lower average ratings compared to the control and
50/50. The average ratings for all samples range from 5.28-6 on a scale of 1-7.

Discussion:

The goal of replacing a substance in food science is for the customer to prefer the altered

food or be unable to tell the difference. We measured acceptability preference by conducting a public

taste trial in which twenty five people ranked the appearance, texture, flavor, tenderness and overall

acceptability of each cookie according to personal preference. A number scale of 1-7 was provided

with 1 representing extreme dislike and 7 representing extreme likability. The score of each

characteristic was tallied and the average score for each characteristic is described in both Table 1

and Figure 1.

Each characteristic category for all three samples attained average scores that were

differentiated by less than one point. While the differences in average ratings of all categories are

minuscule, they are still important in deciding which sample cookie was preferred the best in each

category. It is clear that the structural and flavor properties of both VCO and butter affects all

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characteristics that were rated in the public tasting. The control recipe was preferred on average in

all categories except for appearance. The tasters preferred the 50/50 recipe’s appearance the most on

average, but rated its flavor and texture as being equal to the experimental recipe’s flavor and texture.

The control recipe ranked highest in overall acceptability while the experimental recipe was ranked

lowest.

These scores reflect the different properties oil and butter give to baked goods which arise

from their difference in composition. Oils consist solely of fats, whereas butter contains

approximately 16% of water (McWilliams, 2012). These differences in composition affect color,

texture and flavor of a final product.

For example, the cookie batter made with VCO was a darker brown color, and produced a

noticeably darker and grey colored cookie. The cookie batter made with the butter had a light brown

color, and the baked cookie produced a golden brown color. The 50/50 batter was a medium brown

color, and produced slightly browner cookies than the control. These color differences can be

attributed to type of fat used.

Butter contains 80% fat, and 20% milk solids and water, and imparts a mild yellow color to

batter. It also provides a golden brown color to baked goods (McWilliams, 2012, p. 269). When we

combined the coconut oil with sugar to prepare the cookie dough, the mixture remained dark brown

and glossy suggesting that the oil coated the sugar, but that the sugar granules were not being

incorporated fully into the oils. This was different than the butter and sugar mixture which became

pale, creamy and uniform in texture. Butter, though fairly solid, exhibits plasticity which is the

ability to be spread or be creamed. Fats with plasticity are large fat crystals dispersed in oil and can

be whipped into a foamy or creamy texture (McWilliams, 2012, p. 268). While coconut oil is harder

than butter when refrigerated, it is softer at room temperature and did not exhibit the same plasticity

when being creamed with sugar nor did it spread as far as butter in the line-spread test (See Figure 2

in Appendix A).
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The line-spread test was conducted in order to measure the spreadability (or plasticity)of

coconut oil and butter and observe how each affects baked cookie size (see Figure 2 in Appendix

A). Spreadability of a fat is affected by how saturated it is. If a fat is more saturated, it spreads less.

Coconut oil is 92% saturated (Chomchalow, 2011) while butter is only 50.5% saturated

(McWilliams, 2012, p. 263) and this explains why dough made with butter spread farther than the

dough made with coconut oil (See Figure 2 in Appendix A).

Interestingly, the experimental recipe and the 50/50 recipe received equal likeability scores in

the tenderness/moisture category while the control recipe received the highest score. This suggests

that butter, used alone, is superior in creating tender cookies and that mixing oil and butter results in

a less tender product. Tenderness is dependent on the fat content’s ability to interfere with the

development of gluten, a protein found in flour. A softer fat or oil can spread over a larger surface

area in the flour mixture, increasing tenderness (McWilliams, 2012, p. 271). This is referred to as

shortening power. Coconut oil is softer at room temperature and has a lower melting point than

butter, so it was surprising that the cookies containing it were rated less tender. Perhaps this is

because it exhibits less plasticity and does not spread as much, possibly lessening its shortening

power. It is also possible that the tenderness scores for the experimental cookie were lower due to

coconut oil’s lack of water content.

Moisture is a way to describe food’s water content and contributes greatly to texture. To

determine moisture in our samples, we conducted a wettability test. The control cookie absorbed .35

oz of water, whereas the experimental cookie absorbed only .20 oz of water. The 50/50 cookie

absorbed 0.30 oz of water, which is less than the control, but more than the experimental (See Figure

3 in Appendix A).

If a sample contains more water before the test, it will absorb more water during the test

because water molecules are strongly attracted to one another. The control cookie absorbed the most

water and this indicates that using butter results in a more moist cookie than one that uses coconut
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oil. This result is consistent with what types of fats butter and oil are. Unlike oil, which is pure fat,

butter is a water- in- oil emulsion which means water molecules are trapped between fat molecules

allowing products made with butter to remain moist and tender (McWilliams, 2012, p. 270-272).

The flavor of our cookies was also altered by the use of butter and coconut oil and this

certainly affected likability scores. Butter is widely used and its flavor may be more familiar and thus

more appealing than coconut oil. Coconut oil’s rich and distinctive flavor is not well liked by

everyone and this factor cannot be ignored when evaluating the results of the public tasting. We used

a recipe that called for shredded coconut to mask this obvious flavor difference; however this may

have caused the coconut flavor of our experimental cookie to be overpowering.

All of the factors judged are important in determining overall acceptability. It is not

surprising that our control recipe was most accepted based on the average scores in the other

categories, although it is surprising when looking at the raw scores. The experimental cookie

received several comments such as, “LOVE,” and “All very tasty but #927 is the best overall,”

however people’s personal preference for coconut seemed to be the determining factor in overall

acceptability as untrained tasters tend to like foods that taste the best.

CONCLUSION:

The structure of a fat greatly influences the flavor, appearance and texture of baked products.

While the results of our tasting show that people prefer cookies made with butter, the average scores

were very close in value. We are satisfied with the results and think that virgin coconut oil is an

acceptable substitution for butter, especially for consumers who need to decrease their cholesterol

intake.

The benefits of ingesting virgin coconut oil may include decreased LDL cholesterol,

increased HDL cholesterol, increased insulin sensitivity and increased immunity to certain viral and

bacterial infections. However, a diet relatively low in fat is still most beneficial in preventing heart

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disease. Rising consumer demand is inspiring new and thorough research of coconut oil’s health

benefits.

Works Cited

Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS. (2006). Coconut fats. Ceylon Medical Journal 2006 Jun;51 (2): 47-
51. Retrieved on December 11, 2012 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17180807

Chomchalow, Narong. (2011). Health and Economic Benefits of Coconut Oil Production
Development in Thailand. AU J.T. 14(3): 181-187. Retrieved on Novemeber 30th, 2012 from
http://www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2011/jan2011/journal1143_article03.pdf

Enig, Mary. (2010). Health and Nutrition Benefits From Coconut Oil and its Advantages Over
Competing Oils. Indian Coconut Journal, 9-15. Retrieved December 1st, 2012 from
http://coconutboard.nic.in/English-Article-MaryEnig.PDF

Liberato et al. (2012). Medium Chain Fatty Acids Are Selective Peroxisome Proliferator Activated
Receptor (PPAR)y Activators and Pan-PPAR Partial Agonists. PLos ONE. Retrieved on
December 11, 2012 from journal.pone.0036297.pdf

Labarthe Francois, Gelinas Roselle, and Christine Des Rosiers. (2008). Medium Chian Fattty Acids
as Metabolic Therapy in Cardiac Disease. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Retrieved from  http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10557-008-6084-
0?LI=true#page-1

Marina A.M., Man Che Y.B., and Amin I. (2009). Virgin Coconut Oil: Emerging functional food oil.
Trends in Food Science and Technology. Retrieved on December 11, 2012 from
http://fic.nfi.or.th/food/upload/pdf/17_1678.pdf

McWilliams, Margaret. (2012). Foods: Experimental Perspectives. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Nevin K.G. and Rajamohan T. (2004). Beneficial effects of virgin coconut oil on lipid parameters
and in vitro LDL oxidation. Clinical Biochemistry Vol. 37(2004) pp. 830—835. Retrieved
on December 11 from
http://www.meltbutteryspread.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Beneficial-effects-of-virgin-
coconut-oil-on-lipid-parameters-and-in-vitro-LDL-oxidation.pdf

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