Chapter 7

Chapter 7
Response of first order RL and RC circuits
Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Chapter 7. Response of first order RL and RC circuits
Chapter Objectives
▪ Be able to determine the natural response of both RL and RC

circuits
▪ Be able to determine the step response of both RL and RC circuits
▪ Know how to analyze circuits with sequential switching
▪ Be able to analyze op am circuits containing resistors and a single
capacitor

Introduction
▪ Capacitors and inductors can store energy (chapter 6)
▪ How the voltages and currents behave when energy is either released or
acquired by a capacitor or inductor in response to an abrupt change in a
dc voltage or current source?
▪ First order circuits: Circuits that contain either a single capacitor or
inductor (but not both) and a network of dc sources, resistors, switches. It
is also known as an RC circuit or RL circuit.
▪ Can also analyze circuits containing multiple capacitors/inductors if we
can combine them into a single equivalent capacitor/inductor
▪ Analyze by applying KVL and KCL
▪ Generates a first order differential equation

7.1. Natural response of an RL circuit t=0
▪ For t < 0, the switch has been

i +
closed for a long time.
Is R0 L R v
- All currents and voltages in the _
circuits have reached to a constant.
- The inductor behaves as a short circuit
i (0 − ) = I s v (0 − ) = 0
0− denotes the time just prior to opening the switch
- Energy stored in the inductor at t = 0−
− 1 2 − 1 2
w(0 ) = Li (0 ) = LI s
2 2
▪ At t = 0, the switch is opened, the dc source is disconnected from the
circuit, and the inductor begin to release energy.

7.1. Natural response of an RL circuit
i
▪ For t ≥ 0, the circuit reduces to the one, as shown. +
L R v
KVL for the loop, we have _
di
L + Ri = 0 first-order differential equation
dt
di R R di R
= − i  di = − idt  = − dt
dt L L i L
Integration both sides and use x and y as variables of integrations, yields
i (t )
dx Rt i (t ) R
 x = −  dy  ln = − t
i (0) L0 i (0) L
R
− t
We obtain i (t ) = i ( 0) e L
Since the current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously, therefore
i (0+ ) = i (0) = i (0− ) = I s initial condition
R
− t i +
Finally, we have i (t ) = I s e L v
L R
Using Ohm’s law, we obtain R
_
− t
v(t ) = Ri (t ) = RI s e L
Note that v(0− ) = 0 while v(0+ ) = RI s , there is a step change occurs in the
voltage at t = 0, i.e., v(0) is unknown. Therefore, the equation of voltage is
defined only for t  0+
i(t) v(t)
Is RIs
t t
0 0
They are called natural responses, i.e., responses of the circuit (i(t), v(t))
when the dc source is suddenly disconnected (source-free)
2R
1 2 1 2 −Lt
Energy in the inductor: wL (t ) = Li (t ) = LI s e
2 2
Power dissipated in the resistor
2R
− t
pR (t ) = Ri 2 (t ) = RI s2e L
Energy delivered to the resistor

1 2  − t
2R 2R
t t − 
wR (t ) =  pR ( )d =  RI s2e  = LI s 1 − e L 
L d
0 0 2  
As t becomes infinity, the energy dissipated in the resistor approaches the
initial energy stored in the inductor.

7.1. Natural response of an RL circuit R R
− t − t
Time constant of RL circuit i (t ) = I s
e L v(t ) = RI s
e L
L
Let  = then i (t ) = I s e −t  v(t ) = RI s e −t 
R
τ indicates the rate at which the current/voltage decrease, it is called a time
constant.
▪ At t = 5τ, we have i(t)/Is
i (5 ) I s = I s e −5  I s = e −5 = 0.00647. 1
The current is less than 1% of Is after 5τ. τ=
2
In other word, the current reaches its τ=
τ= 1
final value (steady-state) after five time 0 .5
t
constants. 1 2 3 4 5
▪ The smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the current decrease, that
is, the faster the response.
In summary: Steps to find natural response of RL circuits are as follows
1) Find initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor. Note that
i (0+ ) = i (0) = i (0− ) = I 0
2) Find the time constant of the circuit, τ = L/R. Here R is often the
Thévenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of the inductor (RTh), that is,
we take out the inductor and find RTh at is terminals
3) The current through the inductor is obtained as
i (t ) = I 0e −t 
All other calculations of interest follow from knowing i(t)

Example 7.1. The switch in the circuit shown has been closed for a long
time and is opened at t = 0. t=0
3Ω 6Ω
a) Calculate i(t) for t ≥ 0.
b) What % of the initial i
+
_ 120 V 30Ω 3Ω 6Ω
8mH
energy stored has been
dissipated in the (3||6) Ω
resistor 5ms after switching
a) Find initial value of i (t <0). 3Ω 6Ω
− 120(30 || 6)
i (0 ) = − = −12.5 A
3 + (30 || 6)6 +
_ 120 V 30Ω 8mH
i
Initial current through the inductor is

I 0 = i (0− ) = −12.5 A
Example 7.1. (cond’t).
Calculate the time constant i 3Ω
8mH 6Ω
Thévenin equivalent resistance of the circuit is
RTh = (3 || 6) = 2 
L 8
 = = = 4 ms
Req 2
The current through the inductor for t ≥ 0 is
−t 410−3
i (t ) = −12.5e = −12.5e−250t A
1 2 −2t
b) Energy in the inductor is wL (t ) = Li (t ) = W0e  = W0e −500t
2
−500510−3
After 5ms, the energy in the inductor remain: wL (t ) = W0e = 0.082W0
W0 − 0.082W0
Therefore, = 0.918 = 91.8%
W0
Example 7.2. (Prob. #7.16) Find v0(t) for t ≥ 0+ in the circuit shown
t=0
• Initial inductor current: For t < 0,
it easy to obtain that
+
iL (0− ) = 4 A  I L 0 = 4 A 4A 4v0 5mH v0
2Ω
• Time constant: For t > 0, take out _
of the inductor, we have

Equivalent circuit for t < 0
+ iTh
vTh 4vTh 4A iL
2Ω
_
vTh
iTh = 4vTh  RTh = = 0.25
iTh
 = L RTh = 5 10−3 0.25 = 20ms
Example 7.2. (cond’t)
• The current through the inductor for t ≥ 0 is
iL
−t  −t 2010−3 −50t
iL (t ) = I L 0e = 4e = 4e A +
4v0 5mH v0
Then, the voltage v0(t) is _
diL
v0 (t ) = L = 5  10−3 (−200e −50t ) = −e −50t V
dt

Example 7.3. At t = 0, the switch moves instantaneously from position a to
position b.
t=0 6Ω
a) Calculate v0(t) for t ≥ 0+ a
b +
b) What % of the initial 6.4A
v0 10Ω 0.32H 4Ω
energy stored in the inductor _
is eventually dissipated in the
4Ω resistor?

Example 7.3. (cond’t) Workspace

7.2. Natural response of an RC circuit
It is analogous to the natural response of the RL circuit.
R0 t=0
▪ For t < 0
The circuit is in steady-state, the i
capacitor behaves as an open circuit Vs + +
_ R
− −
v(0 ) = Vg ; i (0 ) = 0 C v
_
1 1
w(0− ) = Cv 2 = CVg2
2 2
Equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0
▪ For t ≥ 0
dv v
C =−  v(t ) = v(0)e −t RC + i
dt R
C v R
Since the voltage in a capacitor cannot change _
instantaneously, therefore
v(0+ ) = v(0) = v(0− ) = Vs initial condition
v(t)
Finally, we have Vs
v(t ) = Vs e −t RC t0
Define the time constant as τ = RC
 v(t ) = Vs e −t  t0 0
t
▪ Knowing v(t), we can obtain other variables of interest as follows

v(t ) Vs −t 
i (t ) = = e t  0+
R R i(t)
1 2 1
wC (t ) = Cv = CVs2e −2t  t  0 Vs/R
2 2
Vs2 −2t 
pR (t ) = vi = e t  0+ t
R 0
( )
t
1
wR (t ) =  pR ( )d = CVs2 1 − e −2t  t  0+
0 2
In summary: Steps to find natural response of RC circuits are as follows
1) Find initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor. Note that
v(0+ ) = v(0) = v(0− ) = V0
2) Find the time constant of the circuit, τ = RC. Here R is often the Thévenin
equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor (RTh), that is, we take
out the capacitor and find RTh at is terminals
3) The voltage across the capacitor is obtained as
v(t ) = V0e−t 
All other calculations of interest follow from knowing v(t)

Example 7.4. The switch in the circuit shown has been closed for a long
time and is open at t = 0.
a) Find v(t), t ≥ 0.
b) Find the length of
time required to
dissipate 75% of the
initial stored energy
a) Find initial value of v (t < 0)
−  7.5 10−3 3
v(0 ) =  80  10 
50  103
= 200 V
 80 10 + 70 10
3 3

Initial voltage across the capacitor
V0 = v(0− ) = 200 V
+
Time constant
 = RC = (0.4 10 )50 10 = 20ms
0.4µF v 50kΩ
−6 3
_
We have
2010−3
v(t ) = V0e −t  = 200e−t = 200e −50t V t  0
b) Initial energy stored in the capacitor
1
wC (0) = CV02
2
Energy dissipated
1
(
wR (t ) = CV0 1 − e
2
2 − 2t 
) 1
= 0.75w(0) = 0.75 CV02
2
 1 − e −2t  = 0.75
1
 t = −  ln 0.25 = 0.6931 = 13.863 ms
2
7.2. Natural response of an RC circuit 5µF
Example 7.5. The switch in the t=0
circuit shown has been closed for 15kΩ
a long time and is open at t = 0 + 20kΩ
a) Find v0(t) for t ≥ 0. +

_ 15V v0 1µF 40kΩ
_
b) What % of the initial energy
stored in the circuit has been
dissipated after switching 60ms


7.3. Step response of RL and RC circuits
Step response: The response of a circuit to a sudden application of a
constant voltage or current source. t=0 t=0
R
Step response of an RL circuit
i +
▪ For t < 0, i(0) = I0
▪ For t ≥ 0 Vs +
_ L v R0 I0
di _
Vs = Ri + L
dt
di − Ri + Vs R  Vs 
 = = − i − 
dt L L R 
R V  di R
 di = −  i − s dt  = − dt
L R  i − (Vs R ) L
i (t )
dx Rt i (t ) − (Vs R) R
  = −  dy  ln =− t
i ( 0 ) x − (Vs R ) L0 i (0) − (Vs R) L

i (t ) − (Vs R) i (t ) − (Vs R)
R
R − t
ln =− t  =e L
i (0) − (Vs R) L i (0) − (Vs R)
R R
or V  Vs  L t
− Vs  Vs  − L t
i (t ) = s +  i (0) − e since i(0) = I0  i (t ) = +  I 0 −  e
R  R R  R
If the initial energy in the inductor is zero, i.e., I0 = 0
i(t)
Vs  − t
R
i (t ) = 1 − e L 
R Vs/R

Time constant: τ = L/R
0.632(Vs/R) i (t ) =
Vs
(
1 − e −t  )
V
(
i (t ) = s 1 − e −t 
R
) R
V
( ) V
At t = τ: i ( ) = s 1 − e −  = 0.632 s
R R t
τ 2τ
Step voltage response can be easily obtained from knowing i(t)
di − R Vs  −t 
e = (Vs − RI 0 )e
−t 
v(t ) = L = L  0
I − t  0+
dt L  R
Note that for t < 0, v(t) = 0. At t = 0, the inductor voltage jumps to (Vs – RI0)
When the initial inductor current is zero, i.e., I0 = 0.
v(t ) = Vs e−t  t  0+
Note that the algebraic sign of I0 is positive if the initial current is in the
same direction as i(t).

Step response of an RL circuit 2Ω t=0
Example 7.6. The switch has b a
been in position a for long time +
+
_ 24V 10Ω 8A
and moves to position b at t = 0. i v 200mH
_
Find i(t) for t ≥ 0
Find v(t) for t ≥ 0+.
For t < 0: Initial inductor current: i (0− ) = 8A
This current oriented opposite to the reference direction of i(t), therefore
I 0 = −i (0− ) = −8A
L 200 10−3
For t ≥ 0: The time constant of the circuit is  = = = 0.1s
R 2
We obtain
V  V  24  24 
i (t ) = s +  I 0 − s  e −t  = +  − 8 − e −t 0.1 = 12 − 20e −10t A t  0
R  R 2  2
The inductor voltage is obtained as
di
 
v = L = 0.2 − 20(− 10)e −10t = 40e −10t V t  0+
dt
v(A) i(A)
40
32
24 12
16 8
8 4
t(ms)
100 200 300 400 500
-4
-8

7.3. Step response of RL and RC circuits Norton t=0
Step response of an RC circuit
Consider the circuit as shown +
KCL equation in term of the capacitor Is R C v
voltage v for the node yields i _
v dv
Is = +C
R dt
The solution of this first-order differential equation is obtained as
t
−
v(t ) = RI s + V0 − RI s e RC t0
Where V0 is the initial capacitor voltage. Since the voltage in the capacitor
cannot change instantaneously, therefore
vC (0− ) = vC (0+ ) = V0

t=0
Having v(t), the current in the capacitor is +
dv  V  Is R C
i (t ) = C =  I s − 0 e −t RC t  0+ v
dt  R i _
Time constant of RC circuit: τ = RC

Therefore, we t
v(t ) = RI s + V0 − RI s e
−
 V 
 t0i (t ) =  I s − 0 e −t  t  0+
 R
If the initial capacitor voltage is zero, i.e., V0 = 0, then
 − 
t
v(t ) = RI s 1 − e   t  0 i (t ) = I s e −t  t  0+
 
Note that the algebraic sign of V0 is positive if the initial voltage is in the
same direction as v(t).
t=0
20kΩ 2 8kΩ 40kΩ
Example 7.7. The switch
1
has been in position 1 for + + i
_
40V 60kΩ v 160kΩ + 75V
a long time and moves to _ 0.25µF _
position 2 at t = 0.
Find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and i(t) for t ≥ 0+
▲ It is easy to find the initial voltage across the capacitor as
− 40
v (0 ) = 60 = 30V  V0 = 30V
20 + 60
For t ≥ 0. To take advance of the result above, we find the Norton equivalent
w.r.t. the terminals of the capacitor

8kΩ a 40kΩ
Isc 160kΩ
_
+ 75V R Is
The short circuit current can be obtain as

va + 75 va va va
+ + = 0  I sc = = −1.5mA  I s = I sc = −1.5mA
40 160 8 8
and the Norton resistance is: R = 8 + (160 || 40) = 40kΩ
The time constant of the circuit is then
 = RC = (40 103 )(0.25 10−6 ) = 10ms = 0.01s
▪ The capacitor voltage is
t
−
v(t ) = RI s + V0 − RI s e  = −60 + 30 + 60e −t 0.01 = −60 + 90e −100t V t  0
▪ The current in the capacitor is
 V0  −t   30  −t 0.01
i (t ) =  I s − e =  − 1.5 − e = −2.25e −100t mA t  0+
 R  40 

7.4. A general solution for step and natural responses
Remember
▪ Natural responses
RL circuit: RC circuit:
di R di 1 dv 1 dv 1
+ i=0  + i=0 + i=0  + v=0
dt L dt  dt RC dt 
▪ Step responses
di R Vs di 1 V dv 1 I dv 1 I
+ i=  + i= s + i= s  + v= s
dt L L dt  L dt RC C dt  C
In general, the step and natural responses are the solution of the following
equation dx 1
+ x =
dt 
x is the inductor current or the capacitor voltage
The constant κ can be zero
dx 1
+ x =
dt 
Because the sources in the circuit are constant, the final value of x must be
constant, i.e., dx/dt = 0. Therefore, the final value of x is
x f = lim x(t ) = 
t →
The equation can be rewrite as follows
dx x ( x − K ) (x − x f )
= − + = − =−
dt   
x (t )
dx 1 du 1t
 = − dt   = −  dv
x − xf  x (0) u − x f 0
Finally, we obtain the solution
x(t ) = x f + x(0) − x f e −t 

dx 1
+ x =
dt 
Because the sources in the circuit are constant, the final value of x must be
constant, i.e., dx/dt = 0. Therefore, the final value of x is
x f = lim x(t ) = 
t →
The equation can be rewrite as follows
dx x ( x − K ) (x − x f )
= − + = − =−
dt   
x (t )
dx 1 du 1t
 = − dt   = −  dv
x − xf  x (0) u − x f 0
Finally, we obtain the solution
x0: initial value of x
x(t ) = x f + x(0) − x f e −t 
xf: final value of x

7.4. A general solution for step and natural response
Summary: Steps to find step response and natural response
x(t ) = x f + x(0) − x f e −t 
1) Identify the variable of interest of the circuit x: For RL circuit, it is

usually the inductor current x = iL; For RC circuit, it is usually the
capacitor voltage x = vC.
2) Use DC analysis to determine the initial value of the variable of interest,
x(0).
Note that: iL(0-) = iL(0) = iL(0+); vC(0-) = vC(0) = vC(0+).
3) Use DC analysis to find the final value of the variable of interest at t →
∞, i.e., xf.
4) Calculate the time constant of the circuit, τ

Example 7.8. The 4Ω 4mH iL
switch has been closed _
+ vL
+
for a long time before +
40V t=0 v0 16Ω 5A
opening at t = 0. _
_
a) Find iL(t) and v0(t)
for t ≥ 0.
b) Find vL(0+), v0(0+)


80mH 1Ω 20Ω
Example 7.9. The _
+ vϕ
switch has been i0(t) t=0
opened for a long time 15Ω 0.8vϕ 5Ω

+
480V
_
before closing at t = 0. +
280V
Find i0(t) for t ≥ 0. _


5Ω t = 5s iL
Example 7.10. The
switch A has been B
opened and switch B 10V +
A 1Ω 5H
_ t=0
has been closed for a
long time.
At t = 0, switch A closes, five seconds after switch A closes, switch B opens.
Find iL(t) for t ≥ 0.


Chapter Summary
First-order circuit may be reduced to a Thévenin (or Norton) equivalent
connected to either a single equivalent inductor or capacitor
The natural response is the currents and voltages that exist when stored
energy is released to a circuit containing no independent source.
The step response is the currents and voltages that result from abrupt
changes in DC sources connected to a circuit.
The solution for either natural response or step response of both RL and RC
circuits can be expressed as follow
x(t ) = x f + x(0) − x f e −t 
x0: initial value of x
xf: final value of x
τ: time constant: τ = L/R for RL circuit; τ = RC for RC circuit
Homework
1) Homework assignment for this chapter include
Prob. # 7.4; Prob. # 7.6; Prob. # 7.11; Prob. # 7.14; Prob. # 7.24; Prob. #
7.26; Prob. # 7.30; Prob. # 7.39; Prob. # 7.41; Prob. # 7.44; Prob. # 7.54;
Prob. # 7.56; Prob. # 7.60; Prob. # 7.66; Prob. # 7.74; Prob. # 7.75

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Response of first order RL and RC circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

▪ Be able to determine the natural response of both RL and RC

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

▪ For t < 0, the switch has been

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Energy delivered to the resistor

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Initial current through the inductor is

of the inductor, we have

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

▪ Knowing v(t), we can obtain other variables of interest as follows

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

a long time and is open at t = 0 + 20kΩ

a) Find v0(t) for t ≥ 0. +

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Time constant of RC circuit: τ = RC

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

The short circuit current can be obtain as

▪ The current in the capacitor is

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

1) Identify the variable of interest of the circuit x: For RL circuit, it is

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

opened for a long time 15Ω 0.8vϕ 5Ω

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Example 7.9. (cond’t) Workspace

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Example 7.10. (cond’t) Workspace

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

Nguyen Le Hoa, Ph.D. ECE 222-Electric circuits

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