DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COURSE: BSc ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT NAME: CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEORY

UNIT CODE: EEE 3102

TASK: BILINEAR LAB REPORT (HIGH PAS AND LOW PASS)

EXPERIMENT DATE: 19/10/2022

SUBMISSION DATE: 23/11/2022

GROUP 1

GROUP MEMBERS REGISTRATION NUMBER

Hosea Muchiri E021-01-2545/2020

Boniface Mundia E021-01-0936/2020

Robert Ndungu E021-01-0995/2020

Edwin Kipchirchir E021-01-2436/2020

Fidelis Njoroge E021-01-0965/2020

INTRODUCTION

The transfer function H(ω) (also called the network function) is a useful analytical
tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit. In fact, the frequency
response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’ s transfer function H(ω) versus ω,
with ω varying from ω = 0 to ω = ∞. However, the mathematical mapping of
variables is referred to as the bilinear transformation. It is a common technique
for converting the s or analog plane into the z or digital plane in digital filtering. By
employing traditional filter design methods, it converts analog filters into their
discrete equivalent. The bilinear transfer function is however divided in two. The
high pass filter and low pass filter. The low pass bilinear transfer function is a filter
that allows low frequency signals to pass through while attenuating high
frequency signals. The high pass bilinear transfer function is a filter that allows
high frequency signals to pass through while attenuating low frequency signals. In
the connection of a high pass and low pass filter circuit, passive elements (the
resistor and capacitor) are used.
A resistor in a low pass filter circuit will cause the circuit to have a lower cutoff
frequency. A resistor in a high pass filter circuit will cause the circuit to have a
higher cutoff frequency, a capacitor in a low pass filter circuit will cause the circuit
to have a higher cutoff frequency. A capacitor in a high pass filter circuit will cause
the circuit to have a lower cutoff frequency.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

 To study the magnitude and phase response of some basic bilinear transfer
functions.
THEORY
The general form of a bilinear transfer function (TF) is as follows.
a 1 s+ a 2 p (s )
T(s) = b 1 s+ b 2 = q(s)

Where a and b are real constants which may be either positive or negative. We
can rewrite the above equation as;
 a 1(s +a 2/a 1) s+ z 1
T(s) = =K
b 1(s +b 2/b 1) s+ p 1

Where z1 = Zero of T(s)

p1 = Pole of T(s)
A bilinear network has one pole and one zero. The number of reactive
components (inductors and capacitors) determines the order of the transfer
function

Low-Pass R-C filter:

The basic function of a low pass (LP) filter is to pass low frequencies with very
little loss and to attenuate high frequencies. The range of frequencies up to the
cut-off frequency is called the band pass of the filter. Frequencies above the cut-
off are attenuated. The low-pass R-C filter is as shown below.

.
For low frequency signals, the capacitor behaves as an open circuit, thus the input
and output voltages are equal. At high frequency, the capacitor acts as a short
circuit. As the frequency increases, the output voltage decreases. That is, high
frequencies are cut-off.

This is shown in the magnitude response shown below.

 T

T/ √ 2

ω o ω
Where

ω o=1/RC

The phase response is given by

ω
θ(jω)= -arctan(ω/ω
The graph is
oo) ω

-45 °

-90 °

High–Pass R-C filter.

A high pass filter passes frequencies above a given frequency, called

its cut-off frequency. The range of frequencies above the cut-off
frequency is called the band pass of the filter. Frequencies below the
cut-off are attenuated. The high-pass R-C filter is as shown below.
For low frequency signals, the capacitor behaves as an open circuit, thus the input
and output voltages are equal. At high frequency, the capacitor acts as a short
circuit. As the frequency increases, the output voltage increases since the voltage
drop is across the resistor. Thus, low frequencies are cut-off
From the above circuit:
This is shown in the magnitude response shown below.

T/√ 2

ω
Stop Pass
ωo

Where ωo=1/RC
The phase response is given by
θ(jω)= 90º-arctan(ω/ωo)
The graph is
 With the y-axis
representing the phase
angle and the x -axis
representing the w

90°

45°

ω o ω
 Bode plots are semi log plots of the magnitude (in decibels) and phase (in degrees) of a transfer
function versus frequency

APPARATUS

• Signal generator

• Oscilloscope

• Capacitor

PROCEDURE:
 The circuit was connected as in the diagram below.
 The dual oscilloscope was connected across the resistor.

The signal generator was adjusted to give a V 1 of 5 volts peak -to- peak (pp) at a
frequency of 1 kHz. The corresponding output voltage, v 2 and the phase angle θ0 (ω)
between v1 and v2 were measured and readings recorded as below:

i. V1pp = ……………………..volts
ii. V2pp = ...….………………..volts
iii. |T(j ω)| = V2pp /V1pp =…………..
iv. θ0 (ω) = ………………..degrees.

With V1pp = 5v (pp) we increased the frequency as below:

I. 10Hz to 100Hz in steps of 10Hz

II. 100Hz to 1000Hz in steps of 100Hz
III. 1kHz to 10kHz in steps of 1kHz
IV. 10kHz to 100kHz in steps of
10kHz

The results were tabulated for both

the high pass filter and low pass
filter.

Data presentation
 High pass

Low pass

DISCUSION & DATA ANALYSIS

A low-pass R-C filter is one that permits signals of low frequencies up to cutoff frequency to pass
through while attenuating frequencies above cutoff frequency. The range of frequencies up to the cutoff
frequency is called the Band pass of the filter. The frequency response curve shows how the signal
output voltage varies with the signal frequency.

Output voltage is taken across the capacitor, Resistance, R offers fixed opposition to frequencies but the
resistance offered by capacitor C decreases with increase in frequency . Hence low frequency signals are
developed over C where high signals are grounded.

ANALYSIS

Data analysis for the data collected from 50Hz

Frequency =50HZ

R= 10k

C=0.1*10^-6

V (input) = 5.12 V
V (output) = 1.60V

Ꙍ =2πf

ω0 = 1/RC
 HIGH PASS

Ꙍ = 2*π*50 = 314.159

ω0 =1 ((10,000) *(0.1*10^-6)) =1000

|transfer function| =314.159*10000*(0.1*10^-6) /(1+(314.159) 2(100002)( 0.1*10^-6)2)0.5

0.299717

Ac(Ꙍ )= 20log |Tc(jw)|

=20log 0.299717

=-10.4658

Am(Ꙍ )= 20log |Tm(jw)|

20log 0.3125

=-1.0102999

phase angle = tan-1 (1/ꙌRC)

Ø = tan-1 (1/314.159*100000*0.1*10^-6)

=1.266401 radians

=72.559 degrees

Measured phase angle = 72.12

LOW PASS
Ꙍ = 2*π*50 = 314.159

ω0 =1 ((10,000) *(0.1*10^-6)) =1000

Ꙍ/ ω0 =0.314159

|Transfer function| = 1/1+( Ꙍ/ ω0)2

= 1/1+(314.159/0.314359)2
= 0.91017
Ac(Ꙍ )= 20log |Tc(jw)|

20 log|0.91017|

=-0.817549

Am(Ꙍ )= 20log |Tm(jw)|

20log 0.015

-36.4781

Phase angle = tan-1 (Ꙍ/ ω0)

= -tan-1 (0.314159)

- 17.44058
-0.304395797 radians

Comparison of Am(ω) and Ac(ω).

Am(jω) is -1.0102999 and Ac(ω) =-10.4658.. The difference between the calculated and experimental
values is exactly 9.4468 which shows that there is an error which may have been caused by different
reasons such as; inaccuracy of cathode ray oscilloscope when getting the phase difference angle due to
the fact that it is an analogue instrument which means it was hard to be accurate and thus had to
estimate some values, etc.

Comparison of θm and θc

Θm is 72.12 and θc is 72.559.The difference between the calculated and the measured phase angle is
exactly 0.439. A very small difference.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Tolerance: The resistor and capacitor have tolerance. High tolerance means a higher

percentage of error in the resistance and capacitive value.

2. Charging and discharging of the capacitor: When a capacitor charges or discharges, the voltage

across it changes over time. During the experiment Changing the values of resistance, voltage,

and capacitance at the same time yields different consequences.

3. Improper setting of the Experiment: failure to ensure that the experiment is set up correctly

leads wrong recording of data values.

4. Estimation Error: occurs when data is inaccurately recorded or written down. Estimating the

phase angle in the sine wave might cause an error in the data values recorded.

 Inaccuracy of cathode ray oscilloscope when getting the phase difference angle due to the fact
that it is an analogue instrument which means it was hard to be accurate and thus had to
estimate some values
 Human errors when calculating and reading data from the oscilloscope.
 Poor connection resulting to noise

CONCLUSION

Filter type configuration.

Experiment A gave a lead circuit due too the positive phase angles obtained while experiment B
gave a lag circuit due to the negative phase angles obtained.

Experiment A was a high pass filter while B was a high pass filter.

Advantages of bode plots

 The Bode plot provides the relative stability of the system in terms of the
gain margin and phase margin
 can be drawn both for the closed loop system and open-loop system. It also
provides us a method to improve the stability of the system
 the frequency dependence is clearly visible in the Bode plot and no information is
lost

Cut of frequency ω0

The cutoff frequency is the frequency at which the transfer function H drops in
magnitude to 70.71% of its maximum value. It is also regarded as the frequency at which
the power dissipated in a circuit is half of its maximum value.

For high pass; ω0 =1 ((10,000) *(0.1*10^-6)) =1000

for low pass; ω0 =1 ((10,000) *(0.1*10^-6)) =1000

V)

 The high pass filter's frequency response or Bode plot is the exact opposite of the low pass

filter's Bode plot. In low pass theta(m) increases with increase in log(w) while theta (c)

remaining constant.

 On the other hand, in high pass filter theta(m) decreases with increase in log(w) while theta (c)
remaining constant

REFERENCES

 Khorsheed, Omeed Kamal. "Produce low-pass and high-pass image filter in java." International

Journal of Advances in Engineering & Technology 7, no. 3 (2014): 712.

 Moog, R. A. (1965, October). A voltage-controlled low-pass high-pass filter for audio signal

processing. In Audio Engineering Society Convention 17. Audio Engineering Society.

 Brandstetter, P., & Klein, L. (2013). Second order low-pass and high-pass filter designs using

method of synthetic immitance elements. Advances in Electrical and Electronic

Engineering, 11(1), 16-21.

 https://electronicscoach.com/difference-between-high-pass-and-low-pass-filter.html