Energy Science and Engineering

UNIT-2
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Introduction
Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is the energy trapped inside each atom. Heavy atoms are unstable
and undergo nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactions are of two types
1. Nuclear fission…the splitting of heavy nucleus
2. Nuclear fusion…the joining of lighter nuclei

m
Fission: Fission may be defined as the process of splitting an atomic nucleus into fission
fragments. The fission fragments are generally in the form of smaller atomic nuclei and neutrons.

co
Large amounts of energy are produced by the fission process.
Fusion :Fusion is a nuclear reaction whereby two light atomic nuclei fuse or combine to form a
single larger, heavier nucleus. The fusion process generates tremendous amounts of energy. For

a.
fusion to occur, a large amount of energy is needed to overcome the electrical charges of the nuclei
and fuse them together. Fusion reactions do not occur naturally on our planet but are the principal

ty
type of reaction found in stars. The large masses, densities, and high temperatures of stars provide
the initial energies needed to fuel fusion reactions. The sun fuses hydrogen atoms to produce

Fission Fusion di
helium, subatomic particles, and vast amounts of energy. Comparison of fission and fusion
ea
• Splitting of heavy
nucleus • Joining of light nuclei
on

• Is a chain reaction • Is not a chain reaction

• Can be controlled • Cannot be controlled
• Radiations are very • Will not emit harmful
yz

harmful radiation.
ud

COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

t

The important components of a nuclear reactor are: x Fuel rods

.s

x Control rods x Moderator

x Reflector
w

x Reactor vessel
w

o Biological shielding x

Coolant
w

Fuel Rod (Material): Natural Uranium with U235 contents (occurs in nature), Enriched Uranium
with more than 0.71 of U235 ,Pu239,Pu241 or Pu239(man made), U233 (man made). The
finished fuel rods are grouped in fuel assemblies, called fuel bundles.
 Energy Science and Engineering

A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of 200 to 300 rods each, and a large reactor would
have about 150–250 such assemblies with 80–100 tonnes of uranium in all. Generally, the fuel
bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 14 × 14 to 17 × 17. A PWR produces on the order of 900 to
1,500 MW. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 meters in length. Refuelings for most commercial PWRs
is on an 18–24 month cycle. Approximately one third of the core is replaced each refueling.
Important properties of Fuel rods
• It should withstand high temperature
• It should have high corrosion resistance
• It should have good thermal conductivity
• It should not absorb neutrons

m
• It should withstand radiation effects
Controls rods:These are cylindrical shaped rods located centrally in the fuel rods which have the

co
property of absorbing neutrons. It keeps the chain-reaction under control. It can be lowered into the
chamber to absorb neutrons and to slowdown the reactions (and vice versa). Thus the rate of
nuclear reactions can be controlled with the help of control rods.

a.
Ex: Cadmium, Boron, Carbon, Cobalt, Silver, Hafnium, and

ty
Gadolinium. A good control rod should have the following
properties
•
•
Good capacity to transfer heat
di
ea
Stability at high temperature
• Good corrosion resistance
• Good strength and capacity to absorb neutrons at faster rate.
on

Moderator: Function of a moderator is to reduce the energy(velocity) of fast neutrons to

thermal neutrons(thermal energies). A process called moderation or thermalization in order to
yz

interact with the nuclear fuel and sustain the chain reaction. In PWRs the coolant water is used
as a moderator by letting the neutrons undergo multiple collisions with light hydrogen atoms in
the water, losing speed in the process.
ud

Generally used moderators are: H2O, D2O( heavy water ), He( gas ), Be(beryllium) and
C(graphite). The important properties of a good moderator
• It should have high corrosion resistance
t
.s

• It should have good thermal conductivity

• It should be stable under high temperature and pressure conditions
w

• It should successfully reduce the velocity of the fast moving neutrons •

 A solid moderator should have machinability
w
w

Reflector: Function of the reflector is to minimize the neutron leakage by reflecting them back into
the reactor.
Graphite and Beryllium are generally used as reflectors.
The important properties of good reflectors material are:
 • It should have good thermal conductivity
• It should have good corrosion resistance
• It should have high stability under high temperature and pressure conditions
• It should not absorb neutrons
• It should have good reflectivity.
Reactor Vessel:It is a strong steel container in which the fuel rods,moderator,control rods and the
reflector are arranged properly. It forms a strong structural support for the reactor core.
Biological Shielding:This is a wall which surrounds the whole reactor system. It‘s mainly made of
lead or concrete. Its main purpose is to avoid radiation hazards caused by the escape of radio active

m
radiation (like neutrons, alpha, beta and gamma rays) from the reactor core due to the nuclear
reaction. Of all these radiation particles gamma rays are very hazards.

co
Important Properties of Good Biological Shielding
• It should have a high strength
• It should not allow radio active rays to pass through.

a.
• It should be stable under high temperature and pressure.

ty
Coolant: A Coolant is used to remove the heat and maintain the temperature of the fuel within
acceptable limits. Coolants are used both in primary and secondary circuits (cycles) in nuclear
reactors. Sometimes the moderator and the coolant are the same material (e.g. water). The
di
commonly used coolants are water, heavy water, inert gasses(helium,CO2),air,sodium,bismuth and
potassium.
ea
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
on

Boiling water reactor (BWR) is the simplest of all facilities. Water absorbs heat from the reactions
in the core and is directly driven to the turbines. After condensing the water is pumped back to the
reactor core. In a Boiling Water Reactor enriched fuel is used. The BWR uses demineralized water
yz

(light water) as a coolant and moderator. Heat is produced by nuclear fission in the reactor core,
and this causes the cooling water to boil, producing steam. The steam is directly used to drive a
turbine, after which is cooled in a condenser and
ud

converted b ack to liquid water.

t
.s
w
w
w

Advantages of BWR
• Heat exchanger circuit is not required so direct conduction hence more thermal efficiency.
ENERGY ENGINEERING 10ME53

• Use of low pressure principle hence no

need of
Pressurizer.
• Metal Temperature remains low.
• Outlet temp of steam is very high (as
compared with PWR).
• Pressure is low, and thicker vessel is not
required.
Disadvantages of BWR
• Possibility of radioactive contamination in the turbine

m
mechanism.
•

co
More elaborate safety particulars needed which are costly.
• Wastage of steam resulting in lower thermal efficiency on part load.
• The possibility of ―burn out‖ of fuel is more.

a.
Pressurized water reactor (PWR)

ty
PWR uses a sealed system to prevent water circulating through the core from boiling due to
high pressure. The heat from this system is removed by the water in pipes to the steam generator.

di
In a Pressurized water reactor natural and highly enriched fuel is used. PWR use ordinary water
under high pressure (superheated water) as coolant to remove heat generated by nuclear chain
reaction from nuclear fuel, and also as the moderator to thermalise the neutron flux so that it
ea
interacts with the nuclear fuel to maintain the chain reaction.

PWR reactor design

on

Light water is used as the primary coolant in a PWR. It enters the bottom of the reactor core at
about 275 °C and is heated as it flows upwards through the reactor core to a temperature of about
yz

315 °C. The water remains liquid despite the high temperature due to the high pressure in the
primary coolant loop, usually around 15 MPa. Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a
ud

Pressurizer(about 155 bar), a separate vessel (boiler) that is connected to the primary circuit and
partially filled with water which is heated to the saturation temperature (boiling point) for the
desired pressure by submerged electrical heaters. To achieve a pressure of 155 bar, the pressuriser
temperature is maintained at 345 °C, which gives a subcooling margin of 30 °C. (the difference
t
.s

between the pressuriser temperature and the highest temperature in the reactor core, since
pressuriser temperature is higher than the primary coolant temperature). To achieve maximum heat
w

transfer, the primary circuit temperature, pressure and flow rate are arranged such that
subcoolednucleate boiling takes place as the coolant passes over the nuclear fuel rods.
w

PWRs are the most common type of power producing nuclear reactor, and are widely used in
w

power stations such as ships and submarines all over the world. More than 230 of them are in use
in nuclear power plants to generate electric power, and several hundred more for marine propulsion
in aircraft carriers, submarines and ice breakers.
 m
co
a.
ty
di
ea
on
yz

Advantages

5. PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures
ud

increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint.

6. PWR reactors can be operated with a core containing less fissile material. This significantly
t

reduces the chance that the reactor will run out of control and makes PWR designs relatively safe
.s

from critical accidents.

w

7. PWR reactors can use ordinary water as coolant, moderator hence less expensive and easily
available.
w

5.PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop is
w

not contaminated by radioactive materials.

6. A small number of control rods are required.

7.There is complete freedom to inspect and maintain the turbine, feed heaters and condenser during
the operation.

8. Fission products remain contained in the reactor and are not circulated.
Disadvantages
1. The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures.This
requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases construction
costs.
2. Most pressurized water reactors cannot be refueled while operating. This decreases the
availability of the reactor- it has to go offline for comparably long periods of time (some
weeks).

3. Natural uranium is only 0.7% Uranium-235, the isotope necessary for thermal reactors. This

m
makes it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which increases the costs of fuel production. If
heavy water is used it is possible to operate the reactor with natural uranium, but the

co
production of heavy water requires large amounts of energy and is hence expensive.

4. Severe corrosion problem.

a.
ty
Gas cooled reactor (GCR)
GCR uses CO2 gas as a coolant to remove he at from the core.

di
ea
on
yz
t ud
.s

Then it is piped through the steam generator where h eat is removed from the gas and it c an then
w

recirculated to the reactor. As usual steam generated is used to drive the turbine and generate
electricity, condensed then recirculated. Graphite is used as a moderator. Other type of Coolant
w

used can be air, helium and hydrogen.

w

Advantages
11. The processing of fuel is simpler.
12. No corrosion problem.
13. Graphite remains stable under irradiation at high temperature.
14. The use of CO2as coolant completely eliminates the possibility of explosion in the reactor (
which always in water cooled plants).

Disadvantages
 6. Power density is low (due to low heat transfer coefficient), therefore large vessel is required.
7. If helium is used instead of CO2, the leakage of gas is a major problem.

8. More power is required for coolant circulation (pumping cost is more).

9. Fuel loading is more elaborate and costly.

Breeder Reactor

m
A breeder reactorconverts fertile materials into fissionable materials such as U238 to Pu239
andTh232to U233besides the power production.

co
Types of Breeder reactor
•

a.
Fast breeder reactor or FBR

• Thermal breeder reactor

ty
Fast breeder reactor or FBR

di
Under appropriate operating conditions, the neutrons given off by fission reactions can
"breed" more fuel. Production of fissile material in a reactor occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile
ea
material, particularly Uranium-238 and Thorium-232. The most common breeding reaction is that
of plutonium-239 from nonfissionable uranium-238. A normal reactor can consume less than 1%
of the natural uranium that begins the fuel cycle, whereas a breeder can use much more with a
on

once-through cycle and nearly all of it with reprocessing. Also, breeders can be designed to utilize
Thorium, which is more abundant than Uranium Liquid Metal Reactor or Sodium Graphite
Reactor
yz
t ud
.s
w
w
w

This reactor consists

of double circuitcoolant.Enricheduranium is used as the fuel. Liquid metal and alloys such as
sodium (and NaK) as coolant. Graphite as the moderator. Here primary circuit uses sodium as
coolant absorb the heat from core and transfer to the Na or NaK (uses an alloy as coolant
 )in the secondarycircuit ,Na or NaK transfers heat to the boiler to raise steam, which is used
to run the turbine to generate power.Sodium has high thermal conductivity which is more
than 100 times that of water, hence increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.

Advantages
1. The moderator is not required
2. High breeding is possible

3. Small core is sufficient

m
4. High burn-up of fuel is achievable

co
5. Absorption of neutrons is low

6. Thermal efficiency of the plant is very high (30 – 40%).

a.
Disadvantages

ty
1. Requires highly enriched fuel
2. It is necessary to provide safety against - melt-down
3. Neutron flux is high at the centre of the core di
ea
4. The specific power of reactor is low.

5. There is a major problem of handling sodium as it becomes hot and radioactive.

on

6. Plant cost is more due to costly coolants.

yz

Multiplication Factor & Thermal Utilization Factor

In a fission reaction 2.5 neutrons released in each reaction, one neutron is used to sustain chain
reaction (fast fission), about 0.9 neutron is captured by U-238 to form Pu-239 a fissionable material
ud

(in a fast breeder reactor), and about 0.6 neutron is partly absorbed by control rods, coolant,
moderator and partly escape from the reactor. Finally, the fraction of 2.5 neutrons that remains for
absorption by the fuel nuclei to cause further chain reaction, is termed thermal utilisation factor
t
.s

(f).
Nuclear fission reaction continues or not, can be determined by a number termed the
w

Multiplication Factor. Multiplication Factor is defined as the ratio of the number of neutrons
w

produced by one reaction to the number of neutrons produced in an immediately preceding

reaction. It is expressed by the relation , k = Number of neutrons in a given reaction
w

No of neutrons of produced in the immediate preceding

reactionK = P / A+E
where, k = Effective multiplication factor

P = Rate of neutron
production A =
 Rate of neutron
absorption E =
Rate of neutron
leakage.

The multiplication factor k is useful in determining whether a fission reaction will be sustained,
slowed down or increasing, based on

1) Critical Reaction

m
2) Sub-critical Reaction
3) Super-critical Reaction

co
a.
1) Critical Reaction: When, k = 1, the chain reaction will continue at a steady rate (reaction is
critical).

ty
This is the desirable condition in power plants as this releases energy at a steady rate and is
easily controllable (whenever a nuclear reactor is reported to have gone critical meaning that it has
successfully operating with sustainable chain reaction).
di
2) Sub-critical Reaction: When, k < 1, the chain reaction will stop, i.e., reaction is sub-critical,
ea
which is not desirable. With this state, the chain reaction dies down, and indicates that the
conditions to maintain a chain reaction are not fulfilled.
3) Super-critical Reaction: When, k > 1, chain reaction will be building up, it goes super-critical,
on

which is the most undesirable and dangerous condition as it is uncontrollable. This condition
is applied in nuclear bombs. If this condition is reached in a nuclear reactor, reactor melts
down and explodes leading to fire and radiation hazards.
yz

TYPES OF NUCLEAR WASTES

ud

1. Low level waste (LLW)

This is generated from nuclear fuel cycle. Initially the low level solid waste is cast in cemented
t

steel drum. After it is buried few meters below from the soil or kept on ocean bed. It get diluted as it
.s

disperse. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, etc., which contain small amounts of
mostly short-lived radioactivity. They have low but potentially hazardous concentration of
w

radioactive materials. They do not require any shielding and can be disposed in liquid form.
w

2. Intermediate level waste (ILW)

This contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in some cases requires shielding. ILW
w

includes resins, chemical sludge and metal reactor fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials
from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. These
wastes mainly contaminated with neutron activation product isotopes. This type of waste is
primarily put in a cement concrete cylinder. Then it is buried few meters below from the soil or
kept on ocean bed.

3. High level waste (HLW)

This is produced by nuclear reactors. It contains fission products elements generated in the
reactor core. It is highly radioactive and often thermally hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the
total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear electricity generation. High-level radioactive
waste is stored temporarily in spent fuel pools and in dry cask storage facilities. This allows the
shorter-lived isotopes to decay before further handling.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS

a] Disposal of low level solid waste
Primarily the low level solid waste is cast in cement in steel drum. After it is buried few meters
below from the soil or kept on ocean bed. It gets diluted as it disperses.
b] Disposal of medium level solid waste
These wastes mainly contaminated with neutron activation product isotopes. This type of waste is

m
primarily put in a cement concrete cylinder. Then it is buried few meters below from the soil or kept
on ocean bed.

co
c] Disposal of high level liquid waste
High level liquid waste is stored in steel cylinder tanks with concrete. It is water cooled to keep
the temperature at 50ºc.then this cylinder is stored in salt mine. The oceans are used for permanent

a.
storage of high level waste disposal. Long-term storage of radioactive waste requires the
stabilization of the waste into a form which will not react, nor degrade, for extended periods of

ty
time. One way to do this is through vitrification. The high-level waste is mixed with sugar and then
calcined. Calcinations involves passing the waste through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of

di
calcinations are to evaporate the water from the waste, and de-nitrate the fission products to assist
the stability of the glass produced. The 'calcine' generated is fed continuously into an induction
ea
heated furnace with fragmented glass. The resulting glass is a new substance in which the waste
products are bonded into the glass matrix when it solidifies.
on

This product, as a molten fluid, is poured into stainless steel cylindrical containers
("cylinders") in a batch process. When cooled, the fluid solidifies ("vitrifies") into the glass. Such
glass, after being formed, is very highly resistant to water. After filling a cylinder, a seal is welded
yz

onto the cylinder. The cylinder is then washed. After being inspected for external contamination,
the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground repository. In this form, the waste products
are expected to be immobilized for a very long period of time (many thousands of years).
t ud
.s
w
w
w