Baddley's Working Memory

Working Memory
Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the

amount of research it generated. However, as a result of this research, it became apparent
that there were a number of problems with their ideas concerning the characteristics of
short-term memory.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by
the Multi-Store Model is far too simple.
According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited amounts of information for short
periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary system. This means it is a
single system (or store) without any subsystems. Working Memory is not a unitary store.
Fig 1. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)
Working memory is short-term memory. However, instead of all information going

into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information.
Central Executive
Drives the whole system (e.g., the boss of working memory) and allocates data to the
subsystems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. It also deals with
cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving.
Visuospatial Sketchpad (inner eye)

Stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form. The VSS is used for navigation.
Phonological Loop
Part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It can be used to
remember a phone number. It consists of two parts
1. Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception. Holds information

in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.
2. Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech production. Used

to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store.
Fig 2. The Working Memory Model Components (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)
The labels given to the components (see fig 2) of the working memory reflect their function
and the type of information they process and manipulate. The phonological loop is assumed
to be responsible for the manipulation of speech based information, whereas the
visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to be responsible for manipulating visual images.
The model proposes that every component of working memory has a limited capacity, and
also that the components are relatively independent of each other.
The Central Executive

The central executive is the most important component of the model, although little is
known about how it functions. It is responsible for monitoring and coordinating the
operation of the slave systems (i.e., visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop) and
relates them to long term memory (LTM).
The central executive decides which information is attended to and which parts of the
working memory to send that information to be dealt with. For example, two activities
sometimes come into conflict, such as driving a car and talking. Rather than hitting a cyclist
who is wobbling all over the road, it is preferable to stop talking and concentrate on driving.
The central executive directs attention and gives priority to particular activities.
The central executive is the most versatile and important component of the working
memory system. However, despite its importance in the working-memory model, we know
considerably less about this component than the two subsystems it controls.
Baddeley suggests that the central executive acts more like a system which controls
attentional processes rather than as a memory store. This is unlike the phonological loop
and the visuospatial sketchpad, which are specialized storage systems. The central executive
enables the working memory system to selectively attend to some stimuli and ignore others.
Baddeley (1986) uses the metaphor of a company boss to describe the way in which the
central executive operates. The company boss makes decisions about which issues deserve
attention and which should be ignored. They also select strategies for dealing with
problems, but like any person in the company, the boss can only do a limited number of
things at the same time. The boss of a company will collect information from a number of
different sources.
If we continue applying this metaphor, then we can see the central executive in working
memory integrating (i.e., combining) information from two assistants (the phonological
loop and the visuospatial sketchpad) and also drawing on information held in a large
database (long-term memory).
The Phonological Loop
The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written
material. It consists of two parts (see Figure 3).
The phonological store (linked to speech perception) acts as an inner ear and holds
information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Spoken words
enter the store directly. Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (spoken)
code before they can enter the phonological store.
Fig 3. The phonological loop

The articulatory control process (linked to speech production) acts like an inner voice
rehearsing information from the phonological store. It circulates information round and
round like a tape loop. This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As
long as we keep repeating it, we can retain the information in working memory.
The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory code and
transfers it to the phonological store.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad

the visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye) deals with visual and spatial information. Visual
information refers to what things look like. It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays
an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we
move through our environment (Baddeley, 1997).
As we move around, our position in relation to objects is constantly changing and it is
important that we can update this information. For example, being aware of where we are
in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are walking around a classroom means that
we don't bump into things too often!
The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-
term memory. For example, the spatial layout of your house is held in LTM. Try answering
this question: How many windows are there in the front of your house?
You probably find yourself picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An
image has been retrieved from LTM and pictured on the sketchpad.
Evidence suggests that working memory uses two different systems for dealing with visual
and verbal information. A visual processing task and a verbal processing task can be
performed at the same time.
It is more difficult to perform two visual tasks at the same time because they interfere with
each other and performance is reduced. The same applies to performing two verbal tasks at
the same time. This supports the view that the phonological loop and the sketchpad are
separate systems within working memory.
The Episodic Buffer

The original model was updated by Baddeley (2000) after the model failed to explain the
results of various experiments. An additional component was added called the episodic
buffer. The episodic buffer acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both long-term
memory and the components of working memory.
strengths
Researchers today generally agree that short-term memory is made up of a number of
components or subsystems. The working memory model has replaced the idea of a unitary
(one part) STM as suggested by the multistore model.
The working memory model explains a lot more than the multistore model. It makes sense
of a range of tasks - verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem-solving and visual
and spatial processing. And the model is supported by considerable experimental evidence.
The working memory applies to real-life tasks:
- reading (phonological loop)
- problem solving (central executive)
- navigation (visual and spatial processing)
Weaknesses
Lieberman (1980) criticizes the working memory model as the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS)
implies that all spatial information was first visual (they are linked).
However, Lieberman points out that blind people have excellent spatial awareness, although
they have never had any visual information. Lieberman argues that the VSS should be
separated into two different components: one for visual information and one for spatial.
There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works and what it does.
The capacity of the central executive has never been measured.
Working memory only involves STM, so it is not a comprehensive model of
memory (as it does not include SM or LTM).
The working memory model does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as the
result of practice or time.

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Working Memory

Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the

Fig 1. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

Working memory is short-term memory. However, instead of all information going

Visuospatial Sketchpad (inner eye)

1. Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception. Holds information

2. Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech production. Used

The Central Executive

Fig 3. The phonological loop

The Visuospatial Sketchpad

The Episodic Buffer

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