NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION LESSON 16 percent from uranium-234.

Natural uranium
can be used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
The main difference between these two
processes (fission and fusion) is that fission is • Depleted uranium can be disposed of as low-
the splitting of an atom into two or more level radioactive waste if it is converted to
smaller ones while fusion is the fusing of two or chemically stable uranium oxide compounds,
more smaller atoms into a larger one. such as triuranium octoxide (U3O8) or uranium
dioxide (UO2 ), which are similar to the
These are two physical processes that produce
chemical form of natural uranium.
massive amounts of energy from atoms.
• Low-level waste is typically stored on-site by
Fission again occurs when a neutron slams into
licensees, either until it has decayed away and
a larger atom, forcing it to excite and spilt into
can be disposed of as ordinary trash, or until
two smaller atoms—also known as fission
amounts are large enough for shipment to a
products. Additional neutrons are also released
low-level waste disposal site in containers
that can initiate a chain reaction. This is the
approved by the DENR.
same process that powers the sun and creates
huge amounts of energy—several times greater • Plutonium is created in a reactor when
than fission. It also doesn’t produce highly uranium atoms absorb neutrons. Nearly all
radioactive fission products. plutonium is man-made. To make plutonium we
somehow have to add two protons to a
The two processes yield millions of times more
uranium atom. Plutonium predominantly emits
energy than other sources through nuclear
alpha particles – a type of radiation that is easily
reactions.
stopped and has a short range. It also emits
• Uranium and plutonium are most commonly neutrons, beta particles and gamma rays.
used for fission reactions in nuclear power
• As for Fusion, let us unlock the undeniable
reactors because they are easy to initiate and
power of fusion.
control. The energy released by fission in these
reactors heats water into steam. The steam is • nuclear fusion, process by which nuclear
used to spin a turbine to produce carbon-free reactions between light elements form heavier
electricity. elements (up to iron). In cases where the
interacting nuclei belong to elements with low
• Depleted uranium is produced in the uranium
atomic numbers (e.g., hydrogen [atomic
enrichment process when uranium-235 (U235)
number 1] or its isotopes deuterium and
is extracted from natural uranium to
tritium), substantial amounts of energy are
concentrate this isotope into fuel for nuclear
released. The vast energy potential of nuclear
reactors.
fusion was first exploited in thermonuclear
• Uranium containing the relative weapons, or hydrogen bombs, which were
concentrations of isotopes found in nature (0.7 developed in the decade immediately following
percent uranium-235, 99.3 percent uranium- World War II. For the positive side of it, the
238, and a trace amount of uranium-234 by potential peaceful applications of nuclear
mass). In terms of radioactivity, however, the fusion, especially in view of the essentially
radiation emitted by natural uranium comes limitless supply of fusion fuel on Earth, have
approximately 2.2 percent from uranium-235, encouraged an immense effort to harness this
48.6 percent from uranium-238, and 49.2 process for the production of power.
• Nuclear fission products are the atomic • Nuclear power plants rely on the chain
fragments left after a large atomic nucleus reaction of fission to create nuclear power. The
undergoes nuclear fission. Typically, a large real trick, however, is to control the chain
nucleus like that of uranium fissions by splitting reaction, releasing its energy slowly so that
into two smaller nuclei, along with a few ends other than destruction might be achieved.
neutrons, the release of heat energy (kinetic
• The secret to controlling a chain reaction is to
energy of the nuclei), and gamma rays.
control the neutrons. If the neutrons can be
• No CO₂: Fusion doesn't emit harmful toxins controlled, then so can the energy that is
like carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases released. That’s what scientists have done with
into the atmosphere. Its major by-product is nuclear power plants.
helium: an inert, non-toxic gas. No long-lived
• Most people believe that the concepts behind
radioactive waste: Nuclear fusion reactors
nuclear power plants are tremendously
produce no high activity, long-lived nuclear
complex. That’s really not the case. Nuclear
waste.
power plants are very similar to conventional
• Fission is used in nuclear power reactors since fossil fuel plants, in which a fossil fuel (coal, oil,
it can be controlled, while fusion is not utilized natural gas) is burned, and the heat is used to
to produce power since the reaction is not boil water, which, in turn makes steam. The
easily controlled and is expensive to create the steam then turns a turbine that is attached to a
needed conditions for a fusion reaction. generator that produces electricity.
Research continues into ways to better harness
• The big difference between a conventional
the power of fusion, but research is in
power plant and a nuclear power plant is that
experimental stages. While different, the two
the nuclear power plant produces heat through
processes have an important role in the past,
nuclear fission chain reactions.
present and future of energy creation
• In a nuclear reactor, a fissionable isotope is
WHY DOES FUSION PRODUCED MORE ENERGY
contained in fuel rods in the reactor core.
THE FISSION?
Control rods, commonly made of boron or
Fusion power is the power generated by nuclear cadmium, are in the core, and they act like
fusion processes. In fusion reactions, two light neutron sponges to control the rate of
atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier radioactive decay. Operators can stop a chain
nucleus. In doing so, they release a reaction completely by pushing the control rods
comparatively large amount of energy that all the way into the reactor core, where they
arises from the binding energy, creating an absorb all the neutrons. The operators can then
increase in temperature of the reactants pull out the control rods a little at a time to
produce the desired amount of heat.
NUCLEAR REACTORS
• A liquid (water, or sometimes liquid sodium) is
• Nuclear reactors are machines that contain
circulated through the reactor core, and the
and control nuclear chain reactions while
heat generated by the fission reaction is
releasing heat at a controlled rate. A nuclear
absorbed. The liquid then flows into a steam
power plant uses the heat that a nuclear
generator, where steam is produced as the heat
reactor produces to turn water into steam,
is absorbed by water. This steam is then piped
which then drives turbine generators that
through a steam turbine that’s connected to an
generate electricity.
electric generator. The steam is condensed and
recycled through the steam generator. This be drawn to intersect identical points
forms a closed system; that is, no water or equidistant from the center on opposite sides.
steam escapes — it’s all recycled. This closed
7 CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS
system helps ensure that no contamination of
the air or water takes place. 1. cubic, or isometric (three equal axes,
intersecting at right angles);

2. hexagonal (three equal axes, intersecting at

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS
60° angles in a horizontal plane, and a fourth,
LESSON 18
longer or shorter, axis, perpendicular to the
• CRYSTALS are a type of solid material plane of the other three);
composed of atoms or groups of atoms that are
3. tetragonal (two equal, horizontal axes at right
arranged in a three-dimensional pattern that is
angles and one axis longer or shorter than the
very ordered.
other two and perpendicular to their plane);
• CRYSTAL LATTICE is the arrangement of these
4. orthorhombic (three unequal axes
atoms, or groups of atoms, in a crystal.
intersecting at right angles);
• Crystal, a solid body bounded by natural plane
5. monoclinic (three unequal axes, two
faces that are the external expression of a
intersecting at right angles and the third at an
regular internal arrangement of constituent
oblique angle to the plane of the other two);
atoms, molecules, or ions. The formation of a
crystal by a substance passing from a gas or 6. trigonal, or rhombohedral (three equal axes
liquid to a solid state, or going out of solution intersecting at oblique angles); and
(by precipitation or evaporation), is called
crystallization. 7. triclinic (three unequal axes intersecting at
oblique angles). In all systems in which the axes
• Crystalline substances are grouped, according are unequal there is a definite axial ratio for
to the type of symmetry they display, into 32 each crystal substance.
classes. These in turn are grouped into seven
systems on the basis of the relationships of
their axes, i.e., imaginary straight lines passing METALS, ALLOYS AND POLYMERS LESSON 19
through the ideal centers of the crystals.
• Metals and its alloys contain atoms that are
• Crystals may be symmetrical with relation to arranged in orderly manner. It makes them
planes, axes, and centers of symmetry. Planes dense and eventually fabricate a very stiff and
of symmetry divide crystals into equal parts strong, resistant to fracture yet ductile
(mirror images) that correspond point for point, materials.
angle for angle, and face for face. Axes of
symmetry are imaginary lines about which the • All metals are characterized by metallic
crystal may be considered to rotate, assuming, properties, e.g. luster, opacity, malleability,
after passing through a rotation of 60°, 90°, ductility and electrical conductivity. Although
120°, or 180°, the identical position in space metals compose about three fourth of the
that it originally had. Centers of symmetry are known elements but few find service in their
points from which imaginary straight lines may pure form. The desired properties for
engineering purposes are often found in
ALLOYS. Typical examples of metallic materials
are iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, etc. and their • The most common way of classifying them is
alloys. by their iron content.

• Metals are extremely good conductors of • When a metal contains iron, it is known as a
electricity. A polished metal surface has a ferrous metal. The iron imparts magnetic
lustrous appearance. Moreover, metals are properties to the material and also makes them
quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts prone to corrosion. Metals that do not have any
for their extensive use in structural applications. iron content are non-ferrous metals. These
Metallic materials are always crystalline in metals do not possess any magnetic properties.
nature. Scientists have developed amorphous Examples include but are not limited to
(non-crystalline) alloys by very rapid cooling of a aluminum, lead, brass, copper and zinc.
melt. Recently, scientists have developed
• Another way to differentiate metals is by
materials through rapid solidification called as
looking how they interact with magnets. It is
quasicrystals. These are neither crystalline nor
possible to divide metals as magnetic and non-
amorphous, but form an ordered structure
magnetic on that basis.
somewhere between two known structures.
These materials are expected to exhibit far • While ferromagnetic metals attract strongly to
reaching electrical properties. magnets, paramagnetic ones only show weak
interactions. Lastly, there is a group called
• Polymers are fabricated by organic
diamagnetic metals that rather show a weak
compounds, say C, H, O, N, or so-called
repulsion to magnets.
derivatives of carbon and hydrogen, which
resulted in a very large molecular structure. • All the metals share some similar mechanical
They are low in densities, ductile, and pliable properties of materials. But when looked into
yet less stiff and strong. closely, one metal will have a slight edge over
another in certain properties. It is possible to
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and
tweak the properties when creating alloys by
rubber materials. Usually, polymers are
mixing pure elements.
classified into three categories: thermoplastic
polymers, thermosetting polymers and • When selecting a metal for a particular
elastomers, better called as rubbers. Polymers application, there’s quite a few factors to
have very large molecular structures. Most consider to find the most suitable option. These
plastic polymers are light in weight and are soft factors include melting point, cost, ease of
in comparison to metals. Polymer materials machining, sufficient safety factor, space
have typically low densities and may be available, temperature coefficient, thermal and
extremely flexible and widely used as insulators, electrical conductivity, density, etc.
both thermal and electrical. Few examples of
polymers are polyesters, phenolics, • Pure iron is stronger than other metals but it
polyethylene leaves much to be desired. For one, pure iron is
not resistant to corrosion. To keep iron from
TYPES OF METAL – PURE METALS, ALLOYS & corroding, a lot of money and energy must be
THEIR APPLICATIONS spent. Secondly, it is also extremely heavy due
to its high density. These disadvantages can
• A large number of metals are available in
make structures harder to build and maintain.
nature. They can be classified in a variety of
ways depending on what property or
characteristic you use as a yardstick.
• Adding carbon to iron alleviates these This type of metal contains multiple elements to
weaknesses to a certain extent. This mixture of enhance various properties. Metals such as
iron and carbon up to specified limits is known manganese, titanium, copper, nickel, silicon,
as carbon steel. Adding carbon to iron makes and aluminum may be added in different
the iron much stronger along with imparting proportions. This improves steel’s hardenability,
other great characteristics. weldability, corrosion resistance, ductility and
formability. Applications for alloy steels are
CARBON STEEL AISI CLASSIFICATION
electric motors, bearings, heating elements,
(AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE)
springs, gears, and pipelines.
• Low carbon steel. Up to 0.25% of carbon in
• Stainless steel: contains high amounts of
iron give us low carbon steel, also known as
chromium. This is why it has 200 times higher
mild steel. It is used for tubing in moderate
resistance to corrosion than mild steel. It makes
pressure applications. Reinforcing bars and in I-
it the ideal candidate to manufacture kitchen
beams in construction are usually from low
utensils, piping, surgical and dental equipment.
carbon steel. Any applications that require a
Also, as no coating is necessary, you can have a
high amount of steel without much forming or
metallic look like you want with the right
bending are also suitable for it. An example is a
surface finish.
ship’s hull.

• Medium carbon steel. Contains 0.25…0.6% of

carbon. Medium carbon steel’s applications • Tool steel: used for making cutting and drilling
include ones that need high tensile strength and tools. Their high hardness makes them an ideal
ductility. They find applications in gearing and choice for these applications. They contain
shafts, railway wheels and rails, steel beams in molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, and tungsten
buildings and bridges etc. Another use is as constituent metals.
pressure vessels, except if it contains cold gases
USES OF POLYMERS
or liquids because of its tendency to cold
cracking. Here we will list some of the important uses of
polymers
• High carbon steel. Steel that contains more
than 0.6% of carbon is high carbon steel. This • Polypropene finds usage in a broad range of
steel is harder and more brittle than the industries such as textiles, packaging,
previous two. It finds applications in making stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope,
chisels and cutting tools. Great qualities include toys, etc.
hardness and good resistance to material wear.
It may also be used in presses and for • Polystyrene is one of the most common
manufacturing drill bits. plastic, actively used in the packaging industry.
Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable
Although all the above-mentioned steels are glasses and plates, tv cabinets and lids are some
commonly referred to as carbon steels, they of the daily-used products made up of
contain other elements to improve certain polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
properties. Like chromium for corrosion
resistance or manganese to improve • The most important use of polyvinyl chloride
hardenability and tensile strength. is the manufacture of sewage pipes. It is also
used as an insulator in the electric cables.
ALLOY STEELS
• Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and
furniture and has recently become popular for
the construction of doors and windows as well.
It is also used in vinyl flooring.

• Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making

adhesives, moulds, laminated sheets,
unbreakable containers, etc.

• Glyptal is used for making paints, coatings,

and lacquers.

• Bakelite is used for making electrical switches,

kitchen products, toys, jewelry, firearms,
insulators, computer discs, etc.