UNIT - II

AC CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS

1
 Inductor

The Inductor i L

+ v -
di
vL
dt

If current i is constant, voltage v is 0

So, inductor behaves as a short circuit to D.C.
under steady state condition
t = 0 inductor behaves like open circuit – source voltage appears
across inductor
t =∞ inductor behaves like short circuit
Application of Unit- Step Forcing Function

Unit-Step Forcing Function is a function of

time
which is defined as u t  t 
0

0 for t  t 0
u t  t 0   
1 for t  t 0
1

0 t0 t
If t0 = 0

0 for t  0
u t   
1 for t  0
u t 

0 t
 In circuit analysis, a switching operation is
represented by unit step function
Response of R-L Series Circuit

t=0
R

i(t)
Vo L

Find i(t)
 Applying KVL,
di
 Ri  L  V0 for t  0
dt

di
or, L  V0  Ri
dt
Ldi
or,  dt
V0  Ri

Integrating, we get

6
 Ldi L
 V0  Ri   dt or  R lnV0  Ri   t  K
For finding K, apply initial condition

For t < 0, i(0-) = 0 i(0-) is current just before t = 0

Current through an inductor cannot change instantly

So, i(0+) = 0 i(0+) is current just after t = 0

So, i(0) = i(0-) = i(0+) = 0

7
Setting i = 0 at t = 0, we have
L
 lnV0  K
R
Hence, we have  L ln V0  Ri    L lnV0  t
R R
L  V0  Ri 
or ,  ln   t
R  V0 
 V0  Ri  Rt

or, ln 
 
 V0  L
Rt
V0  Ri 
or , e L
V0
8
 R
 t
V0  Ri  V0 e L

R
 t
or , Ri  V0  V0 e L

R
V0 V0  t
or , i   e L
R R

The expression for the response for all t is

 V0 V0  RL t 
it     e  u(t)
R R 

L
   Time Constant
R 9
Time response of current in R-L series circuit

V0
R
V
0.632 0
R

 t

10
 The Capacitor

i C

+ -
v
dv
iC
dt
If voltage v is constant, then i is 0

So, capacitor behaves as an open circuit to D.C.

under steady state condition
t = 0 Capacitor behaves like short circuit
t =∞ Capacitor behaves like open circuit –
source voltage appears across capacitor 11
Response of R-C Series Circuit
0 R
1 2

V
i(t) C
Find i(t)

Applying KVL,
1
 Ri   idt  V0 for t  0
C
di 1
R  i0
dt C
di 1
or  i0
dt RC 12
 This resembles standard equation
dx
 Px  0
dt
Standard solution for this

x(t )  ce  Pt

Therefore the solution is

1
 t
i (t )  ce RC

For finding C, apply initial condition

i(0+) = V as the capacitor behaves as SC at t = 0

R
i(0+) is current just after t = 0
13
 Therefore the solution is
1
V  RC t
i (t )  e
R
t
V   
or i (t )  e
R
1
where  
RC
Time response of current in R-C series circuit

t 14
Response of R-L-C Series Circuit
0
1 2
R L

V
C

Applying KVL,
di 1
 Ri  L   idt  V0 for t  0
dt C
d 2i di 1
L 2 R  i0
dt dt C
d 2 i R di 1
or 2
  i0
dt L dt LC
15
This resembles standard equation

d 2x dx
2
 P  Kx  0
dt dt
Calculate K1 and K2

P
K1  ;
2
2
P
K2     K
2
or K 2   2   2

Based on value of K2 we have three solution

16
Case 1: If α > ω then K2 is positive and the system is said to be over damped
The solution is

i (t )  C1e ( K1  K 2 )t  C 2 e ( K1  K 2 )t

Case 2: If α = ω then K2 is zero and the system is said to be critically damped

The solution is

i (t )  e ( K1 )t C1  C 2 t 

Case 3: If α < ω then K2 is imaginary and the system is said to be under damped
The solution is

i (t )  e ( K1 )t C1 cos K 2 t  C 2 sin K 2 t 

17
Time response of current in R-C series circuit

Under damped system

Over damped system

Critically damped system

t (sec)

18
Complex impedance:

When a circuit is excited by an AC source then the impedance

offered differs between components

For Resistance

Applied complex voltage = Voejωt

and the current is I oejωt

V and I are related in R as V= IR

There fore Voejωt = Ioejωt R
Or R = Vo
Io

In other words Voltage and current are in-phase with each other in the
case of pure resistance.

19
For Inductor

Applied complex voltage = Voejωt

and the current is I oejωt

V and I are related in L as V= Ldi

dt

There fore Voejωt = L Ioejωt jω

Or Vo = jLω
Io
Or ZL = jXL

Where ZL is the impedance offered by the inductance and

XL is the inductive reactance

Examining Vo = jXLIo we can conclude that

In other words Voltage leads the current by 90° in the case of pure inductance.20
or
Power and Power factor :

Apparent Power is equal to the product of instantaneous current and voltage

S=vxI

Average power is equal to the product of RMS values of voltage and current and
the cosine of the angle between them
P = VrmsxIrmscosφ

Reactive power is equal to the product of RMS values of voltage and current and
the sine of the angle between them
P = VrmsxIrmssinφ

There fore the average power consumed by pure inductor is zero as the
angle between the voltage and current is 90 and cos 90 = 0.

The power factor of pure inductive circuit is zero lag

21
For Capacitor

Applied complex voltage = Voejωt

and the current is I oejωt

V and I are related in C as V= 1 ∫i dt

C

There fore Voejωt = 1 Ioejωt

jωC
Or Vo = – j .
Io ωC
Or ZC = – jXC

Where ZC is the impedance offered by the capacitance and

XC is the Capacitive reactance

Examining Vo = – jXcIo we can conclude that

In other words Current leads the voltage by 90° in the case of pure inductance.22
or
Power and Power factor :

Apparent Power is equal to the product of instantaneous current and voltage

S=vxI

Average power is equal to the product of RMS values of voltage and current and
the cosine of the angle between them
P = VrmsxIrmscosφ

Reactive power is equal to the product of RMS values of voltage and current and
the sine of the angle between them
P = VrmsxIrmssinφ

There fore the average power consumed by pure capacitor is zero as the
angle between the voltage and current is 90 and cos 90 = 0.

The power factor of pure inductive circuit is zero lead

23
Series R – L circuit
R L
Consider R – L series circuit
V1
The applied voltage is equal to the
Phasor sum of voltage across L and R
V = IR + IZL
VL=IXL V1 = IZ
ZL = jXL
Phasor
V= IR + j I ωL
Diagram
Or V = R+j ωL = Z = R + jXL φ I
I VR = IR
Or Z  ( R )  X L 
2 2
Z S=I2Z
1 XL Q=I2XL
where   tan
R XL

So Voltage leads current by φ

an angle φ < 90 R P=I2R
Divide by I we get Multiply by I we get
So If V = Vmsinωt
Impedance triangle Power triangle 24
then I = Imsin(ωt – φ)
Series R – C circuit R C1

1n
Consider R – C series circuit V1

The applied voltage is equal to the

Phasor sum of voltage across C and R
V = IR + IZC
VR = IR
Phasor
ZC = – jXC Diagram I
φ
V= IR – j I /ωC
VC=IXC
Or V = R – j / ωC = Z = R – jXC
V1 = IZ
I
Or Z  ( R )  X C 
2 2
R P=I2R
1 XC φ Q=I2XC
where   tan
R XC

So Voltage lags current by Z

S=I2Z
an angle φ < 90
Divide by I we get Multiply by I we get
So If V = Vmsinωt
Impedance triangle Power triangle 25
then I = Imsin(ωt + φ)
Series R – L – C circuit
R L C

The applied voltage is equal to the V1

Phasor sum of voltage across L and R
V = IR + IZL + IZC

ZC = – jXC and ZL = jXL

V= IR + j I ωL – j I /ωC
Or V = R + j ωL– j / ωC = Z = R + j ( XL– XC)
I
Or Z = R + j ( X )

Z  ( R) 2  X 2 

1
X
where   tan
R

Three cases arise

26
When ( XL– XC) is positive i.e XL > XC

Then Z = R + jX and the circuit will behave more like R – L series circuit

The current lags the voltage by an angle φ =tan–1 ( XL– XC)

VL=IXL
R
Phasor
Diagram

V1 = IZ
IXL – IXC

φ I
VR = IR

VC=IXC

27
When ( XL– XC) is negative i.e XL < XC

Then Z = R – jX and the circuit will behave more like R – C series circuit

The current leads the voltage by an angle φ =tan–1 ( XC– XL)

VL=IXL
R
Phasor
Diagram
VR = IR
I
IXC – IXL φ

V1 = IZ

VC=IXC

28
When ( XL– XC) is zero i.e XL = XC

Then Z = R and the circuit will behave like Resistive circuit

The current is in phase with the voltage by an angle φ = 0

The circuit is said to be at Resonance

VL=IXL

Phasor I
Diagram
VR = IR
= V1 = IZ

VC=IXC

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At resonance

XL = X C

i. e Lω= 1 .
ωC

Or ω2 = 1 .
LC

Or ω = 1 .
√LC

Or 2πf = 1 .
√(LC)

Or f = 1 .
2 π √ (LC)

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