Relave Chile 2022

sustainability
Review
Sustainable Management of Thickened Tailings in Chile and
Peru: A Review of Practical Experience and
Socio-Environmental Acceptance
Carlos Cacciuttolo Vargas 1, * and Alex Marinovic Pulido 2
1 Civil Works and Geology Department, Catholic University of Temuco, Temuco 4780000, Chile
2 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Privada del Norte, Cajamarca 06001, Peru
* Correspondence: ccacciuttolo@uct.cl or carlos.cacciuttolo@gmail.com
Abstract: The “Thickened Tailings Disposal” (TTD) technology produces a high density mine waste
that allows for the storage of this material without the need to manage large slurry tailings storage
facilities (TSFs) and large dams. TTD has been applied considering site specific conditions of Chile
and Peru, such as extreme climatic conditions, seismic risks, water scarcity, community demands, and
environmental constraints. This review highlights the contribution of several experiences in Chile and
Peru, which have chosen TTD technology for reduction of negative environmental impacts, mainly
focusing on the following issues: (i) increase of tailings water recovery, (ii) reduction of TSFs footprint
(impacted areas), (iii) decrease the risk of physical instability, avoiding the construction of high
dams, and (iv) decrease of TSFs seepages. Finally, the article describes the advantages (benefits) and
disadvantages (aspects to improve) of TTD, where nowadays a high degree of dewatering of tailings
is seen as a safe option, considering the occurrence of some TSF dam failures recently worldwide,
which has resulted in severe environmental pollution. A better environmental perception about TTD
of authorities and communities, considering that this technology allows to satisfy the needs of stable
Citation: Cacciuttolo Vargas, C.; and safe TSFs, make the TTD be more acceptable, popular and one of the best available technologies
Marinovic Pulido, A. Sustainable (BATs) for operations with mine tailings.
Management of Thickened Tailings in
Chile and Peru: A Review of Practical Keywords: thickened tailings; paste tailings; thickened tailings disposal (TTD); tailings thickening;
Experience and Socio-Environmental positive displacement pumps; tailings beach slope; down valley discharge; cell dyke disposal; tailings
Acceptance. Sustainability 2022, 14, storage facility
10901. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su141710901
Academic Editor: Glen Corder

1. Introduction
Received: 13 July 2022
Accepted: 25 August 2022
Dry climate, water scarcity, community issues, and environmental constraints in Chile
Published: 31 August 2022
and Peru, make the efficient use of water and care for the environment important aspects
in mining. For these reasons, and for a better perception of authority and community for
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
thickened tailings management, considering that it is satisfying the need of stable TSFs,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
make it more acceptable, popular and one of the best available technologies (BATs) [1]. In
published maps and institutional affil-
recent years, the improvements in thickened tailings technologies (thickeners and high-
iations.
pressure pumps), have allowed increased water recovery and transport of high viscosity
tailings, respectively. These technologies have been successfully applied in Chile and Peru
for production rates up to 100,000 mtpd; showing good performance improvements on
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
large-scale projects with high ore production rates. In this scenario, there is still a need for
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. more reliable equipment for paste tailings thickening plants on large scale, focusing on the
This article is an open access article tailings water recovery enhancing for its reuse in mining processing [2].
distributed under the terms and Considering the BATs for tailings management incorporating tailings dewatering tech-
conditions of the Creative Commons niques is possible to mention four main categories: (i) Conventional Tailings, (ii) Thickened
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Tailings, (iii) Paste Tailings and (iv) Filtered Tailings.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Conventional copper tailings typically range 25–40% solids weight concentrations
4.0/). (Cw), thickened copper tailings 40–65% solids weight concentrations (Cw), paste copper
Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710901 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 2 of 65
tailings 65–80% solids weight concentrations (Cw), and filtered copper tailings over 80%
solids weight concentrations (Cw) (solid concentrations may vary with particle size and
shape, clay content, mineralogy, electrostatic forces and flocculant dosing).
Conventional, thickened, paste, and filtered tailings refers to a continuum of tailings
with high solid concentrations and higher yield stress, due to the greater level of fluid
removal from tailings before disposal.
In current Chilean and Peruvian large-scale mining in dry climate areas, most typical
tailings disposal schemes consist of conventional or slightly thickened at modest levels of
tailings solids weight concentration (Cw 25–40%). Conventional TSFs have dams built of
the coarse fraction of tailings (cycloned tailings sand) obtained by hydrocyclones or have
slightly thickened tailings deposits with dams built of borrowed material. Conventional
tailing dams may have water recoveries as high as 65–75% in very well-operated TSFs,
which means they have appropriate tailings distribution, good control of the pond (volume
and location), and adequate seepage recovery. In conventional dams, water at the settling
pond is decanted by floating pumps, or decant towers, and dam seepages are collected by
a drainage system and cutoff trench systems. However, a high seasonal evaporation rate
can substantially reduce water recovery from the pond area, and infiltration from the pond
in contact with natural soil can produce water losses. Some mining operations with this
technology are: Cerro Verde (Peru), Cuajone and Toquepala (Peru), Los Pelambres (Chile)
and Los Bronces (Chile) [3,4].
Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) technology requires more background data than
conventional tailings disposal. In the conventional approach, the properties of tailings are
fixed by the concentrator plant, whereas in a TTD impoundment, the properties of the
tailings and their placement are “engineered” to suit the topography of the disposal area [5].
The behavior of tailings in the two approaches is entirely different. In conventional disposal,
tailings segregate as they flow and settle out to an essentially flat deposit, whereas in TTD
technology, a sloping surface is obtained. The principal difference is that, in TTD technology,
tailings are thickened before discharge to a homogeneous heavy consistency that results
in laminar non-segregating flow. In this way, TTD produces high water recovery (70% of
tailings water recovery) and a self-supporting deposit with sloping sides, requiring small
dams. Some mining operations with this technology are: Toromocho (Peru), Constancia
(Peru), Centinela (Chile), and Sierra Gorda (Chile) [3,4].
Paste Tailings Technology has been applied on a small production scale because a
limitation of equipment manufacturing ability exists. This method permits obtaining
a medium make-up water requirement (80% of tailings water recovery). However, in
some cases, there are difficulties in tailings transportation requiring the use of positive
displacement pumping (PD Pumps), resulting in the highest capital/operating costs. The
main advantage of this method is that large dams are not required; only small dams are
needed. Some mining operations with this technology are: Chungar (Peru), Cobriza (Peru),
Las Cenizas (Chile), and Alhue (Chile) [3,4].
In the last 20 years, many mining projects around the world have applied a tailings
disposal technology called dry stacking of filtered tailings. This technique produces an
unsaturated cake that allows storage of this material without the need to manage large
slurry tailings ponds. The application of this technology has accomplished: (i) an increase
in water recovery from tailings (90%), (ii) a reduction of TSF footprint (impacted areas), and
(iii) a decrease in the risk of physical instability because TSFs are self-supporting structures
under compaction (such as dry stacks), and (iv) a better community perception. Some
mining operations with this technology are: (i) Cerro Lindo (Peru), Catalina Huanca (Peru),
El Peñon (Chile), and Mantos Blancos (Chile) [3,4].
The importance of this article is to present the advances that have been achieved in
the last 20 years in the implementation of thickening of mine tailings in large-scale mining
projects, considering, for example, mine tailings production of the order of 100,000 mtpd.
Both in Chile and Peru, the socio-environmental conditions and restrictions due to the
demands of the community, as well as the care of freshwater resources in the basins, have
favored the implementation of TTD technology.
Today the communities demand that the mining companies carry out tailings manage-
ment that is more responsible, controlled and respectful of the environment. The tailings
dam failure events recorded in Mount Polley Canada (2014), Fundao Samarco Brasil (2015)
and Corrego de Feijao Brumandinho Brazil (2019) have severely impacted communities and
the environment, causing mining companies to reassess their management and governance
of mine tailings [6,7]. Improvements in standards, management systems, engineering
designs and quality assurance control in construction processes have been some of the
measures considered to carry out safer and more controlled tailings management [8].
Considering the lessons learned from recent tailings dam failure events, it is possible
to mention that tailings impoundments using conventional tailings technology represent
a safety risk because they store large amounts of water. This is how mining tailings
thickening technologies allow a considerably smaller amount of water to be stored in
tailings storage facilities, reducing the risks of liquefaction, piping (internal erosion by
seepage) and overtopping [7,9,10].
Environmental aspects that consider the reduction of fresh water in mining processes
have favored the implementation of thickened tailings technologies, which efficiently
recover water from thickening equipment. Advances in the development of thickening
equipment and the use of flocculants have allowed TTD technology to position itself as an
attractive alternative for sustainable tailings management. On the contrary, conventional
tailings deposits have water losses that are difficult to control due to seepage, evaporation
in the supernatant pond and tailings beaches [11].
Advances in both centrifugal and positive displacement pumping systems have al-
lowed a better insertion of thickened tailings technology, managing to transport mining
tailings hydraulically in pipes over long distances, steep topographies and at high pres-
sures. Reduction in the capital costs of thickening and pumping equipment has allowed
thickened tailings technologies to be more competitive against conventional tailings and
filtered tailings [12].
TTD technology has been applied considering site specific conditions of Chile and Peru,
such as: extreme climatic conditions, seismic risks, water scarcity, community demands, and
environmental constraints. This review highlights the contribution of several experiences in
Chile and Peru, which have chosen TTD technology for reduction of negative environmental
impacts, mainly focusing on the following issues: (i) increase of tailings water recovery,
(ii) reduction of TSFs footprint (impacted areas), (iii) decrease the risk of physical instability,
avoiding the construction of high dams, and (iv) decrease of TSFs seepages.
Finally, this review describes the advantages (benefits) and disadvantages (aspects to
improve) of TTD, where nowadays a high degree of dewatering of tailings is seen as a safe
option, considering the occurrence of some TSF dam failures recently worldwide, which
has resulted in severe environmental pollution. A better environmental perception about
TTD of authorities and communities, considering that this technology allows to satisfy the
needs of stable and safe TSFs, make the TTD be more acceptable, popular and one of the
best available technologies (BATs) for operations with mine tailings.
2. Tailings Thickening Plants Development and Advances

Mine operators and thickeners suppliers have gained experiences carrying out projects
during the last decades, learning that each particle size distribution (PSD), mineralogy and
rheology of tailings exhibit their own unique thickening behavior, making efficient and
reliable solid/liquid separation units. Figure 1 shows a tailings continuum concept with a
schematic copper tailings thickener classification.
Sustainability 2022,2022,
Sustainability 14, x14,FOR PEER REVIEW
10901 4 of 67
4 of 65
Figure 1.1.Dewatering
Figure DewateringTailings Technologies—Tailings
Tailings Technologies—Tailings Continuum
Continuum [13].[13].
2.1.
2.1. ConventionalThickeners
Conventional Thickeners (CT)
(CT)
AAconventional
conventional thickener
thickenertypically
typicallyuseuse
of flocculent (polymer)
of flocculent is not needed,
(polymer) however,how-
is not needed,
there are some conventional thickeners that use flocculent, to improve
ever, there are some conventional thickeners that use flocculent, to improve overflow overflow clarity,clar-
handle a higher tonnage, or aid in achieving the desired underflow
ity, handle a higher tonnage, or aid in achieving the desired underflow density. density. These units
These
are often fairly simple, due to the relatively large size; they are somewhat forgiving in
units are often fairly simple, due to the relatively large size; they are somewhat forgiving
operation and can have the storage capacity to absorb some plant upsets without affecting
indownstream
operation and can have the storage capacity to absorb some plant upsets without af-
operations. Typical features include a drive and rakes, a relatively shallow
fecting downstream
feedwell, and a bridge operations.
to support Typical features
the feed pipe include
or launder anda allow
drive center
and rakes,
accessa[14].
relatively
shallow feedwell, and a bridge to support the feed pipe or launder and allow
These units are sized based on the settling flux rate of the smallest particle and segre- center access
[14].
gation of small and large particles is the norm. Typically, the maximum suspended solids
These units
concentration inare
the sized basedslurry
underflow on the settlingby
is defined flux rate of at
operating the smallest
less particle rake
than maximum and seg-
drive torque or at underflow concentrations that are dischargeable to
regation of small and large particles is the norm. Typically, the maximum suspended prevent plugging. The sol-
underflow slurries produced are at a suspended solids concentration
ids concentration in the underflow slurry is defined by operating at less than maximumtypically exhibiting
Newtonian
rake rheology.
drive torque or atAunderflow
few examples of CT applications
concentrations that arein dischargeable
Chile are: (i) Chuquicamata
to prevent plug-
Mine (09 units of 91 m diameter), (ii) El Teniente Mine (07 units of 100 m diameter) see
ging. The underflow slurries produced are at a suspended solids concentration typically
Figure 2, and (iii) Candelaria Mine (02 units of 125 m diameter). Some examples of CT
exhibiting Newtonian rheology. A few examples of CT applications in Chile are: (i) Chu-
equipment in Peru are: (i) Toquepala Mine (02 unit of 80 m diameter), and (ii) Cuajone
quicamata Mineof(09
Mine (03 units units
100 of 91 m diameter), (ii) El Teniente Mine (07 units of 100 m diam-
m diameter).
eter) see Figure 2, and (iii) Candelaria Mine (02 units of 125 m diameter). Some examples
of CT equipment in Peru are: (i) Toquepala Mine (02 unit of 80 m diameter), and (ii) Cua-
jone Mine (03 units of 100 m diameter).
Sustainability 2022,
2022, x FOR
10901PEER REVIEW 5 65
5 of of 67
Figure
Figure2.2.Tailings
Tailings Conventional ThickenersininElElTeniente
Conventional Thickeners Teniente Mine—Chile.
Mine—Chile.
2.2.
2.2.High
HighRate
Rateor
orHigh
High Capacity Thickeners(HRT)
Capacity Thickeners (HRT)
With
With the
the advent
advent of synthetic
synthetic flocculent,
flocculent,the theterms
termsHigh-Rate
High-Rate andand High-Capacity
High-Capacity
emerged
emergedasasa atype typeofofthickener,
thickener,asas the thethroughput
throughput rates forfor
rates thethe
nownow flocculated
flocculated feed
feedslur-
slurries
ries werewere considerably
considerably higherhigher
thanthan for un-flocculated
for un-flocculated slurries.
slurries. TheseThese units
units are are
sizedsized
using
using flocculants
flocculants to produceto produce an underflow
an underflow slurryslurry with minimal
with minimal particle
particle segregation.
segregation. The
The under-
underflow
flow slurriesslurries
produced produced
are at are at suspended
suspended solidssolids concentrations
concentrations typically
typically exhibiting
exhibiting New-
Newtonian rheology and a yield stress less than 20 (Pa), avoiding
tonian rheology and a yield stress less than 20 (Pa), avoiding discharge problems [14].discharge problems [14].
Thickenersize
Thickener size or
or throughput
throughput is is directly
directlydependent
dependentononflocculent
flocculent dose
doseandand feed slurry
feed slurry
concentration because of this, most high-rate thickeners use feed dilution systems. The
concentration because of this, most high-rate thickeners use feed dilution systems. The
optimum size of these thickeners is governed by capital and the primary operating cost
optimum size of these thickeners is governed by capital and the primary operating cost of
of flocculent, where flocculation is required, and feed slurry dilution systems are often
flocculent, where flocculation is required, and feed slurry dilution systems are often
needed for optimal performance. High-rate thickeners are generally small to medium
needed for optimal
sized bridge performance.
type thickeners, although High-rate thickeners
large center are generally
column thickeners small very
processing to medium
high
sized bridge
tonnage typefall
can also thickeners, althoughCommon
into this category. large center
featurescolumn thickeners
of these processing
devices include a deep very
high
self-diluting feed well, heavy duty drive, streamlined rake arms, and large effluent launders a
tonnage can also fall into this category. Common features of these devices include
deep
and self-diluting
underflow outlets.feed well,
A fewheavy duty of
examples drive,
HRTstreamlined
applicationsrake arms,
in Chile and
are: (i) large effluent
Collahuasi
launders
Mine (02and underflow
units of 125 moutlets. A few
diameter), (ii)examples
Carmen de of HRT applications
Andacollo Mine (01 in Chile
units are:
of 70(i)mCol-
lahuasi Mine
diameter), and(02(iii)
units
LosofPelambres
125 m diameter),
Mine (03(ii) Carmen
units of 125 de Andacollosee
m diameter) Mine (01 3.
Figure units
Some of 70
mexamples
diameter), of and
HRT(iii)
equipment in Peru Mine
Los Pelambres are: (i)(03
Lasunits
Bambas Mine
of 125 (02 unit ofsee
m diameter) 80 m diameter),
Figure 3. Some
(ii) Antapaccay
examples of HRTMine (02 unitinofPeru
equipment 60 mare: diameter), (iii) Constancia
(i) Las Bambas Mine (02Mine unit (01
of 80unit
m of 75 m
diameter),
diameter),
(ii) Antapaccay(iv) Mine
Toquepala Mine
(02 unit of (03
60 m units of 60 m (iii)
diameter), diameter) and (v)
Constancia MineQuellaveco
(01 unit Mineof 75 m
(02 units of 120 m).
diameter), (iv) Toquepala Mine (03 units of 60 m diameter) and (v) Quellaveco Mine (02
units of 120 m).
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 67
Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66of
of 67
65
Figure 3. Tailings High-Rate Thickeners in Los Pelambres Mine—Chile.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Tailings High-Rate Thickeners
Tailings High-Rate Thickeners in
in Los
Los Pelambres
Pelambres Mine—Chile.
Mine—Chile.
2.3. High Density Thickeners (HDT) or High Compression Thickeners (HCT)
2.3.
2.3. High
ThisDensity
High technology
Density Thickeners
is an (HDT)
Thickeners (HDT) or
extension or High
of HRT
High Compression
thickening,
Compression Thickeners
utilizing
Thickeners (HCT)
a deeper mud bed to
(HCT)
This
This technology is an extension of HRT thickening, utilizing atodeeper
augment technology
the thickening is an extension
capacity. of
These HRT
devices thickening,
usually utilizing
add depth a mud
a high-rate
deeper bed
bed to
mud design to
augment
augment the thickening
the thickening
to aid in increasing capacity.These
the underflow
capacity. These
density.devices
Deeper
devices usually
mudadd
usually adddepth
beds depth toto
increase a high-rate
the mud compres-
a high-rate design
design to
to
sive
aid aid
in in increasing
force, reducing
increasing thethe underflow
time
underflow required density. Deeper
forDeeper
density. thickening mud mud
andbedsbeds increase
increasing
increase thethe
the mud
underflow
mud compres-
density
compressive
sive
[14].force,
force, These reducing
units
reducing are
the the
time time
sized required
based
required for thickening
on optimized
for thickening and and
flocculationincreasing
increasing the underflow
or maximum
the underflow solids density
flux
density rate.
[14].
[14].
These These
HDT’sunits units
are designed are
are sized to sized based
produce
based on optimized
a slurry that
on optimized flocculation
can be pumped
flocculation or maximumor maximum
by a solids solids
centrifugal flux
pump
flux rate. rate.
and
HDT’s
HDT’s
typically
are arehave
designed designed
toall
produceto produce
of the a slurry athat
physical slurry
design that
canfeatures can of
be pumped beapumped
paste
by by a centrifugal
thickener
a centrifugal but simply
pump andpump and
are con-
typically
typically
trolled
have have
alltoof the all
produce ofanthe
physical physicalfeatures
underflow
design designexhibiting
slurry features
of a pasteof a paste
athickener
yield thickener
stressbutofsimply
about but100
simply
are Pa, are con-
requiring
controlled to
trolled to
significantlyproduce
more an underflow
torque than slurry
HRT’s exhibiting
due the a yield
increased stress
mud of about
viscosity.
produce an underflow slurry exhibiting a yield stress of about 100 Pa, requiring significantly 100
The Pa, requiring
underflow
significantly
slurries
more produced
torque moreHRT’s
than torque
are at due than
the HRT’s
a suspended duemud
solids
increased the increasedThe
concentration
viscosity. mud viscosity.
typically
underflow The underflow
exhibiting
slurries Non New-
produced
slurries
tonian
are produced
at a rheology
suspended are at
A solids a suspended
few examples
concentration solids
of HDT concentration
applications
typically typically
in Chile
exhibiting Non are: exhibiting
(i) Caserones
Newtonian Non
rheologyMine New-
(03
A few
tonian
units ofrheology
examples 45ofmHDT Aapplications
few examples
diameter), (ii) Cerroin of HDT
Negro
Chile applications
Norte
are: Mine (02
(i) Caserones inunits
Chileof(03
Mine are: (i)diameter)
40units
m Caserones
of 45 m see Mine (03
Figure
diameter),
units
4, and
(ii) of(iii)
Cerro 45Negro
mEsperanza
diameter), (ii) Cerro
Norte Centinela
Mine Negro
Mine
(02 units Norte
of(03
40units Mine (02m
of 60
m diameter) units of 40 mand
diameter
see Figure 4,diameter)
and03(iii)
unitsseeofFigure
45 m
Esperanza
4, and (iii)Mine
diameter).
Centinela Esperanza
Some unitsCentinela
examples
(03 of m
of 60 HDT Mine (03
equipment
diameter andunits of
03inunits60ofare:
Peru m45diameter
(i) Toromocho
m diameter). and Some
03 units
Mine (04ofunit
examples45 mof
diameter).
HDT
40 m equipment Some in
diameter), examples
(ii)Peru
Las are: of(i)HDT
Bambas equipment
Toromocho
Mine unitinof
(03 Mine Peru
(04 are:
unit
50 m of (i)
40 Toromocho
m diameter),
diameter), Mine
and (iii) (04Bambas
(ii)Cerro
Las unit
Verdeof
40
Mine m (03
diameter),
(04 unit
unitsofof50(ii)
80mm Las Bambas and
diameter),
diameter). Mine (03
(iii) unit Verde
Cerro of 50 m Minediameter),
(04 unitsand (iii)
of 80 m Cerro Verde
diameter).
Mine (04 units of 80 m diameter).
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Tailings High Density
Tailings High Density Thickeners
Thickeners in
in Cerro
Cerro Negro
Negro Norte
Norte Mine—Chile.
Mine—Chile.
Figure 4. Tailings High Density Thickeners in Cerro Negro Norte Mine—Chile.
2.4. Paste or Deep Cone Thickeners (DCT)

2.4. DCT
Paste orareDeep Cone Thickeners
designed to produce(DCT) and discharge underflow slurries exhibiting yield
stressesDCT are designed
of less than 300 to Pa.produce and discharge
Paste thickeners underflow slurries
are predominately usedexhibiting
for paste yield
tailings
stresses with
disposal of less
thethan 300 Pa. Paste
consistency of thethickeners
underfloware predominately
slurry determined used
andfor paste tailings
controlled to meet
disposal
design with of
criteria thethe consistency
disposal siteof theandunderflow
transportslurry determinedpressure
pipeline—high and controlled
pumping to meet
system
called positive displacement pumps (PD Pumps). These units are sized basedsystem
design criteria of the disposal site and transport pipeline—high pressure pumping on opti-
calledflocculation
mized positive displacement
or maximum pumps (PD Pumps).
solids flux rate,These unitsutilize
typically are sized verybased
deepon mud
optimized
beds in
flocculation or maximum solids flux rate, typically utilize very deep mud beds in order to
order to take maximum advantage of mud compressive forces for dewatering and provide
take maximum advantage of mud compressive forces for dewatering and provide sufficient
sufficient time for the mud to dewater to a paste consistency. The tank height to diameter
time for the mud to dewater to a paste consistency. The tank height to diameter ratio is
ratio is frequently 1:1 or higher. Due to the high underflow viscosities, mechanism torques
frequently 1:1 or higher. Due to the high underflow viscosities, mechanism torques can
can
be be
5–10 5–10 times
times higherhigher
thanthan HRTHRT on similar
on similar tailings.
tailings. The underflow
The underflow slurriesslurries produced
produced are
are
at a suspended solids concentration typically exhibiting Non Newtonian rheology A few A
at a suspended solids concentration typically exhibiting Non Newtonian rheology
few examples
examples of DCT
of DCT applications
applications in Chile
in Chile are: (i)are:
Las (i) Las Cenizas
Cenizas Mine (01 Mine
unit (01
of 17unit of 17 m di-
m diameter)
ameter)
see Figuresee 5,
Figure 5, (ii)plant
(ii) Delta Delta(01plant
unit (01
of 12unit of 12 m diameter),
m diameter), (iii) Collahuasi
(iii) Collahuasi Mineof(01
Mine (01 unit
unit
22 m ofdiameter),
22 m diameter),
(iv) El Toqui(iv) El
MineToqui Mine
(01 unit of (01
14 munit of 14 m
diameter) anddiameter)
(v) Alhueand (v) Alhue
(01 unit of 17 m(01
unit of 17 m Some
diameter). diameter).
examples Some ofexamples
DCT equipmentof DCTinequipment
Peru are: (i) in Chungar
Peru are:Mine(i) Chungar
(01 unitMine
of
17unit
(01 m diameter), (ii) Cobriza(ii)
of 17 m diameter), Mine (01 unit
Cobriza of 14(01
Mine m unit
diameter)
of 14 and (iii) Rumichaca
m diameter) Carahuacra
and (iii) Rumichaca
Mine (01 unit
Carahuacra of 20
Mine (01munit
diameter).
of 20 m diameter).
Figure
Figure5.5.Tailings
TailingsDeep
Deep Cone
Cone Thickener inLas
Thickener in LasCenizas
CenizasMine—Chile.
Mine—Chile.
InInthe
the case of HDTs
case of HDTsand andDCTs,
DCTs,thethe sizing
sizing procedures
procedures generally
generally mustinto
must take take into ac-
account
the volume of thick pulp within the thickener, as a substantially longer
count the volume of thick pulp within the thickener, as a substantially longer than normalthan normal
retentiontime
retention timeisisnecessary
necessary for
for the
the solids
solidstotoobtain
obtainhigh
highconcentrations. It It
concentrations. is is
generally
generallymore
more
economicaltotoprovide
economical provide this
this volume
volume by by using
using aarelatively
relativelydeep
deepbed
bedofof
pulp
pulp rather
ratherthan a a
than
greater area with a shallow compaction bed. This increase in depth also
greater area with a shallow compaction bed. This increase in depth also provides bed provides bed
compression,where
compression, wherethe the weight
weight of
of solids
solids above
abovehelps
helpscompress
compressand
anddewater
dewater thethe
mud to to
mud
higher concentrations [15]. Table 1 shows a characterization of different tailings thickeners
higher concentrations [15]. Table 1 shows a characterization of different tailings thickeners
applied in Chile and Peru.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 Table 1. Copper Tailings Thickener Characteristics [16,17]. 8 of 65
Parameter Units CT HRT HCT or HDT Paste or DCT

Solid loading Table 1. Copper tph/m 2 (0.02–2.0)
Tailings Thickener (0.35–1.5)
Characteristics [16,17]. (0.4–1.0) (0.3–0.8)
Maximum diameter m 125 100 80 30
Parameter dosing use Units
Flocculent g/ton CT No use HRT10–15 HCT or HDT
20–30 Paste or 30–50
DCT
Solid
Tank thickener height tph/m2
loading m (0.02–2.0)1–3 (0.35–1.5)3–5 (0.4–1.0)4–8 (0.3–0.8)>8
Maximum diameter m 125 100 80 30
Cone angle ° 2–5 5 5–15 15–30
Flocculent dosing use g/ton No use 10–15 20–30 30–50
U/Fthickener
Tank Solid content
height by weight m % 1–3 30–45 3–5 45–60 4–860–65 >8 65–75
◦
Tailings
Cone angle Bed Depth m 2–5 <1 5 1–2 5–15 3–4 15–304–10
U/F Solid content by weight
Residence Time % h 30–45 0,5–1 45–60 1–2 60–65 3–6 65–756–12
Tailings Bed Depth m <1 1–2 3–4 4–10
Residence Yield
TimeStress h Pa 0.5–1 0 1–2 0–30 3–630–50 50–300
6–12
Torque
Yield Stress K Factor Pa kN/m 0 <50 0–30 <50 30–50<125 50–300 >200
Torque K Factor
Shear Thinning System kN/m - <50 No <50 No <125
No–Yes >200 Yes
Shear Thinning System - No No No–Yes Yes
As the thickened mud approaches a limiting concentration, it behaves less and less
similarAsto
thea thickened
fluid, andmud hasapproaches
little tendency to flow
a limiting to the underflow
concentration, withdrawal
it behaves less and lesspoint.
similar to asteep
Therefore, fluid, and of
floors has30–60
little degrees
tendencyand to rakes
flow to the underflow
designed withdrawal
to overcome point.
the yield stress
Therefore,
of the mudsteep floorstooftransport
are used 30–60 degrees and rakesmud
the thickened designed
to thetooutlet.
overcome the yield stress
By contrast, standard
of the mud
thickener are used
design callstofor
transport
a slope of thesomething
thickenedless
mud to the
than outlet. ByWhen
10 degrees. contrast, standard
the pulp reaches
thickener design calls for a slope of something less than 10 degrees.
the compression zone, mechanical action, such as by the raking mechanism itself, When the pulp
contrib-
reaches
utes therate
to the compression zone, mechanical
of water removal action, such as
from the compacting by the
mass. raking
Since DCTsmechanism
operate withitself,
pulp
contributes to the rate of water removal from the compacting mass. Since DCTs operate
depths which generally extend well above the rake structure, the mass of material located
with pulp depths which generally extend well above the rake structure, the mass of material
in the zone is not exposed to a similar mechanical action. Therefore, it is helpful to add
located in the zone is not exposed to a similar mechanical action. Therefore, it is helpful
pickets, usually consisting of posts or rods which project into this mass, in order to create
to add pickets, usually consisting of posts or rods which project into this mass, in order
channels
to create and assistand
channels in water
assist removal
in water [15,18].
removalThe use ofThe
[15,18]. lowuse
drag
of designs
low dragisdesigns
important is to
minimize the torque required. Figure 6 shows different tailings thickeners
important to minimize the torque required. Figure 6 shows different tailings thickeners applied in Chile
and Peru.
Figure 6.
Figure Different Tailings
6. Different TailingsThickeners
Thickenersapplied
appliedinin
Chile and
Chile Peru
and Mining
Peru Operations.
Mining Operations.
3. Control and Performance of Tailings Thickening Plant

3. Control
Duringand Performance
thickener operation,of Tailings
it is oftenThickening
desired to Plant
control the underflow solids con-
centration
During thickener operation, it is often desired to controlindustry,
to be within a certain range. In the copper mining tailingssolids
the underflow shouldcon-be
thickened
centrationtotoa be sufficiently high solids
within a certain range.content to recover
In the copper water
mining but nottailings
industry, too high so asbeto
should
damage
thickened thetothickener or underflow
a sufficiently high solids pump.contentImportant
to recoverindependent
water but variables
not too high in thickener
so as to
damage the
operation thickener
include: or underflow
(i) underflow ratepump.
(U/F),Important independent
(ii) feed solids rate (FR) variables in thickener
and (iii) flocculent
operation
dosage include:
to the (i) underflow
feed tailings rate (U/F),
stream (FD). Underflow (ii) feed solids
rate rate (FR) and
will determine the(iii) flocculentof
throughput
dosage
the to theaffecting
thickener feed tailings stream (FD).
the residence time Underflow
and tailings rateproduct
will determine
quality the throughput
(density and Cw).of
the thickener affecting the residence time and tailings product quality
Flocculent dosage affects the final settling velocity of tailings particles in hindered settling (density and Cw).
Flocculent
region as welldosage
as theaffects the final of
compression settling
materialsvelocity of tailings
in the sediment,particles
thus thein hindered
underflow settling
solids
region as well as the compression of materials in the sediment,
concentration. These two variables (U/F and FD) are commonly available to be manipu- thus the underflow solids
concentration.
lated by an automatic These two variables
control system(U/F toand FD) arethe
maintain commonly
underflow available
solids toconcentration
be manipu-
lated by an automatic control system to maintain the underflow solids concentration within
within a desired operating range. However, the feed solids rate (FR), such as copper tail-
a desired operating range. However, the feed solids rate (FR), such as copper tailings prop-
ings properties which are determined by upstream processes (concentrator plant) become
erties which are determined by upstream processes (concentrator plant) become external
external disturbances to the thickener, which require attenuation and generally, FR is used
disturbances to the thickener, which require attenuation and generally, FR is used only in
only in an emergency to avoid impacting plant production [15].
an emergency to avoid impacting plant production [15].
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is is aa key elementin
key element inaathickening
thickeningplant. plant. There
There areare
two two main
main functions
functions to
tocontrol
controlininthickener
thickener operation
operation to manage
to manage dependent
dependent variables
variables including:
including: (i) solids
(i) solids set-
settling
tling
rate,rate,
(ii) (ii) underflow
underflow density
density (viscosity),
(viscosity), (iii)(iii) solids
solids interface
interface level
level (beddepth),
(bed depth),(iv)
(iv)rake
rake
torque, (v) bed pressure (bed mass) and (vi) overflow turbidity.
torque, (v) bed pressure (bed mass) and (vi) overflow turbidity. The thickeners are set up The thickeners are set up
totocontrol
controlthe theflocculent
flocculentpump pump speed
speed to to aa tonnage
tonnage ratio ratio set
set point
pointby bythetheoperators.
operators.The The
underflow
underflowpump pumpspeeds speedsare arecontrolled
controlled by by the
the operators
operators to to maintain
maintaineither eitheraabedbedpressure
pressure
set
setpoint,
point,ororaaflow flowrate
rateset setpoint.
point.
The
Thetwo twoindependent
independentvariablesvariables that
that areare typically used for for control
control of ofthickeners
thickenersare are
underflow
underflowrate rate and flocculent
flocculentaddition
addition rate.
rate. A third
A third variable,
variable, the feed
the feed rate, israte, is generally
generally used
onlyonly
used in aninemergency
an emergency to avoid impacting
to avoid impacting plantplantproduction. Figure
production. 7 shows
Figure a schematic
7 shows a sche-
diagram
matic of instrumentation
diagram of instrumentation control of thickener
control [19]. [19].
of thickener
Figure
Figure7.7.Example
Exampleofofpaste
pastetailings
tailingsthickener
thickener plant
plant control and
and performance.
performance.
Accurate control of the addition of flocculent to any thickener is important to achieve

the best and most economic dewatering performance. This is especially true in a thickener
where the thickening operating envelope is being pushed to its limit. The addition of
flocculent to a thickener is recommended to be controlled in a direct way. Direct control of
the flocculent addition requires a variable speed dosing pump to deliver a pre-determined
dose based on the incoming tonnage of solids to the thickener.
It is key that the solid particles of small size present in tailings can adhere to each other
to form larger particles, which settle faster, favoring the industrial thickening process. For
this purpose, flocculating agents are added, which are polymers or polyelectrolytes with a
long chain and high molecular weight and soluble in water. Flocculants adhere to various
particles, generally through ionic bonds, giving rise to agglomerates of particles or flocs
with a density and size suitable for sedimentation. They can be classified according to their
nature as minerals, natural organics and synthetic organics, and also according to their
electrical charge as anionic, cationic and neutral. The most used flocculants in the mining
industry are organic synthetics, of an anionic nature and of high molecular weight [20]
(Table 2).
Table 2. Commonly used Flocculants in Thickening of Mining Tailings [21].
Manufacturer Flocculent Name

Floerger 913-SH
SNF Floerger 923-SH
Tec-2050
Magnafloc 1011
Magnafloc 155
BASF Magnafloc 2025
Magnafloc 333
Rheomax 1050
Orica Orifloc AP 2020
Kemira Superfloc A-110
The type of flocculent and the dose in which it is supplied must be carefully chosen
through laboratory tests or pilot tests, so that the resulting flocs have an adequate density
to minimize the energy consumption of hydraulic transport by pumping of mining tailings
to the TSFs and maximize the recovery of supernatant water to be recirculated to the
metallurgical mining process. For the next years, an increase in the consumption of
flocculants in the mining industry is expected, due to the increase in mining projects and
the implementation of the TTD technology [20].
4. Thickened Tailings Transport

In general, the consistency (solids content or density) of the tailings delivered to the
TSF will be limited by the transportation distance and method of tailings transport (cen-
trifugal pump, positive displacement pump, gravity, etc.). For example, centrifugal pumps
are limited to a pipeline pressure of 15 Bar (equivalent to 1.5 MPa). Positive displacement
pumps (PD Pumps) will pump much higher density materials at correspondingly higher
discharge pressures of 125 Bar (equivalent to 12.5 MPa) (See Figure 8). The cost of installing
and operating positive displacement pumps must be evaluated over the lifetime of the
project to make a meaningful comparison with a system using multiple centrifugal pumps
(or pump stations) required to generate a comparable pump discharge pressure.
Sustainability 2022, 14,
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
11 of 65
67
Figure 8. Thickened tailings positive displacement pump station—Toromocho Mining Project

Figure 8. Thickened tailings positive displacement pump station—Toromocho Mining Project Peru.
Peru.
A popular and easy method used in Chile and Peru by the thickened tailings thickening
A popular
operators and easyof
for indication method used in Chile
flow behavior is theand Peru by
standard 12 the thickened
inches (305 mm tailings thick-
tall) slump
cone developed for concrete slump measurements (ASTM C143/C 143M-00) [22]. This tall)
ening operators for indication of flow behavior is the standard 12 inches (305 mm test
slump
can be cone
used developed
to obtain afor concrete slump
preliminary measurements
assessment (ASTM C143/C
for the thickened tailings143M-00) [22].
pipeline flow
This test can
behavior andbe used toquality
enables obtaincontrol
a preliminary
for paste assessment for the thickened
tailings transportation tailings
to TSF. pipeline
Considering
flow the
only behavior
process and enables quality
performance controltailings
of copper for paste tailings experience
thickener, transportation withtopilot
TSF. and
Consid-
full-
eringoperations
scale only the process
suggestsperformance
for slumpsof copper
higher tailings
than 9 inchesthickener,
(230 mm), experience withunderflow
the tailings pilot and
full-scale
yield stressoperations
will be a suggests
pumpable forfluid.
slumps
For higher
slumpsthan 9 inches
between 8 and(230 mm), the
9 inches tailingsmm),
(200–230 un-
derflow yield stress will be a pumpable fluid. For slumps between
yield stress will be high (Ty > 150 Pa) and a shear thinning system should be evaluated as 8 and 9 inches (200–
a230 mm), yield
possibility. Forstress
slumps willofbe high (Ty
8 inches (200> mm)
150 Pa)andand a shear
lower, shear thinning
thinningsystem
will beshould
required be
evaluated
(Ty as a possibility.
> 300 Pa). These operating For slumpsranges of are
8 inches (200 determined
strongly mm) and lower, shear thinning
by solids will
particle size,
be required rate,
throughput (Ty >and 300pumping/pipeline
Pa). These operating ranges
shear. are strongly
Thickened tailings determined
have shearing by solids par-
properties
ticle
in thesize, throughput
pipeline, affectedrate,
by and pumping/pipeline
thickener discharge pumping shear. Thickened
and pipeline tailings have shearing
flow [23].
properties in the pipeline,
The viscous behavior affected
of underflowby thickener discharge
tailings slurries pumping
generated andDCTs
from pipeline
can flow [23].
normally
The viscousas
be characterized behavior
being ofofa yield
underflowstress tailings slurries generated
non-Newtonian nature. Thefrom yieldDCTs
stresscan nor-
of such
slurries
mally beischaracterized
usually in theas range
being of of150a to 400stress
yield Pa. The DCT itself andnature.
non-Newtonian downstream
The yieldprocesses
stress
such as pumping
of such slurries isor gravityinflow
usually the in channels
range of 150istoimproved
400 Pa. The by obtaining
DCT itself a lower yield stress
and downstream
at the same
processes target
such underflow
as pumping ordensity,
gravity reducing flowability
flow in channels problems.
is improved byThe yield stress
obtaining a lower of
thickened
yield stresstailings
at the cansamebe target
modified by application
underflow density,ofreducing
mechanical shear which
flowability breaksThe
problems. the
network
yield stressstructure of flocculated
of thickened tailings paste
can be tailings
modifiedslurries. Typically, the
by application concentric shear
of mechanical
thinning system modifies the yield stress of the underflow
which breaks the network structure of flocculated paste tailings slurries. paste tailings density fromthe
Typically, its
unsheared thickened
concentric shear statesystem
thinning (150–300 Pa) to the
modifies a sheared yieldof
yield stress stress range of 75–150
the underflow Pa [24].
paste tailings
Figure
density9from
shows itsaunsheared
typical flow sheet forstate
thickened two (150–300
alternative Pa)processes
to a shearedfor shear
yieldthinning.
stress range of
75–150 Pa [24]. Figure 9 shows a typical flow sheet for two alternative processes for shear
thinning.
Figure9.9.Alternative
Figure AlternativeProcesses
Processesfor
forPaste
PasteTailings
TailingsPump
PumpTransportation.
Transportation.
5.5.Thickened
ThickenedTailings
TailingsDisposal
Disposal
The
The most importantproperty
most important propertyof of
thickened
thickened tailings to permit
tailings to permitthe the
“stacking” of tailings,
“stacking” of tail-
in a down-valley discharge (DVD) or cell dyke disposal (CDD), because
ings, in a down-valley discharge (DVD) or cell dyke disposal (CDD), because thickened thickened tailings
are non-segregating
tailings and not having
are non-segregating and nothydraulic sorting behavior
having hydraulic on the beach
sorting behavior [25].
on the beach [25].
One
One issue of increasing importance in tailings facility design and depositionplanning
issue of increasing importance in tailings facility design and deposition planning
isisthe
theability
abilityto
tomore
moreaccurately
accuratelypredict
predictthe thebeach
beachslope
slopeduring
duringinitial
initialdesign
designbefore
beforeany any
measurements on the actual beach can be made. The use of thickened
measurements on the actual beach can be made. The use of thickened tailings adds em- tailings adds
emphasis to this
phasis to this as slopes
as slopes significantly
significantly steepersteeper
thanthan
past past experience
experience with conventional
with conventional slurry
slurry
can be expected. The prediction becomes particularly important wherewhere
can be expected. The prediction becomes particularly important the longthe beach
long
beach lengths are planned and thus where a steeper slope could result in
lengths are planned and thus where a steeper slope could result in a large differential a large differential
height
heightononthe
thecontaining
containingstructures.
structures. IfIf aa steep
steep slope
slope can
can be
be relied
relied upon
upon then
then ititmay
maybe be
possible to construct a lower height dam at the lower end of the deposit
possible to construct a lower height dam at the lower end of the deposit (See Figure 10). (See Figure 10).
Sustainability2022,
14,10901
13 of6567
Figure 10. Comparison between Conventional tailings disposal method and Thickened tailings
Figure 10.
disposal Comparison
system [25]. between Conventional tailings disposal method and Thickened tailings dis-
posal system [25].
However, care must be taken to avoid over-predicting the slope angle since if it is not
realizedHowever,
the result carewillmust be taken
be the need toforavoid over-predicting
an unexpected rise tothetheslope
damangle since Another
structure. if it is not
realized the result
consideration is seismicwill stability
be the need
of thefor an unexpected
slope rise toofthe
and the potential dam structure.
a steeper beach to Another
become
consideration
mobilized if theistailings
seismicliquefy
stability inofanthe slope andIdeally
earthquake. the potential of a steeper
the deposit is managedbeachwith to be-
a
come mobilized if the tailings liquefy in an earthquake. Ideally
slope that is not mobilized by the design earthquake. However, if there is uncertainty, the the deposit is managed
with a facility
tailings slope thatmust is be
notdesigned
mobilized to by the design
withstand the earthquake.
mobilizationHowever,
if it occurs.if there is uncer-
tainty, the tailings facility must be designed to withstand the mobilization if it occurs.
5.1. Down Valley Discharge (DVD)
5.1. Considering
Down Valley Discharge
the steep(DVD)topography of the Andean region of Chile and Peru, it is
attractive to use topographical
Considering the steep topography depressions to impound
of the Andean region tailings, reducing
of Chile anddamPeru,volume
it is at-
since the sides of the valley serve to contain tailings. Typically,
tractive to use topographical depressions to impound tailings, reducing dam volume valley TSFs are constructed since
as a single
the sides of facility, in which
the valley servetheto tailings
contain are contained
tailings. behind
Typically, a single
valley TSFs dam
areor embankment.
constructed as a
single facility, in which the tailings are contained behind a single dam or embankment.to
In the case of thickened and paste tailings, if pumping occurs from the thickener
the highest
In the topographical
case of thickened pointand ofpaste
the valley, then
tailings, tailings are
if pumping discharged
occurs from the from spigots,
thickener to
and
the highest topographical point of the valley, then tailings are discharged from the
flow occurs by gravity down the valley to reach a retaining embankment at toe
spigots,
ofand
theflow
TSF.occurs
This technique
by gravityisdown calledthedown-valley
valley to reach discharge and according
a retaining embankment to the practice,
at the toe of
non-segregating slurries (thickened and paste tailings) for a constant
the TSF. This technique is called down-valley discharge and according to the practice, percent of solids and
flow rate will form a concave beach profile due to variability in thickener
non-segregating slurries (thickened and paste tailings) for a constant percent of solids and performance (See
Figure
flow rate11). will form a concave beach profile due to variability in thickener performance
Thickened and paste tailings are deposited hydraulically, or loosely, and beach, or
(See Figure 11).
settle, at somewhat steeper slopes than conventional tailings slurry. In theory, the beach
slope can be up to 4.0%, however, in practice steep slopes are only achieved for a short
distance and the remaining beach is sloped at less than 2.0%. The steeper beach slope
of thickened and paste tailings storage facility, compared to a conventional slurry beach,
distance and the remaining beach is sloped at less than 2.0%. The steeper beach slope of
provides an opportunity to store tailings above the dam elevation, which reduces the
thickened and paste tailings storage facility, compared to a conventional slurry beach,
footprint and height of the dam [26].
provides an opportunity to store tailings above the dam elevation, which reduces the foot-
Thickened and paste tailings should be, by definition, largely non-segregating (i.e.,
print and height of the dam [26].
fine and coarse particles do not separate during deposition), however minor segregation
could still occur depending on the tailings’ particle size distribution and solids content at
deposition [26].
could still occur
Compared todepending
conventional ontailings
the tailings’
storage particle sizeless
facilities, distribution
bleed water andandsolids content at
consolidation
deposition [26].
water is released from thickened and paste tailings deposited [26].
Compared to conventional tailings storage facilities, less bleed water and consolida-
tion water is released from thickened and paste tailings deposited [26].
Figure11.
Figure 11.Typical
TypicalThickened
ThickenedTailings
TailingsDisposal
Disposal Method
Method applied in Andean
Andean Region—Down
Region—DownValley
Valley
Discharge (DVD).
Discharge (DVD).
5.2.Cell
5.2. CellDyke
DykeDisposal
Disposal(CDD)
(CDD)
Consideringthe
Considering the flat
flat topography
topography of of the Atacama Desert
Desert region
region of of Chile
Chile and
andPeru,
Peru,itit
is necessary to build perimetral
is necessary to build perimetral dykes and dykes and dams to contain tailings. Typically, TSFsare
contain tailings. Typically, TSFs are
constructed as a multiple cell dyke facility, in which the tailings are contained
constructed as a multiple cell dyke facility, in which contained behind
behindaa
numberofofdykes,
number dykes,internal
internalbermsbermsoror embankments.
embankments. Dykes constructed
constructed typically
typicallywith
withmine
mine
wasterock
waste rockdivided
dividedthe theavailable
available area
area into
into cells
cells with
with several
several spigots (See (See Figure
Figure 12).
12). By
By
switchingbetween
switching between thesethese cells
cells and
and spigots
spigots every one to threethree days,
days, itit is
is possible
possibletoto place
place
thinlayers
thin layersofoffresh
freshthickened
thickened oror paste
paste tailings
tailings that
that areare then
then leftleft exposed
exposed to the
to the environ-
environment
ment
up up and
to one to one andmonths.
a half a half months. This exposure
This exposure allows the allows thetotailings
tailings dry andtoform dry aand form a
desiccated
crust. Alternating deposition between cells and limiting lift thicknesses promotes drying
and densification of the deposited tailings (See Figure 13).
Following thickening, pumping, pipeline transport, and beach deposition, the tail-
ings will increase in density by means of different phenomena. First, they settle and con-
ings will increase in density by means of different phenomena. First, they settle and con-
solidate under their own weight. After this initial phase, drying by climate exposure can
solidate under their own weight. After this initial phase, drying by climate exposure can
greatly accelerate densification and strength gain. Afterwards, new layers are deposited
greatly accelerate densification and strength gain. Afterwards, new layers are deposited
over the existing tailings, which consolidates the underlying tailings.
over the existing tailings, which consolidates the underlying tailings.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 The increase in density and corresponding decrease in void ratio due to desiccation
15 of 65
The increase in density and corresponding decrease in void ratio due to desiccation
not only reduces the total volume of tailings but also allows for steeper deposition angles
and increases the resistance of the TSF to seismic events.
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Typical
TypicalThickened
ThickenedTailings Disposal
Tailings Method
Disposal applied
Method in Atacama
applied Desert—Cell
in Atacama DykeDyke
Desert—Cell Dis-
Figure 12. Typical Thickened Tailings Disposal Method applied in Atacama Desert—Cell Dyke Dis-
posal (CDD)—Layout
Disposal (CDD)—Layout View.
View.
posal (CDD)—Layout View.
Figure 13. Typical Thickened Tailings Disposal Method applied in Atacama Desert–Cell Dyke Dis-
Figure 13. Typical Thickened Tailings Disposal Method applied in Atacama Desert–Cell Dyke Dis-
posal (CDD)–Profile
Figure View.
13. Typical Thickened Tailings Disposal Method applied in Atacama Desert–Cell Dyke
posal (CDD)–Profile View.
Disposal (CDD)–Profile View.
Following thickening, pumping, pipeline transport, and beach deposition, the tailings
will increase in density by means of different phenomena. First, they settle and consolidate
under their own weight. After this initial phase, drying by climate exposure can greatly
accelerate densification and strength gain. Afterwards, new layers are deposited over the
existing tailings, which consolidates the underlying tailings.
The increase in density and corresponding decrease in void ratio due to desiccation
6. Thickened Tailings Experiences—State of Practice

In recent years, the improvements in tailings dewatering technologies (thickening
and filtering) have allowed an increase in water recovery. These technologies have been
successfully applied for production rates up to 100,000 mtpd. There is still a need for
more reliable equipment for the thickening processes at large-scale, focused tailings water
recovery and reuse in mining processing. Table 3 shows a comparison between different
thickened tailings management technologies, considering some mining projects located in
wet areas, and dry areas of Chile, Peru and Worldwide.
Table 3. Thickened tailings management technologies in Chile, Peru and Worldwide.
TSF Disposal Parameters

Tailings Storage Mining Company Solids Tailings
Country Production PSD d50 Reference
Facility Name Name Content Disposal
Rate (mtpd) (µm)
Cw (%) Method
National Iranian Copper
Sarcheshmeh TSF Iran 96,000 57 60 (TT) TTD [27,28]
Industries Company
Kidd Creek TSF Glencore Canada 8000 45 63 (TT) TTD [4]
Kimberley TSF De Beers South Africa 25,000 45 55 (TT) TTD [4]
Ernest Henry TSF Evolution Australia 20,000 55 75 (TT) PTD [4]
Century TSF New Century Resources Australia 12,000 60 58 (TT) TTD [4]
Sunrise TSF BHP Australia 10,000 50 64 (TT) TTD [4]
Osborne TSF Ivanhoe Limited’s Australia 4500 55 74 (TT) PTD [4]
Centinela TSF Antofagasta Minerals Chile 95,000 45 65 (TT) TTD [29]
Sierra Gorda TSF KGHM Chile 110,000 40 60 (TT) TTD [30]
Spence TSF BHP Chile 95,000 55 52 (TT) TTD [31]
Talabre TSF Codelco Chile 200,000 60 57 (TT) TTD [32]
Talabre TTD TSF (*) Codelco Chile 400,000 60 67 (TT) TTD [32]
Los Corralillos TSF Cerro Negro Norte CMP Chile 20,000 75 65 (TT) TTD [33]
Carmen Andacollo TSF Teck Chile 55,000 70 58 (TT) TTD [34]
Los Diques TSF Lunding Chile 75,000 65 50 (TT) TTD [35]
Demo Plant Collahuasi Chile 6000 74 65 (TT) PTD [36]
Chinchorro TSF Las Cenizas Chile 2500 65 70 (TT) PTD [36]
Delta Plant TSF ENAMI Chile 2000 71 67 (TT) PTD [36]
Sector 5 TSF Coemin Chile 8000 68 70 (TT) PTD [37]
Alhue TSF Yamana Gold Chile 3000 75 65 (TT) PTD [38]
El Toqui TSF Nyrstar Chile 1500 68 72 (TT) PTD [39]
Toromocho TSF Chinalco Peru 140,000 69 65 (TT) TTD [40]
Antapaccay TSF Tintaya Peru 75,000 75 58 (TT) TTD [41]
Las Bambas TSF MMG Peru 140,000 75 62 (TT) TTD [42]
Constancia TSF Hudbay Peru 90,000 70 58 (TT) TTD [43]
Chungar TSF Volcan Peru 5500 60 70 (SL) PTD [44]
Cobriza TSF Doe Run Peru 5000 65 70 (TT) PTD [45]
Rumichaca TSF Volcan Peru 6000 60 65 (SL) PTD [46]
Huachuacaja TSF El Brocal Peru 18,000 65 65 (TT) TTD [47]
Cerro Corona TSF GoldFields Peru 22,000 78 55 (TT) TTD [48]
La Quinua TSF Newmont Peru 17,000 67 67 (TT) TTD [49]
Note: The following terms mean: TT: Total Tailings, SL: Slimes (fine particle size distribution of total tailings),
PTD: Paste Tailings Disposal, TTD: Thickened Tailings Disposal and (*) Feasibility Project under Study.
Observing Table 3 it is possible to see projects with thickened tailings technology in

Canada, Australia, South Africa, Iran, Chile and Peru. It is important to note that the largest
number of projects with thickened and paste tailings technology are found in Chile and
Peru, with 14 cases and 10 cases, respectively. It is also observed that the cases of Canada,
Australia and South Africa have tailings productions of a maximum of 25,000 mtpd, while
in the cases of Iran, Chile, and Peru there are projects with productions of 100,000 mtpd,
even in some cases such as Chile with productions of the order of 200,000 mtpd. With
respect to the contents of solids by weight (Cw) reached, in some cases there are low values
of the order of 55% and at most there are values of the order of 70% to 75%.
It is important to mention that the Talabre TTD TSF project with tailings production of
400,000 mtpd with Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) technology is in a phase of technical
studies, awaiting approval of environmental permits and waiting to be added to the
production of tailings from the Ministro Hales and Radomiro Tomic concentrator plants, to
the current tailings production of 200,000 mtpd from the Chuquicamata concentrator plant.
Finally, with respect to the tailings disposal method, there is an equitable relationship
in all cases considering Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) and Paste Tailings Disposal
(PTD). These technologies have been successfully applied in Chile and Peru for production
rates up to 100,000 mtpd; showing good performance improvements on large-scale projects
with high ore production rates. In this scenario, there is still a need for more reliable
equipment for paste tailings thickening plants on large scale, focusing in the tailings water
recovery enhancing for its reuse in mining processing.
7. Successful Cases in Chile and Peru

The development of thickening technologies has changed the criteria’s used in eval-
uating the benefits of increased tailings density. Nowadays, considering more stringent
regulatory framework, more concentrator plants apply tailings thickening technologies to-
gether with optimized tailings disposal schemes to recover water, minimize TSF footprints
and comply with regulations. The following paragraphs present various successful cases in
South America specifically in mining projects of Chile and Peru.
7.1. Demo Plant Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Collahuasi—Chile

The Compañía Minera Doña Inés de Collahuasi owned a copper mine (Collahuasi),
situated in northern Chile, about 200 km southeast of Iquique, at an altitude of 4400 masl in
the Andes Mountains. The climate is typical of this dry region, where annual precipitation
is approximately 200 mm with evaporation rates over 2000 mm year. One of the major needs
for the mine project is water and thus significant resources have been focused on water
recovery from tailings. For this reason, Collahuasi carried out a pilot test and Demo Plant
program to enable adequate tailings thickening to maximize water recovery (2008–2010).
Table 4 shows Demo Plant performance:
Table 4. Demo Plant—Thickening Parameters and Tailings Characterization [50].
Paste Thickening Process Parameters Cu Tailings Characterization

Parameter Value Units Parameter Value Units
Tailings throughput 6000 tpd Particle size distribution (P80) 115 µm
DCT diameter 22 m Fines content (<#200 ASTM) 65 %
DCT height 20 m Solid Gravity (Gs) 2.76 -
Solid loading 0.658 tph/m2 Feed solid content (Cw) 47–53 %
Flocculent dosing use 20–25 g/ton Underflow Solid Content (Cw) 57–67 %
Overflow water recovery 127 m3 /h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 260/130 Pa
The Demo Plant was located on the side of TSF called Pampa Pabellón (Figure 14),
below the tailings distribution tank (4275 masl) and parallel to the tailings discharge drop
boxes system. The tailings are transported to the demo plant from the concentrator plant,
tailings being pumped from the first drop box located after the distributor tank. The demo
plant has a 22 m in diameter, 18 m high DCT, equipped with a shear thinning system at the
DCT underflow. Using centrifugal pumps, it produces shear rupture of the flocs formed
in the thickening and then recirculates portion of this material to the DCT cone by a loop.
From this cone, paste tailings are extracted by another centrifugal pump for transport to a
network of discharge spigot at elevation 4330 masl.
boxes system. The tailings are transported to the demo plant from the concentrator plant,
tailings being pumped from the first drop box located after the distributor tank. The demo
plant has a 22 m in diameter, 18 m high DCT, equipped with a shear thinning system at
the DCT underflow. Using centrifugal pumps, it produces shear rupture of the flocs
formed in the thickening and then recirculates portion of this material to the DCT cone by
a loop. From this cone, paste tailings are extracted by another centrifugal pump for
transport to a network of discharge spigot at elevation 4330 masl.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Demo
Demo Plant
Plant overview
overview and
and paste
paste tailings
tailingsdisposal
disposalatatTSF
TSF[36,50].
[36,50].
7.2. Las Cenizas Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Cabildo—Chile

7.2. Las Cenizas Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Cabildo—Chile
Las Cenizas Mine is an underground copper mine operation located in the Cabildo
Las Cenizas Mine is an underground copper mine operation located in the Cabildo
valley in the central region of Chile, approximately 120 km north of Santiago city. The
valley in the central region of Chile, approximately 120 km north of Santiago city. The
climate is typical of a Mediterranean region, where annual precipitation is approximately
climate is typical of a Mediterranean region, where annual precipitation is approximately
200 mm with evaporation rates over 1750 mm per year. Tailings generated in the process
200 mm with evaporation rates over 1750 mm per year. Tailings generated in the process
plant are discharged to the surface as paste tailings (40% of the time) and are used as paste
plant are discharged to the surface as paste tailings (40% of the time) and are used as
fill (60% of the time) for underground mining works. Tailings are produced from the pro-
paste fill (60% of the time) for underground mining works. Tailings are produced from
cess plant with 30% solids and are transported to a 16 diameter HRT Thickener. Under-
the process plant with 30% solids and are transported to a 16 diameter HRT Thickener.
flow tailings from the HRT reach 58–62% solids content and are pumped by PD pump
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 ofto67
Underflow tailings from the HRT reach 58–62% solids content and are pumped by PD
the paste tailings plant or underground mine such as a backfill.
pump to the paste tailings plant or underground mine such as a backfill.
A 17 m DCT is located in the Chinchorro valley, about 4 km from the HRT thickener
A 17 m DCT is located in the Chinchorro valley, about 4 km from the HRT thickener
(Figure 15),
The15),
DCTwhere tailings
was tailings are thenintransported
commissioned 2011; the design for surface tailings
underflow disposal.
solids contentOneis of the
(Figure where are then transported for surface tailings disposal. One65%,
of thea
main requirements
lowerrequirements for
value than might the mine
bemine project
expected is
but the reclamation of water and maintaining a good
main for the project is athe
reflection of the
reclamation of clayey finesmaintaining
water and componentain the
good
relationship
tailings. with
The with the community,
estimated because
slope is between there is aThis
1.5–2.0%. severe drought inat
is satisfactory the area
this and the
operational
relationship the community, because there is a severe drought in the area and the
community demands the least possible impact from tailings. For this reason, Las Cenizas
stage,
community but further
demandsimprovement in underflow
the least possible impact density and beach
from tailings. slope
For this is expected.
reason, The
Las Cenizas
Mine carried out pilot tests to enable adequate tailings thickening to maximize water re-
main operational
Mine carried out challenges
pilot tests comprise
to enableflow fluctuation
adequate and
tailings propertiestoofmaximize
thickening tailings, control
water
covery (2002). Table 5 shows paste tailings thickening plant performance.
of discharge,
recovery measurements
(2002). Table 5 showsand automation
paste control. plant performance.
tailings thickening
Table 5. Las Cenizas Plant—Thickening Parameters and Tailings Characterization [51].

Overflow water recovery 45 m3/h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 120/60 Pa
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Las
Las Cenizas
Cenizas DCT
DCT overview and paste
overview and paste tailings
tailings disposal
disposal at
at TSF
TSF [36,51].
[36,51].
7.3. Delta Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Ovalle—Chile

ENAMI (Empresa Nacional de Minería) have a copper processing plant called Delta
which is located in Ovalle valley in the northern region of Chile, approximately 330 km
north of Santiago city, a mining area with the highest density of copper extraction activi-
ties. The climate is typical of an arid region, where annual precipitation is approximately
Table 5. Las Cenizas Plant—Thickening Parameters and Tailings Characterization [51].

Overflow water recovery 45 m3 /h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 120/60 Pa
The DCT was commissioned in 2011; the design underflow solids content is 65%, a
lower value than might be expected but a reflection of the clayey fines component in the
tailings. The estimated slope is between 1.5–2.0%. This is satisfactory at this operational
stage, but further improvement in underflow density and beach slope is expected. The
main operational challenges comprise flow fluctuation and properties of tailings, control of
discharge, measurements and automation control.
7.3. Delta Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Ovalle—Chile

ENAMI (Empresa Nacional de Minería) have a copper processing plant called Delta
which is located in Ovalle valley in the northern region of Chile, approximately 330 km
north of Santiago city, a mining area with the highest density of copper extraction activities.
The climate is typical of an arid region, where annual precipitation is approximately 125 mm
with evaporation rates over 2050 mm per year. Tailings are produced from the process
plant with 35% solids and are transported by centrifugal pumps to a 12 m diameter DCT
Thickener. Underflow tailings from the DCT reach a paste tailings consistency and are
then pumped by centrifugal pump to the TSF. The underflow tailings solid content ranged
between 55–65% soon after commissioning in 2011. More recently (2015) solid contents of
65–70% were measured (See Table 6).
Table 6. Delta Plant—Thickening Process and Tailings Characterization [5].

Overflow water recovery 114 m3/ h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 90/45 Pa
Despite the start-up and early operating difficulties that occurred, the DCT, when
judged by the general appearance and behavior of the underflow streams and supported
by on-site yield stress tests, appears to be performing remarkably well. The beach slope is
flatter than the design value, which can be explained by the low percent solids and the fine
particle size distribution of the current tailings. The slope can be expected to steepen as
operating difficulties are sorted out (See Figure 16).
Sustainability 2022, 14,
20 of 65
67
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Delta
Delta paste
paste tailings
tailings thickening
thickening plant
plant and
and paste
paste tailings
tailings disposal
disposal [5,36].
[5,36].
7.4. El
7.4. El Toqui
Toqui Paste
Paste Tailings—Down
Tailings—DownValley ValleyDischarge—Coyhaique—Chile
Discharge—Coyhaique—Chile
The El
The El Toqui
Toqui mine
mine isis located
located in in Chile’s
Chile’s Region
Region XIXI 1350
1350 kmkm south
south of of Santiago
Santiago city
city and
and
120 km
120 km northeast
northeast of of Coyhaique,
Coyhaique, in in aa region
region with
with aa well-known
well-known history
history ofof poly-metallic
poly-metallic
mineralization. The
mineralization. Themine
mineplantplantprocesses
processes mainly
mainly gold,
gold, zinc
zinc andand silver
silver andand produces
produces ap-
approx-
proximately 1500 tons of tailings per day. The climate is typical of the
imately 1500 tons of tailings per day. The climate is typical of the Patagonia region, where Patagonia region,
where annual
annual precipitation
precipitation is approximately
is approximately 1200 mm 1200
withmm with evaporation
evaporation rates overrates
1000over
mm1000per
year. Tailings generated in the process plant are discharged to the surface as paste as
mm per year. Tailings generated in the process plant are discharged to the surface paste
tailings
tailings
(50% (50%
of the of the
time) time)
and and are
are used used as
as paste fillpaste
(50%fill (50%
of the of the
time) in time) in the underground
the underground mining
mining Tailings
works. works. Tailings are produced
are produced from thefromprocessthe plant
process plant
with 30%with
solids30%andsolids and trans-
transported to
aported to a 14 mDCT
14 m diameter diameter DCT Thickener.
Thickener. UnderflowUnderflow
tailings fromtailings
the DCTfromreach
the DCT
70–75%reach 70–
solids
75% solids
content andcontent and areby
are pumped pumped
a PD pumpby a PD topump to the surface
the surface disposal disposal or underground
or underground mine.
mine. Table 7 shows paste tailings thickening
Table 7 shows paste tailings thickening plant performance. plant performance.
Table 7. El
Table7. El Toqui
ToquiPlant
PlantThickening
ThickeningProcess
Processand
andTailings
TailingsCharacterization
Characterization[39,52].
[39,52].
Paste Paste
Thickening Process
Thickening Parameters
Process Parameters Zn, Au, Zn,Pb,
Au,AgPb,and
Ag Cu
andTailings Characterization
Cu Tailings Characterization
Parameter
Parameter ValueValue Units Units Parameter
Parameter Value
Value Units
Units
DCT diameter
DCT diameter 14 14 m m Fines content (<#200 ASTM)
Fines content (<#200 ASTM) 6060 %
%
DCT
DCTheight
height 10 10 m m Solid Solid
Gravity (Gs)(Gs)
Gravity 3.20
3.20 --
Solid loading 0.406 tph/m 2 Feed solid content (Cw) 30–35 %
Solid loading 0.406 tph/m 2 Feed solid content (Cw) 30–35 %
Flocculentdosing
Flocculent dosinguse
use 25–3525–35 g/ton g/ton Underflow Underflow
Solid Solid Content
Content (Cw)(Cw) 70–75
70–75 %
%
Overflow water recovery 103 m 3 /h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 150/75 Pa
Overflow water recovery 103 m3/h Unsheared/sheared yield stress 150/75 Pa
El
El Toqui
Toqui operated
operated surface
surface disposal
disposal with
with filtered
filtered tailings
tailings for
for some
some years. However,
years. However,
problems with management of tailings were experienced due to frequent
problems with management of tailings were experienced due to frequent precipitation, precipitation,
because
because the
the moisture
moisture content
content of
of filtered
filtered tailings
tailings exceeded
exceeded 20%.
20%. For
For this
this reason,
reason, tailings
tailings are
are
actually
actually disposed
disposed on
on surface
surface such
such as as paste
paste (See
(See Figure
Figure 17)
17) [53].
[53].
Sustainability2022, 14,10901
x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 21
of of6765
Figure 17.
Figure 17. El
El Toqui
Toqui paste
paste tailings
tailings thickening
thickening plant
plant [39,52].
[39,52].
7.5. AlhuéPaste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Yamana Gold—Chile

7.5. Alhué Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Yamana Gold—Chile
Alhué mine is an underground gold-silver mine located 180 km south of Santiago
Alhué mine is an underground gold-silver mine located 180 km south of Santiago city
city in central Chile, situated in an area with moderate to rugged topographic relief char-
in central Chile, situated in an area with moderate to rugged topographic relief character-
acterized by narrow valleys and high hills. Mining began in 1986 at a processing rate of
ized by narrow valleys and high hills. Mining began in 1986 at a processing rate of 300 tons
300 tons per day, producing a gold, silver and zinc concentrate for off-site treatment. The
per day, producing a gold, silver and zinc concentrate for off-site treatment. The plant
plant actually treats 6000 tons per day of ore, incorporating flotation, leaching and elec-
actually treats 6000 tons per day of ore, incorporating flotation, leaching and electrowinning
trowinning processes for onsite doré metal production and generation of a zinc concen-
processes for onsite doré metal production and generation of a zinc concentrate for off-site
trate for off-site treatment. Retreatment of historic tailings started in 2013 and is expected
treatment. Retreatment of historic tailings started in 2013 and is expected to increase annual
to increase annual production for five years [38].
production for five years [38].
Alhué needed to ensure operational continuity, because the current TSF is near the
Alhué needed to ensure operational continuity, because the current TSF is near the end
end of its useful life, requiring construction of a new TSF. For the disposal of tailings re-
of its useful life, requiring construction of a new TSF. For the disposal of tailings resulting
sulting from the process of current operations, the design of new TSF includes the use of
from the process of current operations, the design of new TSF includes the use of modern
modern practices with paste tailings disposal. Alhué mine has chosen to improve envi-
practices with paste tailings disposal. Alhué mine has chosen to improve environmental
ronmental standards and increase recovery of tailings water for reuse in the process. For
standards and increase recovery of tailings water for reuse in the process. For this reason,
this reason, Alhué mine carried out a pilot test program to enable adequate tailings thick-
Alhué mine carried out a pilot test program to enable adequate tailings thickening to
ening to maximize water recovery and the tailings disposal slope (2013). Representative
maximize water recovery and the tailings disposal slope (2013). Representative tailings
tailings samples were thickened in a 1.5 m diameter deep cone paste pilot plant thickener
samples were thickened in a 1.5 m diameter deep cone paste pilot plant thickener using
using freshly prepared flocculent at the correct dosage rates. The thickener pilot plant and
freshly prepared flocculent at the correct dosage rates. The thickener pilot plant and
test campaign used a combination of pilot plant data and channel scale tests in order to
test campaign used a combination of pilot plant data and channel scale tests in order to
determine the right parameters for the design of the paste thickener and TSF [54].
determine the right parameters for the design of the paste thickener and TSF [54].
A deposition beach slope of paste tailings of 3.0% for Alhué was estimated from the
A deposition beach slope of paste tailings of 3.0% for Alhué was estimated from
pilot plant campaign and channel tests. Pilot plants have become a practical tool and are
the pilot plant campaign and channel tests. Pilot plants have become a practical tool
ever more used to support engineering design decisions. Considering the good perfor-
and are ever more used to support engineering design decisions. Considering the good
mance of the paste pilot plant Alhué mine decided to approve paste tailings disposal.
performance of the paste pilot plant Alhué mine decided to approve paste tailings disposal.
Tailings are produced from the process plant with 30% solids and are transported to a 17
Tailings are produced from the process plant with 30% solids and are transported to a
m DCT. Underflow tailings from the DCT reach 60–70% solids content and paste is then
17 m DCT. Underflow tailings from the DCT reach 60–70% solids content and paste is then
pumped by PD pumps to the TSF (See Figure 18) [37].
pumped by PD pumps to the TSF (See Figure 18) [37].
The TSF facility and DCT were constructed in 2015. The DCT plant was commissioned
at the end of 2015. Although the design underflow density of tailings was 65% solids, a
lower value was obtained, which is a reflection of the clayey fines component in the tailings.
The estimated beach slope was between 1.5–2.0%. This is satisfactory at this operational
stage (startup stage), but further improvement in underflow density and beach slope is
expected. Table 8 shows paste tailings thickening plant performance.
2022, 10901
of of
6765
Figure18.
Figure 18.Alhué
Alhuépaste
paste tailings
tailings thickening
thickening plant
plant and
andpaste
pasteTSF
TSF[38].
[38].
The
Table 8. TSFPlant—Thickening
Alhué facility and DCTProcess
were constructed in 2015.
Parameters and The
Tailings DCT plant was
Characterization [38].commis-
sioned at the end of 2015. Although the design underflow density of tailings was 65%
solids,Parameters
Paste Thickening Process a lower value was obtained, which is Aua and
reflection of theCharacterization
Zn Tailings clayey fines component in
the tailings. The estimated beach slope was between 1.5–2.0%. This is satisfactory at this
operational stage (startup stage), but further improvement in underflow density and
Tailings throughput 3000 is expected.
beach slope tpdTable 8 shows
Particlepaste
size distribution (P80)
tailings thickening plant125
performance.µm
Table 8. Alhué Plant—Thickening Process Parameters and Tailings Characterization [38].
Flocculent dosing use Process Parameters
Paste Thickening 25–35 g/ton Underflow
Au and Solid
Zn Content
Tailings(Cw) 60–70
Characterization %
Overflow water recovery 320 3 Unsheared/sheared yield stress Value
130/65 Pa
Parameter Value Units m /h Parameter Units
DCT diameter 7.6. Centinela
17 Thickened
m Tailings—Cell
Fines contentDyke(<#200
Disposal—Antofagasta
ASTM) Minerals—Chile
55 %
DCT height 12 m Solid Gravity (Gs)
Minera Centinela was established in 2014 from the merger of the Esperanza 2.72 - and El
Solid loading Tesoro0.550
miningtph/m
companies. It isFeed
2 solid
located incontent (Cw)
the Antofagasta 20–25
region of Chile, 1350 km %north of
Flocculent dosing use 25–35 in an g/ton
Santiago, Underflow
important mining areaSolid
with Content (Cw)
sulfide and 60–70 Centinela%
oxide deposits. produces
Overflow water recovery copper 320concentrates
m3/h through Unsheared/sheared yield stress
a grinding and flotation process in 130/65
the sulfide line, Paobtaining
mining tailings; and copper cathodes using a solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX-EW)
7.6. Centinela
process on theThickened
oxide line. Tailings—Cell Dyke Disposal—Antofagasta Minerals—Chile
Currently, Minera Centinela
Minera Centinela represents
was established 40%from
in 2014 of thethe
production
merger ofoftheGrupo Mineroand
Esperanza Antofa-
El
gasta
TesoroMinerals,
mining with a mineral
companies. It isproduction
located in ofthearound 100,000
Antofagasta mtpd.ofInChile,
region the coming
1350 km years,
norththe
development of new operations that will turn Minera Centinela into a
of Santiago, in an important mining area with sulfide and oxide deposits. Centinela pro- large mining district
isduces
expected,
copperincluding the exploitation
concentrates of the Encuentro
through a grinding and Esperanza
and flotation process inSur the deposits. This
sulfide line,
development will allow the company to extend the useful life of
obtaining mining tailings; and copper cathodes using a solvent extraction and elec-its extractive operations
by 25 years, with
trowinning (SX-EW) a production
process onofthe close to 400
oxide line.thousand tons of fine copper per year [55].
The thickened
Currently, tailings
Minera depositrepresents
Centinela called Centinela
40% ofTSFthe stores the mining
production tailings
of Grupo produced
Minero An-
by Minera Centinela,
tofagasta Minerals, with and isa located
mineralinproduction
the commune of Sierra100,000
of around Gorda, mtpd.
Antofagasta
In the Region,
comingat
an approximate
years, elevationofofnew
the development 2100operations
masl. The tailings
that willare thickened
turn Minera to reach a concentration
Centinela into a large
ofmining
solidsdistrict
by weight (Cw) inincluding
is expected, the orderthe of 65% throughof3 the
exploitation high density thickeners
Encuentro and Esperanza(HDT)
Surof
60 m diameter each one and 3 high compression thickeners (HCT) of 45 m diameter each
one (Figure 19) [56].
• Cell 3: Discharge from Chinese Wall 1 towards the J2 dyke basin through spigots.
• Cell 4: Discharge through tailings pipes inside the deposit towards the J1 dyke basin.
The J1 dyke basin is subdivided into five sub-deposits by means of 4 dykes built in-
side it, which allow the deposition to be alternated. Work is constantly being carried
out on installing spigots from the J2 dyke crest. 23 of 65
• Cell 5: Discharge through a tailings channel through the Caracoles sector to the South
dike.
Figure19.
Figure 19. Thickening
Thickening Process
Process Plant
Plant in
in Centinela
Centinela Mining
Mining Project.
Project.
The thickened tailings are pumped by centrifugal pumps into a series of cells, where
the tailings are contained by a series of small dams or dykes. The tailings pumping system
is made up of two trains of three centrifugal pumps, each pumping tailings from a tank
(Hammer Tank), which receives the tailings from the thickeners (HDT and HCT), through
HDPE pipes inside of the deposit [29,57].
The deposition system considers the deposition of tailings in 5 sectors or fields or
cells, which correspond to the High sector, wall J2, wall J1, Main wall, and Caracoles. As
mentioned above, the Laguna Seca sector corresponds to the low-concentration tailings dam
(low Cw). In Figures 20 and 21 the deposit sectors are presented and then the description
of the discharges by the different sectors is presented [29,57].
Figure 20. Thickened Tailings Discharge in Spigots in Centinela Mining Project.

Figure 21.
Figure Layout View
21. Layout View Centinela
Centinela Thickened
Thickened Tailings
Tailings Storage
Storage Facility.
Facility.
The following paragraph indicates the operation of the tailings deposit scheme in the
thickened tailings deposit Centinela:
• Cells 1 and 2: Discharges from dykes to the upper sector of the TSF through spigots.
• Cell 3: Discharge from Chinese Wall 1 towards the J2 dyke basin through spigots.
• Cell 4: Discharge through tailings pipes inside the deposit towards the J1 dyke basin.
The J1 dyke basin is subdivided into five sub-deposits by means of 4 dykes built inside
it, which allow the deposition to be alternated. Work is constantly being carried out
on installing spigots from the J2 dyke crest.
• Cell 5: Discharge through a tailings channel through the Caracoles sector to the South dike.
7.7. Sierra Gorda Thickened Tailings—Cell Dyke Disposal—KGHM—Chile

Sierra Gorda Sociedad Contractual Minera (SGCM) is a copper, gold and molybdenum
mine operation located approximately 60 km from the city of Calama in Northern Chile
(II Antofagasta Region). The mine has been operating since 2014, with proven and probable
ore reserves of 800 million tons containing grades of 0.35% copper, 0.04 g/t gold and 0.01%
molybdenum. Current operations are 110,000 mtpd (increasing to 230,000 mtpd in Phase
II) with the produced copper and molybdenum concentrate being sent by train to Sierra
Gorda SGCM’s port facilities located in Antofagasta. Sierra Gorda SGCM operates with
the use of sea water from the cooling systems of a power plant in the town of Mejillones.
Instead of being recycled to the sea, the water is pumped to the processing plant through a
denum mine operation located approximately 60 km from the city of Calama in Northern
Chile (II Antofagasta Region). The mine has been operating since 2014, with proven and
probable ore reserves of 800 million tons containing grades of 0.35% copper, 0.04 g/t gold
and 0.01% molybdenum. Current operations are 110,000 mtpd (increasing to 230,000 mtpd
in Phase II) with the produced copper and molybdenum concentrate being sent by train
to Sierra Gorda SGCM’s port facilities located in Antofagasta. Sierra Gorda SGCM oper-
ates with the use of sea water from the cooling systems of a power plant in the town of
Mejillones. Instead of being recycled to the sea, the water is pumped to the processing
144 km
plant pipeline
through located
a 144 at an elevation
km pipeline locatedofat1700 masl andof
an elevation storage in a lined
1700 masl pond (Figure
and storage 22).
in a lined
The mine contemplates a useful life of 20 years [30].
pond (Figure 22). The mine contemplates a useful life of 20 years [30].
Figure 22. Sea water reservoir in Sierra Gorda Mining Project.

Figure 22. Sea water reservoir in Sierra Gorda Mining Project.
As
As part
part of
of the design of
the design Sierra Gorda
of Sierra Gorda SGCM,
SGCM, thickened
thickened tailings
tailings disposal
disposal (TTD)
(TTD) waswas
considered.
considered. The Theoriginal
originaltailings
tailingsstorage
storagefacility (TSF)
facility design
(TSF) considered
design considereddischarge of tail-
discharge of
ings at 62% solids (Cw), having an average achievable beach slope of 1.0%
tailings at 62% solids (Cw), having an average achievable beach slope of 1.0% and a storage and a storage
capacity
capacity of of1350
1350million
milliontons
tonsofof
tailings over
tailings thethe
over 20-year life life
20-year of the
of operation. During
the operation. com-
During
missioning of the processing plant in 2014, the design solids concentration
commissioning of the processing plant in 2014, the design solids concentration of the tailings of the tailings
was not consistently achieved
achieved by the three 86 m diameter high-rate tailings thickeners
(Figure 23).
23). The
The principal
principalreasons
reasonsrelate
relatetotothe
the variations
variations in in particle
particle sizesize distribution
distribution of
of the
the current
current tailings,
tailings, whichwhich are slightly
are slightly finer,finer, andtorque
and the the torque limitations
limitations of theof the thickeners.
thickeners. Since
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Since
2014 to2014
date,to tailings
date, tailings are discharged
are discharged at 58–62%
at 58–62% solidssolids (Cw)beach
(Cw) with with beach
slopesslopes
of 0.5% 26being
of of 67
0.5%
being achieved
achieved (via single
(via single point discharge)
point discharge) [30]. [30].
Figure
Figure 23.
23. Thickening
Thickening Process
Process Plant
Plant in
in Sierra
Sierra Gorda Mining Project.
Gorda Mining Project.
Until February 2017, the TSF was designed to operate by depositing tailings sub-aer-
ially via single point discharge from predominately near the center of the 2300 Ha TSF via
a 1.2 m diameter, 2.4 km long pipeline from the processing plant. A second single point
discharge was used to an emergency area nearer to the processing plant. The design of the
Until February 2017, the TSF was designed to operate by depositing tailings sub-
aerially via single point discharge from predominately near the center of the 2300 Ha TSF
via a 1.2 m diameter, 2.4 km long pipeline from the processing plant. A second single point
discharge was used to an emergency area nearer to the processing plant. The design of the
tailings transport system considers gravitational discharge from the main underflow starter
box adjacent to the three tailings thickeners. The only thickened tailings pumps considered
in the design are located in the underflow of the tailings’ thickeners, reporting to the starter
box initiating 100% gravitational transport of tailings to the TSF. Operation of the single
point discharge system has resulted in the tailings flowing as single channels downstream
to the main embankments of the TSF without developing a beach over the natural ground.
The reasons primarily being that the tailings formed a flatter beach than expected, less than
the natural ground slope [30].
The goal of Sierra Gorda SGCM’s tailings management strategy is to not only disposal
the tailings via the spigot distribution system, but also to optimize the in situ density and
capacity of the TSF reducing the elevations of the large perimeter dykes at final capacity.
In the short-term, and due to the reduced freeboard during 2017, no tailings were to be
discharged towards the main dykes so as to allow the already deposited tailings to dry and
consolidate, as well as allow time to install underdrain extensions and subsequent raising
of the main dykes (Figure 24). During this time, temporary internal dykes were constructed
to store tailings while the various spigot systems were commissioned [30].
Figure 24. Layout View Sierra Gorda Thickened Tailings Storage Facility.
Figure 24. Layout View Sierra Gorda Thickened Tailings Storage Facility.
7.8. Spence
These Thickened Tailings—Cell
internal dykes Dyke Disposal—BHP—Chile
are considered temporary in that they will eventually be covered
by tailings discharged from the spigots. Interwall
Spence is a mining project located in the region drop
of pipes were considered
Antofagasta, communetooftransfer
Sierra
flow from
Gorda, one
close to side of a dyke and
the Centinela to the other
Sierra lowermining
Gorda side thereby enabling
projects. Spencecontrolled
is a miningfilling of
project
the TSF asbythe
operated thebeach from
mining the spigots
company BHPdeveloped [30,58].
Billiton. The Spence mining deposit began mining
operations exploiting oxide mining resources through hydrometallurgical processes in
leaching heaps, today it has begun to exploit sulfide mining resources, where a mineral
processing concentrator plant with a capacity of 95,000 mtpd has been designed and built
(Figure 25). The concentrator plant has the processes of crushing, grinding, flotation,
7.8. Spence Thickened Tailings—Cell Dyke Disposal—BHP—Chile

Spence is a mining project located in the region of Antofagasta, commune of Sierra
Gorda, close to the Centinela and Sierra Gorda mining projects. Spence is a mining project
operated by the mining company BHP Billiton. The Spence mining deposit began mining
operations exploiting oxide mining resources through hydrometallurgical processes in
leaching heaps, today it has begun to exploit sulfide mining resources, where a mineral
processing concentrator plant with a capacity of 95,000 mtpd has been designed and built
(Figure 25). The concentrator plant has the processes of crushing, grinding, flotation,
thickening of tailings and concentrates, and filtering of concentrates. This metallurgical
plant mainly recovers copper and molybdenum concentrates. The Spence project also
includes the use of industrial quality desalinated water, for which the construction and
operation of a desalination plant is being contemplated with a production capacity of up
to 1600 L/s. This plant would be built in two stages: the first one to produce and bring
80014,L/s
x FOR PEER REVIEW
required by the mining project, and a second stage of 800 L/s to supply other BHP 28 of
Billiton projects.
Figure 25. LayoutFigure

View 25. Layout
Spence View SpencePlant.
Concentrator Concentrator Plant.
Mining tailingsMining tailings are

are generated generated
through throughconcentration
the mineral the mineral concentration
process, which process,
are which ar
thickened by 2 high-rate type thickening equipment with a diameter of 100 m. The miningThe minin
thickened by 2 high-rate type thickening equipment with a diameter of 100 m.
tailings reach
tailings reach a thickening a thickening
level level with a of
with a concentration concentration of solids
solids by weight (Cw) byofweight (Cw)ofof the ord
the order
of 52%. The thickened tailings are transported in pipelines with
52%. The thickened tailings are transported in pipelines with the help of centrifugal pumps. the help of centrifug
The mining tailings transportation system considers a series of spigots or tailings discharge or tailing
pumps. The mining tailings transportation system considers a series of spigots
points, with thedischarge points, with
aim of forming the aim
a tailings of forming
beach with a adeposition
tailings beach
slopewith
thata allows
deposition
the slope th
allows the consolidation and sedimentation of the tailings over time, locating the supe
consolidation and sedimentation of the tailings over time, locating the supernatant waters
natant waters of the tailings in the vicinity of the water collection reservoir.
of the tailings in the vicinity of the water collection reservoir.
The tailings storage facility is located in the vicinity of the concentrator plant in
The tailings storage facility is located in the vicinity of the concentrator plant in
relatively flat topography, for which it has been necessary to build dikes with borro
a relatively flat topography, for which it has been necessary to build dikes with borrow
material from the sector and with waste rock material from the mine (Figure 26). The min
material from the sector and with waste rock material from the mine (Figure 26). The mining
ing tailings are arranged in 3 cells built by perimeter dikes, where the tailings consolidat
tailings are arranged in 3solid-liquid
settle and cells built separation
by perimeter dikes,
occurs, where
where the the tailings consolidate,
supernatant water is collected in
settle and solid-liquid separation occurs, where the supernatant water
water reservoir attached to the tailings deposit cells (Figure 27). is collected
The waterincollected
a an
water reservoirrecovered
attached from
to the tailings deposit cells (Figure 27). The water collected
the tailings is recirculated through pumps and pipes to the mineral con
and recovered from the tailings
centration process.is recirculated through pumps and pipes to the mineral
concentration process.
Sustainability
Sustainability2022, 14, 10901 28 of 67
65
2022, 14,
14, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 29
29 of
of 67
Figure
Figure 26. Layout
26. Layout
Figure 26. View
Layout View Spence
View Spence Tailings
Spence Tailings Storage
Tailings Storage Facility.
Storage Facility.
Facility.
Figure 27.
Figure 27. Supernatant
Supernatant Water
Water Collected
Collected in
in Water
Water Reservoir
Reservoir in
in Spence
Spence Tailings
Tailings Storage
Storage Facility.
Facility.
Figure 27. Supernatant Water Collected in Water Reservoir in Spence Tailings Storage Facility.
7.9. Talabre
7.9. Talabre Thickened
TalabreThickened Tailings—Cell
ThickenedTailings—Cell
Tailings—CellDykeDyke Disposal—Codelco—Chile
DykeDisposal—Codelco—Chile
Disposal—Codelco—Chile
7.9.
Chuquicamata mine
Chuquicamata mine isis presently
presently the
the biggest
biggest open pit pit copper mine
mine worldwide. It It is
Chuquicamata is presently the biggestopen open pitcopper
copper mineworldwide.
worldwide. isIt
located
located
is located15
1515km
kmkm north
north of Calama
of Calama
north City and
CityCity
of Calama about
and and
about 245 km
245 km
about northeast
245northeast of Antofagasta
of Antofagasta
km northeast City. Min-
City. Min-
of Antofagasta City.
ing
ing processes
Miningprocesses
processesbegan
began in
in 1915
began 1915 and
and
in 1915 andsince
since 1971
1971(Codelco
1971
since (CodelcoChile)
(Codelco Chile)Chuquicamata
Chile) Chuquicamatahave
Chuquicamata havehad
have had aaa
had
remarkable
remarkable growth
remarkablegrowth throughout
growththroughout
throughouttime,time,
time, involving
involving
involving a
a large
large
a large generation
generation
generation of
of mine
of mine mine tailings
tailings
tailings that
that
that have
have been
havesafely
been safely
been safely stored
stored stored in the tailings
in the tailings
in the tailings deposit
deposit deposit named Talabre,
named Talabre,
named Talabre, which
which is which is located
locatedis15located 15
15 km
km northeastkm
northeast
northeast of
of Calama
Calama City
City (Figure
(Figure 28).
28). The
The Chuquicamata
Chuquicamata mine
mine has
has over
over
of Calama City (Figure 28). The Chuquicamata mine has over 100 years of operation and 100
100 years
years of
of op-
op-
eration
eration
still and
has and still has
still
reserves has reserves
for reserves for
the next for the next
the
40 yearsnext
and40beyond
40 years and
years and
andbeyond
beyond and is
and
is operated isby
operated
operated
Codelco by(National
by Codelco
Codelco
Sustainability2022,
14,10901
x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 65
29 of 67
(National
Copper Copper Corporation
Corporation of Chile).
of Chile). Talabre TSF Talabre TSFone
is currently is currently onelargest
the world’s the world’s largest
conventional
tailings disposal in terms of area, 2 [32].
conventional tailings disposal in reaching morereaching
terms of area, than 50 km
more than 50 km2 [32].
Figure28.
Figure 28.Panoramic
PanoramicView
Viewof
ofTalabre
TalabreTailings
TailingsStorage
StorageFacility.
Facility.
Talabretailings
Talabre tailingsstorage
storagefacility
facilitymainly
mainlyconsists
consists of of three
three resistant
resistant dams
dams called
called North,
North,
South and
South and West
WestDams.
Dams. TheseThese three
three dams
dams have
have aa total
total length
length of of 11
11 km
kmandandaamaximum
maximum
height of
height of 45
45mm(2490
(2490masl).
masl). Initially
Initially thethe dams
dams werewereconstructed
constructed using using the
thedownstream
downstream
constructionmethod,
construction method,compacting
compactingcyclonedcyclonedtailings
tailingssand
sandup up to
to elevation
elevation 2485
2485 masl.
masl. Later,
Later,
the
the construction of ofthese
thesedamsdamswas was modified
modified by the
by the centercenter line construction
line construction method, method,
using
using compacted
compacted mineminewaste waste
rockrock material
material obtained
obtained from
from the theopen
openpit.
pit. Both
Both upstream and and
downstream slopes in the dam, in the part made of cycloned tailings
downstream slopes in the dam, in the part made of cycloned tailings sand, are 3:1 (H:V) sand, are 3:1 (H:V) [32].
The
[32].deposit of mining
The deposit tailingstailings
of mining is currently carriedcarried
is currently out in the outTalabre TSF in aTSF
in the Talabre series
in of cells
a series
where
of cellsthe tailings
where the are contained
tailings by interior
are contained bydikes
interiorbuilt withbuilt
dikes mine waste
with minerock material.
waste rock ma-
Currently at the Chuquicamata concentrator plant, mining tailings are thickened in
terial.
9 conventional
Currently at typethethickener
Chuquicamata units with a diameter
concentrator of mining
plant, 91 m (Figure
tailings29).
are Tailings
thickenedarein
currently being deposited at a rate of 200,000 mtpd, having an average
9 conventional type thickener units with a diameter of 91 m (Figure 29). Tailings are cur- solids concentration
by weight
rently being(Cw) of 57%, at
deposited which
a ratewill
of increases
200,000 mtpd,in thehaving
near future with the
an average Talabre
solids TTD TSF
concentration
project
by weight (Cw) of 57%, which will increases in the near future with the Talabre TTDfrom
to a rate of 400,000 mtpd, considering the additional production of tailings TSF
the newto
project concentrator plantsmtpd,
a rate of 400,000 of Ministro Halesthe
considering andadditional
Radomiroproduction
Tomic (both operatedfrom
of tailings by
Codelco), reaching an average
the new concentrator plants of solids concentration
Ministro Hales and byRadomiro
weight (Cw) Tomicof 67%
(both[32].
operated by
The mining tailings thickening process at Talabre TTD
Codelco), reaching an average solids concentration by weight (Cw) of 67% [32]. TSF project will be carried out
in a high-density thickening plant that includes 13 high-density
The mining tailings thickening process at Talabre TTD TSF project will be carried thickeners (HDT) withouta
diameter of 65 m each, and a unit treatment capacity of 35,000
in a high-density thickening plant that includes 13 high-density thickeners (HDT) with amtpd, having an average
solids
diameterconcentration
of 65 m each, by weight
and a unit (Cw) of 67% [59].
treatment The new
capacity plant mtpd,
of 35,000 will use an approximate
having an average
area of 20 Ha and its facilities will be:
solids concentration by weight (Cw) of 67% [59]. The new plant will use an approximate
•areaFlocculent
of 20 Ha and plant:
its facilities
facilities for
willthebe:preparation of reagents and distribution and injection
pumps to the tailings feed lines.
• Flocculent plant: facilities for the preparation of reagents and distribution and injec-
• Electrical room.
tion pumps to the tailings feed lines.
• Control and operation room, offices.
• Electrical room. 3
•• Recirculating water reservoir
Control and operation room,(120,000
offices. m capacity).
• Recirculating water reservoir (120,000 m3 capacity).
Figure29.
Figure 29.Layout
LayoutView
ViewofofTailings
TailingsThickeners
Thickenersinin the
the Current
Current Chuquicamata
Chuquicamata Concentrator
Concentrator Plant.
Plant.
The
TheTalabre
TalabreTTD TTDTSFTSFproject
projectconsiders
considersthe theoperational
operationalcontinuity
continuityininthe thelong term,
long term,
by transforming Talabre
by transforming Talabre TSF from conventional to thickened TSF. The new scenario isisfor
to thickened TSF. The new scenario
for a treatment
a treatment raterate of approximately
of approximately 400,000
400,000 mtpd,mtpd, reaching
reaching a total
a total surface
surface overover
90 90 2 in2 40
kmkm
in 40 years.
years. Currently,
Currently, this
this is theisworld’s
the world’s biggest
biggest project
project of thickened
of thickened tailings
tailings disposal,
disposal, with
with tremendous
tremendous technical,
technical, economic,
economic, environmental
environmental and and social
social challenges
challenges andand benefits
benefits asso-
associated.
ciated. TheThe conversion
conversion fromfrom conventional
conventional to to thickenedtailings
thickened tailingsinvolves
involvesaahuge hugeamount
amount of
of studies and considerations that give much to the knowledge of the
studies and considerations that give much to the knowledge of the art of thickened tailings art of thickened
tailings
and pasteanddisposal
paste disposal in brownfield
in brownfield projectsprojects
[32]. [32].
Conversion of Talabre from conventional
Conversion of Talabre from conventional into thickened
into thickenedtailings disposal
tailings disposal(TTD), has has
(TTD), a
number of technical challenges and complexities that must be evaluated. Within these, the
a number of technical challenges and complexities that must be evaluated. Within these,
geotechnical evaluation of materials, to establish the technical feasibility of this transforma-
the geotechnical evaluation of materials, to establish the technical feasibility of this trans-
tion is crucial. Due to the high seismicity in Chile, it is very important to know very well
formation is crucial. Due to the high seismicity in Chile, it is very important to know very
the expected properties of the materials involved, among which are the thickened tailings
well the expected properties of the materials involved, among which are the thickened
and conventional tailings that make up the foundation soil. Thus, it is possible to be sure of
tailings and conventional tailings that make up the foundation soil. Thus, it is possible to
the evaluation of the seismic response of the TSF against a great seismic event [32].
be sure
Theof the evaluation
feasibility studiesofofthe
theseismic
Talabreresponse
TTD TSFofprojectthe TSF against
shows thata the
great keyseismic
issues,event
in
[32].
terms of stability, should focus on underlying conventional tailings, since thickened tailings
have The
betterfeasibility
geotechnicalstudies of the Talabre
conditions and canTTD TSF project
be controlled in shows that theaccording
the operation, key issues, to in
design specifications. The investigations that are being developed in this line, achievetail-
terms of stability, should focus on underlying conventional tailings, since thickened a
ings have
greater better geotechnical
understanding conditions and
of the phenomenon can be controlled
of geotechnical resistancein the operation, according
in brownfield projects
to design
that intendspecifications.
to develop changes The investigations that
in their tailings’ are being
disposal developed
technology [32].in this line, achieve
a greater understanding of the phenomenon of geotechnical resistance in brownfield pro-
7.10.
jects Los
thatCorralillos
intend toThickened Tailings—Down
develop changes in theirValley
tailings’Discharge—Cerro
disposal technologyNegro Norte
[32].
CMP—Chile
7.10.Cerro Negro Norte
Los Corralillos CMP isTailings—Down
Thickened an iron mine located
Valleyon the southern border
Discharge—Cerro of Norte
Negro the Atacama
CMP—
Desert,
Chile approximately 800 km north of Santiago, Chile. This region is characterized by
scarceCerro
precipitations and almost nil vegetation except in the Copiapó Valley, located
Negro Norte CMP is an iron mine located on the southern border of the Ata- ap-
proximately 30 km from the mine. This valley has, economically-speaking, two main areas:
cama Desert, approximately 800 km north of Santiago, Chile. This region is characterized
(i) mining, and (ii) agriculture. The most relevant agricultural activity is the production of
by scarce precipitations and almost nil vegetation except in the Copiapó Valley, located
grapes for export. As a consequence, the agricultural activity competes with mining for the
Sustainability 14, x14,
FOR PEER REVIEW
10901 31 of3265of 67
water resource30
approximately which is verythe
km from scarce
mine.andThis
comes almost
valley completely
has, from snow melt off
economically-speaking, two themain
Los Andes mountains.
areas: (i) mining, and (ii) agriculture. The most relevant agricultural activity is the pro-
ductionThe of scarcity
grapes of forthe water As
export. resource has made itthe
a consequence, ever more necessary
agricultural that competes
activity the miningwith
process diminish its consumption of fresh water in order to obtain the environmental per-
mining for the water resource which is very scarce and comes almost completely from
mits, reduce the dependence on sources (mostly groundwater wells), diminish investment
snow melt off the Los Andes mountains.
costs to obtain water from other sources, and, finally, reduce the risk of running out of
The[33].
water scarcity of the water resource has made it ever more necessary that the mining
processEvendiminish
though itsthe
consumption of freshare
mining companies water in orderoftolegal
the owners obtain theto
rights environmental
the water, this per-
mits, reduce the dependence on sources (mostly groundwater wells),
does not mean they are allowed to omit the optimization studies to reduce water losses, diminish investment
or
costs
whattoisobtain wateron
equivalent, from other sources,
improving and, finally,
water reclaim reduce the
in the floatation and risk of running
tailings generation out of
processes
water [33]. [33].
Thisthough
Even chapter the
of the paper companies
mining presents the areperformance
the owners of the
of tailings
legal rightsmanagement at the this
to the water,
Cerro Negro Norte Mine owned by Cia. Minera del Pacífico (CMP).
does not mean they are allowed to omit the optimization studies to reduce water losses, This is where one of
or the
whatcritical aspects is presented
is equivalent, on improvingby thewater
design of a tailings
reclaim in theimpoundment
floatation and that combines
tailings the
generation
following characteristics: (a) high water reclaim rate, (b) low investment and operational
processes [33].
costs, and (c) the application of technology to minimize the risk. One of the critical aspects
This chapter of the paper presents the performance of the tailings management at the
is the estimate of the concentration limit of the tailings that allows it to be pumped by
Cerro Negro pumps
centrifugal Norte Mine
withoutowned
risks. by Cia. Minera
Another important delaspect
Pacífico (CMP).
is the estimate Thisofisthewhere
tailingsone of
thebeach
critical aspects
slope is presented
what affects bythe
the size of thedamdesign of a tailings
embankment and theimpoundment
elevation of the that combines
ultimate
thedischarge
following characteristics:
point [33]. (a) high water reclaim rate, (b) low investment and opera-
tional costs, and (c)
The mining the application
project of technology
considers a tailings productionto minimize
of the order theofrisk.
20,000 One
mtpd,of the
wherecritical
the tailings
aspects is theare thickened
estimate to aconcentration
of the concentration of solids
limit by weight
of the tailings (Cw)
thatofallows
the orderit toofbe
65% in
pumped
by2centrifugal
thickeners ofpumps
the high-density type ofAnother
without risks. 40 m in diameter
important (Figure
aspect 30).isAfter being thickened,
the estimate of the tail-
thebeach
ings miningslope
tailings are affects
what pumpedthe through
size ofpipes
the todambe taken to the upper
embankment andpart theofelevation
the tailings of the
deposit, where the spigots allow the tailings to be discharged under the method called
ultimate discharge point [33].
down valley discharge (Figures 31 and 32) [60,61].
The mining project considers a tailings production of the order of 20,000 mtpd, where
The tailings deposit dam considers the use of mine waste rock construction material
thefrom
tailings are thickened
the mine, which will tobea concentration
placed by mining of solids
truck.by A weight
dam with (Cw) of the order
a maximum heightof 65%
in of
2 thickeners
88 m with aoflength
the high-density
of 2500 m and type of 40
a use aream in diameterto(Figure
equivalent 30). After
2500 hectares being thick-
is projected.
ened,
Finally, it is expected to have a maximum tailings filling capacity in the deposit of thepart
the mining tailings are pumped through pipes to be taken to the upper orderof the
tailings
of 110 deposit,
million tonswhere the spigots
considering allow the
a thickened tailings
tailings to be discharged
deposition slope of theunder order ofthe1.5method
to
called
2.5%down
[60,61].valley discharge (Figures 31 and 32) [60,61].
Figure 30.30.
Figure Tailings
TailingsThickening
Thickening and PumpingStation—Cerro
and Pumping Station—Cerro Negro
Negro Norte
Norte Process
Process Plant.
Plant.
Sustainability
Sustainability2022, 14,14,
2022, x FOR
10901PEER REVIEW 33 of3267
of 65
Figure 31. TSF Los Corralillos Layout View in Cerro Negro Norte Mining Project.
Figure 31. TSF
Figure 31. TSF Los
Los Corralillos
Corralillos Layout
Layout View
View in
in Cerro
Cerro Negro
Negro Norte
Norte Mining
Mining Project.
Project.
Figure 32. Los Corralillos Thickened TSF in Cerro Negro Norte Mining Project.
Figure 32.
Figure 32. Los
Los Corralillos
Corralillos Thickened
Thickened TSF
TSF in
in Cerro
Cerro Negro
Negro Norte
Norte Mining
Mining Project.
Project.
The tailings deposit dam considers the use of mine waste rock construction material
from The
7.11.the
Carmen tailings
mine, de deposit
which
Andacollo dam
will be considers
placed
Thickened by the use
mining
Tailings—Down of mine
truck. A dam
Valleywaste rock
with construction
a maximum
Discharge—Teck—Chile material
height of
88 m with a length of 2500 m and a use area equivalent to 2500 hectares is projected. Fi- of
from the mine, which will be placed by mining truck. A dam with a maximum height
88 mitCarmen
nally, with de Andacollo
a length
isofexpected to of 2500
have
is located
m and a use
a maximum
in area
the Coquimbo
tailings equivalent Region of
to 2500the
filling capacity
centralisChile
hectares at an ele-
projected.
orderFi-
vation 1000 metres, approximately 350 kilometres north ofin deposit
Santiago, nearofthe
thesouthern
nally,
oflimit it is expected
110 million tons to have a maximum
considering a thickened tailings
tailingsfilling capacity
deposition in the
slope of deposit
the order ofof
the
1.5order
tode
of the Atacama Desert. Teck owns a 90% interest in the mine. Empresa Nacional
of
2.5% 110 million
[60,61]. tons considering a thickened tailings deposition slope of the order of 1.5 to
Minería (ENAMI) holds the remaining 10%.
2.5% [60,61].
7.11. Carmen de Andacollo Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Teck—Chile
Carmen de Andacollo is located in the Coquimbo Region of central Chile at an eleva-
tion of 1000 metres, approximately 350 kilometres north of Santiago, near the southern
limit of the Atacama Desert. Teck owns a 90% interest in the mine. Empresa Nacional de
Minería (ENAMI) holds the remaining 10%.
Carmen de Andacollo is an open pit mine, producing copper in concentrates from
the hypogene portion of the orebody. Copper cathode production from the supergene
portionCarmen de Andacollo
of the orebody is an open
is currently pit mine, producing
approaching completion. copperThein majority
concentrates from person-
of mine the
hypogene portion of the orebody. Copper cathode production from the supergene portion
nel live in the town of Andacollo, immediately adjacent to the mine, or in the nearby cities
of the orebody is currently approaching completion. The majority of mine personnel live
of Coquimbo and La Serena [34,62].
in the town of Andacollo, immediately adjacent to the mine, or in the nearby cities of
The mining
Coquimbo and Laproject
Serena considers
[34,62]. a tailings production of the order of 55,000 mtpd, where
the tailings are thickened
The mining to a concentration
project considers of solids of
a tailings production bytheweight
order (Cw) of the
of 55,000 order
mtpd, of 58%.
where
The TSF is called the Carmen de Andacollo tailings dam and its
the tailings are thickened to a concentration of solids by weight (Cw) of the order of 58%. development contem-
plates 6 stages
The TSF of growth,
is called the Carmen to satisfy the design
de Andacollo useful
tailings damlifeandofits21 years, withcontemplates
development a storage capac-
ity6 of
stages
416 of growth,
million to satisfymillion
tons—297 the designm3 useful
accordinglife ofto21current
years, with a storage
permits. capacity dam
The tailings of is
416 million tons—297 million m 3 according to current permits. The tailings dam is made
made up of the west, north, northeast, east and south dams, including the structure called
theupsouth
of thedump
west, north,
and a northeast,
small dameast and south
(called dams, including
the Closing dam) thatthe structure
is built duringcalled the 6, to
stage
south dump and a small dam (called the Closing dam)
the west of the south abutment of the eastern end dam (Figure 31) [34,62]. that is built during stage 6, to the
west of the south abutment of the eastern end dam (Figure 31) [34,62].
All the dams are built with mine waste rock material loaded by mining truck, and
All the dams are built with mine waste rock material loaded by mining truck, and built
built by the downstream method, and waterproofed with a 1.5 mm thick HDPE geomem-
by the downstream method, and waterproofed with a 1.5 mm thick HDPE geomembrane,
brane,
on theoninternal
the internal
slope of slope
Stageof1Stage
of the1dams
of the(updams
to El.(up
1117to masl),
El. 1117 masl), intoaddition
in addition the south to the
south
dump and in all stages for the south dam and the south section of the east dam. The The
dump and in all stages for the south dam and the south section of the east dam.
rest ofofthe
rest thedams
dams(including
(including the the south
southdump)
dump)are arecovered
covered withwith low-permeability
low-permeability borrowborrow
material
material(transition
(transitionfill)fill) on the internal
on the internalslope.
slope.TheThebasebase of of each
each damdam includes
includes a drainage
a drainage
system(French
system (Frenchtype)
type) designed
designed withwithaasafety
safetyfactor
factorSFSF = 5.0, whose
= 5.0, whose effluent is returned
effluent is returned to to
the concentrator plant process (Figure
the concentrator plant process (Figure 33) [34,62]. 33) [34,62].
Figure 33. Layout View of Andacollo Thickened TSF.

Figure 33. Layout View of Andacollo Thickened TSF.
The
TheTSF
TSFoperates
operates within the limits
within the limitsdefined
definedbybystage
stage
3 of3 of growth,
growth, receiving
receiving a total
a total of of
16.94
16.94million
milliontons
tonsof
oftailings
tailings during theperiod,
during the period,through
throughthethe nine
nine (9) (9) discharges
discharges distributed
distributed
at at
thethecrest
crestofofsaid
saidstage
stage (El.
(El. 1149.5
1149.5masl)
masl)accumulating
accumulating a total of 131.6
a total million
of 131.6 tonstons
million as ofas of
2018. The tailings dam is divided into three deposition sectors, the northern sector that
concentrated 37% of the annual tailings discharge and the central and southern sectors that
received 27% and 36%, respectively [34,62].

2018. The tailings dam is divided into three deposition sectors, the northern sector that
concentrated 37% of the annual tailings discharge and the central and southern sectors
that received 27% and 36%, respectively [34,62].
The
The volume
volumeof ofthe
theclear
clearwater
waterpond
pondreached
reached a maximum
a maximum of of
1.41.4
million m3 m
million in3 mid-May
in mid-
2017, the date
May 2017, theon which
date the minimum
on which the minimumdistance from from
distance the pond to thetodam
the pond the of
damapproximately
of approx-
300 m was
imately 300verified,
m was the elevation
verified, of the water
the elevation in the
of the pond
water varied
in the pondbetween
varied the elevations
between the
El.
elevations El. 1132.994 masl and El. 1136.934 masl (3.94 m increment) (See Figure expected
1132.994 masl and El. 1136.934 masl (3.94 m increment) (See Figure 34). It is 34). It is
that the tailings
expected deposit
that the tailingsslope on the
deposit beach
slope on is
theofbeach
the order
is of of
the1.0%
orderconsidering the deposit
of 1.0% considering
scheme mentioned above [34,62].
the deposit scheme mentioned above [34,62].
Figure 34.
Figure 34. Panoramic
Panoramic View
View of
of Andacollo
Andacollo Thickened
Thickened TSF.
TSF.
7.12. Los
7.12. Los Diques
Diques Thickened
Thickened Tailings—Down
Tailings—Down Valley Valley Discharge—Candelaria—Chile
Discharge—Candelaria—Chile
The Candelaria Mine is an active open pit coppermine
The Candelaria Mine is an active open pit copper mineoperated
operatedby byCompañí
Compañía a Con-
Con-
tractual Minera Candelaria (CCMC) located in the Atacama region of Chile, 20 kmsouth
tractual Minera Candelaria (CCMC) located in the Atacama region of Chile, 20 km south
of Copiapó
of Copiapó city.
city. The
The Candelaria
Candelaria Mine Mine has
has been
beenin inoperation
operationsincesince19931993and andisiscurrently
currently
operated by CCMC. The key waste and water management facilities include thethe
operated by CCMC. The key waste and water management facilities include Cande-
Candelaria
laria TSF, the more recently commissioned Los Diques TSF, and
TSF, the more recently commissioned Los Diques TSF, and several mine waste rock disposalseveral mine waste rock
disposal
sites sites including
including the Norththe WasteNorth Waste
Dump Dump35)
(Figure (Figure 35) [35,63,64].
[35,63,64].
The Candelaria
The Candelaria TSF TSF includes
includes aa mainmain embankment
embankment and and twotwo saddle
saddleembankments
embankments
(North and South) and a seepage collection system (SCS). The
(North and South) and a seepage collection system (SCS). The SCS collects drainage SCS collects drainageviaviaan
an underdrain system excavated into the underlying alluvium at
underdrain system excavated into the underlying alluvium at the Starter Embankment and the Starter Embankment
and
is is conveyed
conveyed towards
towards the cut-off
the cut-off trench
trench downstream
downstream of the
of the MainMain Embankment.Seepage
Embankment. Seep-
age water is recovered by pumping wells (named Pique Mina)
water is recovered by pumping wells (named Pique Mina) located upstream of the cut-off located upstream of the
cut-off trench and transferred to the plant for use as
trench and transferred to the plant for use as process water [35,63,64].process water [35,63,64].
In 2018,
In 2018, the
the initial
initial construction
construction phasesphases of of the
thenew
newLos LosDiques
Diquestailings
tailingsstorage
storagefacility
facility
were completed
were completed and and thethefacility
facilityreceived
receiveditsitsfirst tailings
first tailingsduring
during thethe
firstfirst
quarter as part
quarter of
as part
commissioning. The Los Diques tailings storage facility can now
of commissioning. The Los Diques tailings storage facility can now receive 100% of the receive 100% of the flo-
tation tailings
flotation from
tailings fromthethe
MineraMineraCandelaria
Candelariaprocessing plant.plant.
processing The LosTheDiques tailings
Los Diques stor-
tailings
storage facility is located to the southwest of the open pit and plant sites and will haveanan
age facility is located to the southwest of the open pit and plant sites and will have
approximate designed
approximate designed capacity
capacity of of 600
600 million
million tons.
tons.Flotation
Flotationtailings
tailingsfromfromthe theprocessing
processing
plant continue to be deposited in the Candelaria tailings storage facility similar to a contin-
gency case. The Candelaria flotation tails are produced at 75,000 mtpd, thickened by two
high-capacity thickeners and then pumped to the Los Diques tailings storage facility at an
average solids concentration (Cw) of 50% (See Figure 36) [35,63,64].
The new tailings storage facility called Los Diques (Figure 37) is designed with three
embankments, all of them built from mine waste rock material, with transition and filter
zones built from engineered fill borrowed from inside the containment area. The main
embankment has underdrains to facilitate water recovery. The design includes a geomem-
brane on the upstream slope and a grout curtain for the north and south embankments
only. In addition, a cut-off wall and drain wall along with extraction wells collect seepage
water for recirculation to the processing plant [35,63,64].

Figure 35.
Figure 35. Layout
Layout Candelaria
Candelaria Mining
Mining Project.
Project.
Figure 36.
Figure 36. Candelaria
Candelaria Concentrator
Concentrator Plant.
Plant.
The
The new tailings
tailings will storage facilityfrom
be deposited called Los
the Diques
dams (Figure
through 37) is designed
spigots, and also with
from three
the
embankments, all ofofthem
southern perimeter built from
the basin fromamine waste
single rock material,
discharge point (Seewith transition
Figure 37). Theand filter
tailings
disposal modeling is based on the objective of maintaining a single pond that maintains a
trajectory towards the North dam and then towards the East side of the basin. The tailings
disposal should be designed to maximize the existing beach distance between the super-
natant pond and the dams, respecting the projected trajectory of the pond [35,63,64].
Figure 36. Candelaria Concentrator Plant.
The tailings will be deposited from the dams through spigots, and also from the
zones built
southern from engineered
perimeter of the basinfillfrom
borrowed
a singlefrom inside point
discharge the containment area.The
(See Figure 37). The main
tailings
embankment
disposal has underdrains
modeling is based on tothefacilitate
objectivewater recovery. The
of maintaining design
a single includes
pond a geomem-
that maintains a
brane on the
trajectory upstream
towards slopedam
the North and anda grout
thencurtain
towards for the
the north
East sideand south
of the embankments
basin. The tailings
only. In addition,
disposal should bea designed
cut-off wall
to and drain wall
maximize along with
the existing extraction
beach distancewells collect
between theseepage
super-
water for recirculation to the processing plant [35,63,64].
natant pond and the dams, respecting the projected trajectory of the pond [35,63,64].
Figure 37. Los Diques Thickened TSF.

Figure 37. Los Diques Thickened TSF.
The tailings will be deposited from the dams through spigots, and also from the
southern perimeter of the basin from a single discharge point (See Figure 37). The tailings
disposal modeling is based on the objective of maintaining a single pond that maintains
a trajectory towards the North dam and then towards the East side of the basin. The
tailings disposal should be designed to maximize the existing beach distance between the
supernatant pond and the dams, respecting the projected trajectory of the pond [35,63,64].
7.13. Sector N◦ 5 Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Coemin—Chile

Cerrillos Plant, owned by Compañía Exploradora y Explotadora Minera Chileno
Rumana S.A, is located 30 km. south of the city of Copiapó in Chile and produces copper
concentrates through a conventional flotation process. The ore comes from Mina Carola,
which is mainly composed of chalcopyrite and copper ore [37,65].
Within the production process, the operation of a state-of-the-art tailings thickening
equipment called a deep cone thickener stands out, which allows depositing paste tailings
instead of conventional tailings, recovering and reusing over 85% of the process water, in
addition to provide greater physical and chemical stability to the mining deposit. Construc-
tion of a paste tailings reservoir that receives the residues from the metallurgic process of
the Cerrillos plant, thus disposing it in a safe manner and minimizing its environmental
impact. It is considered that the mineral concentrator plant produces around 7000 mtpd of
mining tailings, which are thickened to a concentration of solids by weight (Cw) around
70% in a Deep Cone Thickener (See Figure 38) [37,65].
Implementing a paste tailings cover over the basin in order to close the existing TSF 1,
using the thickening facilities and big part of the existing infrastructure for the conduction
of thickened tailings (Figure 39). Extend the useful life of deposit TSF 1 by filling it with
paste tailings and the growth of the sand wall up to a height of 662 masl in conjunction
with the fitting out of a shoulder with modular gabions in the north-west abutment. In
addition, it is considered to enable a rainwater management system for the diversion of
possible runoff [37,65].
instead of conventional tailings, recovering and reusing over 85% of the process water, in
addition to provide greater physical and chemical stability to the mining deposit. Con-
struction of a paste tailings reservoir that receives the residues from the metallurgic pro-
cess of the Cerrillos plant, thus disposing it in a safe manner and minimizing its environ-
mental impact. It is considered that the mineral concentrator plant produces around 7000
mtpd of mining tailings, which are thickened to a concentration of solids by weight (Cw)
around 70% in a Deep Cone Thickener (See Figure 38) [37,65].
N°5 TSF
Figure 38.tailings
Coemindeposit, it will be necessary
TailingsThickening
Thickening Plant. to pump the tailings with a positive displace-
Figure 38. Coemin Tailings Plant.
ment pumping system (Figure 41) [37,65].
Implementing a paste tailings cover over the basin in order to close the existing TSF
1, using the thickening facilities and big part of the existing infrastructure for the conduc-
tion of thickened tailings (Figure 39). Extend the useful life of deposit TSF 1 by filling it
with paste tailings and the growth of the sand wall up to a height of 662 masl in conjunc-
tion with the fitting out of a shoulder with modular gabions in the north-west abutment.
In addition, it is considered to enable a rainwater management system for the diversion
of possible runoff [37,65].
Due to the fact that the maximum tailings storage capacity of the TSF 1 deposit is
about to be reached, Coemin has a new deposit called Sector N°5 Coemin TSF (Figure 40)
which will be built with a small retention dam and completely filled with paste tailings.
It is expected to discharge the tailings through spigots from the upper parts of the basin
and thus achieve a deposition slope of the order of 2.0 to 3.0%. Considering the level of
thickening of the tailings and the distance between the thickening plant and the Sector
Figure 39.
Figure 39. Coemin
Coemin Thickened
Thickened TSF
TSF 1.
1.
Due to the fact that the maximum tailings storage capacity of the TSF 1 deposit is
about to be reached, Coemin has a new deposit called Sector N◦ 5 Coemin TSF (Figure 40)
which will be built with a small retention dam and completely filled with paste tailings.
It is expected to discharge the tailings through spigots from the upper parts of the basin
and thus achieve a deposition slope of the order of 2.0 to 3.0%. Considering the level of
thickening of the tailings and the distance between the thickening plant and the Sector N◦ 5
TSF tailings deposit, it will be necessary to pump the tailings with a positive displacement
pumping system Thickened
Figure 39. Coemin (Figure 41)TSF
[37,65].
1.

Figure 40.
Figure 40. Coemin
Coemin Thickened
Thickened TSFs—TSF
TSFs—TSF 11 and
and TSF
TSF Sector
Sector N
N°5
◦ 5 Coemin Layout View.
Coemin Layout View.
Figure41.
Figure 41.Coemin
CoeminPositive
PositiveDisplacement
DisplacementPump
PumpStation.
Station.
7.14. Toromocho Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Chinalco—Peru

The Toromocho copper-molybdenum project owned by Chinalco is located in the
Morococha mining district of Peru north-east of Lima. The site is located between 4500
masl and 5000 masl in a moderately wet climate that receives about 851 mm of precipita-
Figure 41. Coemin Positive Displacement Pump Station.
7.14. Toromocho Thickened Tailings—Down

Tailings—Down Valley
ValleyDischarge—Chinalco—Peru
Discharge—Chinalco—Peru
The Toromocho copper-molybdenum project owned by Chinalco is located in the
Morococha mining
Morococha miningdistrict
districtofofPeru
Perunorth-east
north-eastof Lima. TheThe
of Lima. sitesite
is located between
is located 4500 masl
between 4500
and 5000
masl masl masl
and 5000 in a moderately
in a moderatelywet wet
climate that that
climate receives about
receives 851 851
about mmmm of precipitation
of precipita-
per year.
tion The The
per year. resource exceeds
resource 1.5 billion
exceeds (metric)
1.5 billion tonstons
(metric) mined in an
mined open
in an pit.pit.
open The Theoreore
is
processed by milling and flotation to produce a concentrate which
is processed by milling and flotation to produce a concentrate which is shipped is shipped off site for
mineral extraction.
The average
The average flotation
flotation tailings
tailings production
production is is 140,000
140,000 mtpd. The tailings
mtpd. The tailings are
are thickened
thickened
to aa slurry
to slurry density of about
density of solid concentration
about solid concentration by by weight
weight (Cw)
(Cw) 65%
65% in in 44 high
high density
density
thickeners of
thickeners of 40
40 m
m diameter
diameter each
each one
one (Figure
(Figure 42).
42).
Figure 42. Tailings Thickeners under Construction—Toromocho Mining Project.

Figure 42. Tailings Thickeners under Construction—Toromocho Mining Project.
The
The transport
transportof
ofthe
thetailings
tailingsfrom
fromthe concentrator
the plant
concentrator to the
plant tailings
to the deposit
tailings is car-
deposit is
ried out through pumping with positive displacement type pumps, with a
carried out through pumping with positive displacement type pumps, with a total of total of 10 units,
10 units,
these these
being thebeing theslurry
largest largest slurry transport
transport pumps inpumps in size currently
size currently in the worldin the world43)
(Figure
(Figure
[66]. 43) [66].
Figure43.
Figure 43.Tailings
Tailings Thickening
Thickening Plant
Plant andand Positive
Positive Displacement
Displacement Pump Station—Toromocho
Pump Station—Toromocho Mining
Mining Project.
Project.
Approximately 1500 million tons of tailings will be discharged via a series of pipelines
Approximately
and spigots 1500 million
into the Tunshuruco tons of
tailings tailings
storage will located
facility be discharged via a north-east
immediately series of pipe-
of
lines
the and
mill spigots
plant into the Tunshuruco tailings storage facility located immediately north-
[67,68].
east of the mill plant [67,68].
Thickened tailings (non-segregating) were selected based on the following factors:
• The tailings pond is small and easy to manage during operations and upon closure;
• A homogeneous tailings deposit has lower susceptibility to oxidation due to a higher
Thickened tailings (non-segregating) were selected based on the following factors:

• The tailings pond is small and easy to manage during operations and upon closure;
• A homogeneous tailings deposit has lower susceptibility to oxidation due to a higher
degree of saturation maintained in the tailings deposit;
• Lower seepage rates from the base of the facility because of the homogeneity and
density of the tailings;
• A lower overall dam height; and
• Significantly reduced risk compared with the other alternatives because there is no
pond trapped on top of the tailings to transport the tailings long distances in the event
of a dam failure.
The deposition concept involves disposal of thickened tailings from the upper side
of the Tunshuruco valley sloping downwards towards the tailings dam with a 3.0% slope
during the first 2 years of operation and 5.0% slope thereafter when the beach area is42larger
of 67
(Figure 44).
Figure 44.
Figure 44. Toromocho
ToromochoMining
MiningProject
ProjectLayout.
Layout.
At 3 , the
At an
ananticipated
anticipateddeposited
depositeddry drydensity
density of of
about 1.70
about t/m
1.70 t/m thickened
3, the thickenedtailings to be
tailings to
deposited in the Tunshuruco valley will occupy a volume of about 750 million m 3 [40,56,69].3
be deposited in the Tunshuruco valley will occupy a volume of about 750 million m
Thin-lift deposition, achieved by cycling between discharge locations, is an essential
[40,56,69].
component
Thin-liftofdeposition,
the deposition plan.byAdequate
achieved rest times
cycling between between
discharge discharge
locations, cycles
is an are
essential
required
component to ensure
of the the tailings plan.
deposition gain shear
Adequatestrength
restand attain
times the required
between voidcycles
discharge ratio are
before
re-
burial by the next lift. The flatter 3.0% slope specified during the initial
quired to ensure the tailings gain shear strength and attain the required void ratio before 2 years considers
the rapid
burial ratenext
by the of rise
lift.and
Thesmaller surface
flatter 3.0% slopearea lower in
specified the valley.
during Tailings
the initial distribution
2 years considers
pipelines and multiple spigots are provided around the majority
the rapid rate of rise and smaller surface area lower in the valley. Tailings distribution of the perimeter of the
basin to provide depositional flexibility [40,56,69].
pipelines and multiple spigots are provided around the majority of the perimeter of the
basinThe current depositional
to provide Tunshuruco flexibility
valley tailings disposal concept includes a main dam for
[40,56,69].
tailings
Thecontainment
current Tunshurucoand one valley
dam for water disposal
tailings containment:
concept theincludes
reclaim apondmaindamdamand for
the seepage collection pond dam. The dams are constructed
tailings containment and one dam for water containment: the reclaim pond dam and of durable, non-acid gener-
the
ating
seepagemine waste rock
collection pond with
dam.extruded
The dams concrete curb and of
are constructed bituminous membranes
durable, non-acid on the
generating
upstream
mine waste rock with extruded concrete curb and bituminous membranes on thenon-
face to inhibit seepage. The construction method of the tailings dam with up-
acid-generating rockfill
stream face to inhibit (mine waste
seepage. rock) material
The construction considers
method transportation
of the tailings dam and withplacement
non-acid-
with mining trucks, to be later compacted by bulldozer and roller compactor equipment.
generating rockfill (mine waste rock) material considers transportation and placement
In addition, the growth will be in stages during the useful life and filling of the tailings
with mining trucks, to be later compacted by bulldozer and roller compactor equipment.
deposit, where the construction method is in the direction downstream of the dam. Suitable
In addition, the growth will be in stages during the useful life and filling of the tailings
bedding and filter zones are provided (Figure 45) [40,56,69].
deposit, where the construction method is in the direction downstream of the dam. Suit-
able bedding and filter zones are provided (Figure 45) [40,56,69].
Sustainability2022,
Sustainability 14, x10901
2022, 14, FOR PEER REVIEW 41 of 65
43 67
Figure 45. Toromocho Thickened TSF.

Figure 45. Toromocho Thickened TSF.
7.15. Antapaccay Thickened Tailings—In Pit Tailings Disposal—Tintaya—Peru

7.15. Antapaccay Thickened Tailings—In Pit Tailings Disposal—Tintaya—Peru
Compania Minera Antapaccay is the owner of the Antapaccay Expansion Tintaya—
Compania Minera Antapaccay is the owner of the Antapaccay Expansion Tintaya—Cor-
Coroccohuayco Integration mining project, located in the district and province of Espinar,
occohuayco Integration mining project, located in the district and province of Espinar, Cusco
Cusco region. The cities of Cusco and Arequipa are located approximately 255 km by road
region. The cities of Cusco and Arequipa are located approximately 255 km by road to the
to the northwest and southwest of the Project, respectively, while the Yauri town center
northwest and southwest of the Project, respectively, while the Yauri town center is located
is located 15 km to the north [41,70].
15 km to the north [41,70].
Antapaccay, which has
Antapaccay, which has aa useful
useful life
life of
of more
more than
than 20
20 years,
years, will
will benefit
benefit from
from Tintaya’s
Tintaya’s
current administrative and logistics infrastructure, as well as the experience
current administrative and logistics infrastructure, as well as the experience of its of its staff
staff
(Figure 46). The site is located between 3800 masl and 4100 masl. In Antapaccay,
(Figure 46). The site is located between 3800 masl and 4100 masl. In Antapaccay, a skarn- a skarn-
porphyry
porphyry typetype deposit
deposit will
will be exploited and
be exploited and will
will produce
produce aa copper
copper concentrate
concentrate thatthat will
will
be transported by trucks to the port of Matarani. Reserves are estimated
be transported by trucks to the port of Matarani. Reserves are estimated at 720 million at 720 million
tons
tons of copper with
of copper with aagrade
gradeofof0.56%.
0.56%.InInNovember
November2012,2012, Antapaccay
Antapaccay began
began production
production of
of copper in commercial grade concentrate and made its first shipment to the
copper in commercial grade concentrate and made its first shipment to the port of Matarani port of Mata-
rani for subsequent
for subsequent shipment
shipment to customers
to customers around
around thethe world.The
world. Theoperation
operationwill willhave
havetwo two
open
open pits
pits and
and a concentrator plant (single line) with the capacity to treat treat 75,000
75,000 mtpd
mtpd of of
sulfide
sulfide ore through crushing/grinding/concentration. The The depleted
depleted Tintaya open-pit mine
Tintaya open-pit mine
(Figure
(Figure 46)46) will serve to deposit mine tailings from Antapaccay,
Antapaccay, which
which will
will considerably
considerably
reduce
reduce the project’s capital costs [41,70].
[41,70].
The tailings generated by the Antapaccay project are thickened in 2 high-rate thick-
eners to reach a solids content by weight (Cw) of the order of 58% (Figure 47). These
thickened tailings are later transported by pipeline to the old Tintaya open pit, where it is
progressively filled, being its tailings deposit. This tailings deposition methodology is a
novelty for the South American region, being unique in its kind, thus marking a reference
for the application in other mining operations [41,70].
2022, 10901
of of
6765

Figure46.
Figure 46.Layout
Layout View
View of
of Tintaya
Tintaya Open
Open Pit.
Pit.
The tailings generated by the Antapaccay project are thickened in 2 high-rate thick-
eners to reach a solids content by weight (Cw) of the order of 58% (Figure 47). These thick-
ened tailings are later transported by pipeline to the old Tintaya open pit, where it is pro-
gressively filled, being its tailings deposit. This tailings deposition methodology is a nov-
elty for the South American region, being unique in its kind, thus marking a reference for
the application in other mining operations [41,70].
Part of the water released by the tailings when the consolidation phenomenon occurs
and the water collected by rain in the open pit is recovered through pumping equipment
and recirculated to the process plant (Figure 48) [41,70].
Figure 47. Antapaccay Tailings Thickeners Located Close to Tintaya Open Pit.
Part of the water released by the tailings when the consolidation phenomenon occurs
and the water collected by rain in the open pit is recovered through pumping equipment
and recirculated to the process plant (Figure 48) [41,70].
Figure 48. Tintaya Open Pit filled with Antapaccay Thickened Tailings.
Figure 48. Tintaya Open Pit filled with Antapaccay Thickened Tailings.
7.16. Las Bambas Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—MMG—Peru

7.16. Las Bambas Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—MMG—Peru
Las Bambas mining project operated by MMG is located in the Ferrobamba sector in
Las Bambas mining project operated by MMG is located in the Ferrobamba sector in
the Apurimac region at an altitude of around 4000 masl.
the Apurimac region at an altitude of around 4000 masl.
With an estimated mine life of 18 plus years, the operation produces copper concen-
With an estimated mine life of 18 plus years, the operation produces copper concen-
trate, with by-products of gold and silver, as well as molybdenum concentrate through
trate, with by-products of gold and silver, as well as molybdenum concentrate through
conventional processing methods. Ore at Las Bambas is mined from an open pit. The ore
conventional processing methods. Ore at Las Bambas is mined from an open pit. The ore is
is crushed and transported on a 5.5 km overland conveyor to a conventional flotation
crushed and transported on a 5.5 km overland conveyor to a conventional flotation plant
plant where copper concentrate is produced, then to a molybdenum plant for further pro-
where copper concentrate is produced, then to a molybdenum plant for further processing
cessing (Figure 49). Concentrate is then transported by truck and rail to the Port of Mata-
(Figure 49). Concentrate is then transported by truck and rail to the Port of Matarani46inofthe
67
rani in the Arequipa region, where it is shipped to customers worldwide [42,71].
Arequipa region, where it is shipped to customers worldwide [42,71].
Figure
Figure 49.
49. Las
Las Bambas
Bambas Mining
Mining Project
Project Layout.
Layout.
Tailings production is 140,000 mtpd and is processed to be discharged as high-den-

sity thickened tailings slurry, with 62% solids concentration (Cw). Water recovered from
the thickening overflow will be recirculated to the plant. For the initial operation of the
TSF, tailings were discharged by gravity to the upper end of the TSF near the plant. The
plant design includes provision for pumping the thickened tailings, but the pumps will
not be installed until the rheological characteristics of the tailings are established through
Tailings production is 140,000 mtpd and is processed to be discharged as high-density

thickened tailings slurry, with 62% solids concentration (Cw). Water recovered from the
thickening overflow will be recirculated to the plant. For the initial operation of the TSF,
tailings were discharged by gravity to the upper end of the TSF near the plant. The plant
design includes provision for pumping the thickened tailings, but the pumps will not be
installed until the rheological characteristics of the tailings are established through actual
operation. The planned tailings placement method, which is subject to change depending
on actual rheological characteristics of the tailings, is to discharge the thickened tailings
from the upstream end of the impoundment (west) and from the impoundment sides (north
and south) by means of multiple “spigots” consisting of discharge pipes with lengths of up
to about 300 m. This design considers that the tailings will form a final average beach slope
of 0.5% sloping from the discharge spigots towards a supernatant water pond [42,71].
The tailings storage facility (TSF) site is located in the upper part of the Ferrobamba
Valley, immediately east of the processing plant. The general TSF layout is shown in
Figure 50. The TSF will have capacity to store 582 million m3 of tailings, equal to 960 47 of 67
million
tons of tailings [42,71].
Figure
Figure 50.
50. Layout
Layout of
of Las
Las Bambas
Bambas Thickened
Thickened TSF.
TSF.
The containment dam is constructed with waste rock from the Ferrobamba pit. It
will have a maximum height of 220 m and will be raised sequentially by the downstream
method, starting from an 80-m high starter embankment. The upstream face will have a
slope of 1.75H:1.0V. The downstream slope will be 1.75H:1.0V. The upstream slope will
be covered with a polyvinyl chloride (“PVC”) geocomposite liner installed on concrete
curbs. A concrete plinth is placed in a trench excavated to competent rock on the upstream
toe of the dam and a cement-grout cut-off curtain established under the plinth to control
infiltration from the impoundment (See Figure 51) [42,71].

Figure 51. Dam Crest View of Las Bambas Thickened TSF.
The water associated with the TSF includes direct precipitation on the impoundment
area, water expelled from the tailings due to consolidation. Contact water also includes
runoff from upslope areas not intercepted by the non-contact water diversion channel
during major storm events. Water will be collected in a supernatant water pond located
in the central part of the impoundment toward its northeast corner, against the upstream
slope of the containment dam. Water in the impoundment dam will be pumped to the
plant using a floating barge pump in the supernatant pond [42,71].
7.17. Constancia Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Hudbay—Peru

The Constancia open-pit copper mine, owned and operated by Hudbay Perú SAC, is
located in southern Perú, approximately 100 km (km) south of Cusco city, at elevations
ranging from 3900 to 4500 masl. The Constancia deposit is a porphyry copper-molybdenum
system, emplaced in multiple phases of monzonites and monzonite porphyry. Milling rates
are in the range of 80,000 to 90,000 mtpd. The original mine plan considered 525 million
tons of ore and 538 million tons of mine waste rock to be produced over a 17-year life of
mine [43].
The process plant employs a conventional grinding and flotation circuit, from which
tailings are thickened to a solid concentration by weight (Cw) of 58% and then tailings are
pumped approximately 5.3 km through a high-density polyethylene tailings delivery line
and spigotted into a partially-lined tailings storage facility [43]. Figures 52 and 53 shows
the layout of the TSF, processing plant, open pit, and other facilities at the site.
In the TSF, tailings are contained by an cross-valley tailings dam with multiple small
saddle dams, all constructed of rockfill (mine waste rock), that will have a crest length
of 4.1 km at design height. The TSF was designed to store approximately 290 million
cubic meters of tailings at a maximum dam height of 170 m (m), corresponding to a crest
elevation of 4160 masl. Construction of the TSF was initiated in 2013, and the facility was
placed into operations in late 2014, with full production achieved in early 2015. Since
then, the dam has been incrementally raised to a height of 107 m as of December 2017.
Prefeasibility designs have been prepared to raise the ultimate height to 200 m (crest
elevation 4190 masl) to accommodate additional reserves, and final design studies for
expansion are in progress [43].
1

525 million tons of ore and 538 million tons of mine waste rock to be produced over a 17-
year life of mine [43].
The process plant employs a conventional grinding and flotation circuit, from which
tailings are thickened to a solid concentration by weight (Cw) of 58% and then tailings are
pumped approximately 5.3 km through a high-density polyethylene tailings delivery line
and spigotted into a partially-lined tailings storage facility [43]. Figures 52 and 53 shows
the layout of the TSF, processing plant, open pit, and other facilities at the site.

Figure 52. Constancia Mining Project Layout.
Figure 52. Constancia Mining Project Layout.
In the TSF, tailings are contained by an cross-valley tailings dam with multiple small
saddle dams, all constructed of rockfill (mine waste rock), that will have a crest length of
4.1 km at design height. The TSF was designed to store approximately 290 million cubic
meters of tailings at a maximum dam height of 170 m (m), corresponding to a crest eleva-
tion of 4160 masl. Construction of the TSF was initiated in 2013, and the facility was placed
into operations in late 2014, with full production achieved in early 2015. Since then, the
dam has been incrementally raised to a height of 107 m as of December 2017. Prefeasibility
designs have been prepared to raise the ultimate height to 200 m (crest elevation 4190
masl) to accommodate additional reserves, and final design studies for expansion are in
progress [43].
The dam comprises an initial downstream-method rockfill embankment with sloping
upstream core and chimney drain, with subsequent conversion to a centerline-method,
supported by an upstream rockfill platform to provide support to the vertical section of
core and filter/drain zones (Figure 54) [43].
Figure 53.
Figure 53. Constancia
Constancia Mining
MiningProcess
ProcessLayout.
Layout.
The tailings deposition scheme consists of a series of spigots located on the crest of
the dam, which allows the formation of a tailings beach and the distancing of the pond.
These controlled tailings discharges allow for the formation of a tailings deposition slope
Figure 53. Constancia Mining Process Layout.
The dam
tailings deposition
comprises scheme
an initial consists of a seriesrockfill
downstream-method of spigots located onwith
embankment the sloping
crest of
the dam, which
upstream allows
core and the formation
chimney of asubsequent
drain, with tailings beach and the to
conversion distancing of the pond.
a centerline-method,
These controlled
supported by an tailings
upstream discharges allow fortothe
rockfill platform formation
provide of a tailings
support deposition
to the vertical slope
section of
of theand
core order of 1.0 to 2.0%
filter/drain zones[43].
(Figure 54) [43].
Figure 54. Front view Constancia Thickened TSF Mine Waste

Waste Rock
Rock Dam.
Dam.
The tailings deposition scheme consists of a series of spigots located on the crest of the
dam, which allows the formation of a tailings beach and the distancing of the pond. These
controlled tailings discharges allow for the formation of a tailings deposition slope of the
order of 1.0 to 2.0% [43].
during major storm events. Water will be collected in a supernatant water pond located in
the central part of the impoundment. Water in the impoundment dam will be pumped to
the plant using a floating barge pump in the supernatant pond [43].
7.18. Chungar Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Volcan—Peru

The Chungar Mine is located in the Department of Pasco, Province of Cerro de Pasco
and District of Huayllay, Peru. It is a polymetallic deposit that contains copper, silver, zinc,
and lead, an underground working mine, and whose workings are at the 4100 masl [44,72].
The process begins with the pumping of the flotation tailings towards the hydraulic fill
hydrocyclone battery, which is carried out with a pumping line of 02 pumps in series with
150 HP of power and another line is on standby. The hydrocyclone battery is composed
of 05 hydrocyclones, the underflow of the hydrocyclones is stored in 02 silos of 220 and
240 m3 capacity, to later be sent to an underground mine to be used as hydraulic fill. The
hydrocyclone overflow is diverted to transfer tank “A” where it is mixed with water from
the underground mine. The overflow mixture plus underground mine water (slurry) is
sent to the deep cone thickener 17 m in diameter × 21 m in height (Figure 55) through
01 pumping line (12” diameter HDPE pipe) composed of 03 pumps in series of 200 HP
power each, in addition, it has a standby line [44,72].
The discharge of the tailings in paste from the thickener is carried out by means of
02 centrifugal pumps of 150 HP of power, the other a duplex peristaltic pump of 50 HP of
power, also, the discharge is carried out by gravity (depending on the characteristics of the
tailings in paste), a through the conduction and transport lines with a 10” diameter HDPE
pipe, disposing of it in No. 2 and No. 3 TSF (Figure 56) [44,72].
posed of 05 hydrocyclones, the underflow of the hydrocyclones is stored in 02 silos of 220
and 240 m3 capacity, to later be sent to an underground mine to be used as hydraulic fill.
The hydrocyclone overflow is diverted to transfer tank “A” where it is mixed with water
from the underground mine. The overflow mixture plus underground mine water (slurry)
is sent to the deep cone thickener 17 m in diameter × 21 m in height (Figure 55) through
01 pumping line (12″ diameter HDPE pipe) composed of 03 pumps in series of 200 HP
power each, in addition, it has a standby line [44,72].
The discharge of the tailings in paste from the thickener is carried out by means of 02
centrifugal pumps of 150 HP of power, the other a duplex peristaltic pump of 50 HP of
power, also, the discharge is carried out by gravity (depending on the characteristics of
the tailings in paste), a through the conduction and transport lines with a 10″ diameter
Figure 55.
55. Deep
Deep Cone
Cone Thickener
Thickener forfor obtain Paste
Paste Tailings—ChungarThickening
ThickeningPlant.
Plant.
Figure
HDPE pipe, disposing of it in No.obtain
2 and No. Tailings—Chungar
3 TSF (Figure 56) [44,72].
Figure 56.
Figure 56. Paste
Paste Tailings
Tailings Disposal—Chungar
Disposal—Chungar TSF.
TSF.
The DCT operating discharge flow range is 5500 mtpd, considering the overflow of
the hydrocyclone battery plus underground mine water as feed. The solids concentration
range of paste tailings for surface disposal is from 71 to 74% solids by weight (Cw), with
peaks of 76% solids (Figure 57) [44,72].
Figure 56. Paste Tailings Disposal—Chungar TSF.
The
The DCT
DCT operating discharge flow
operating discharge flow range
range is is 5500
5500mtpd,
mtpd,considering
consideringthe
theoverflow
overflowofof
the
the hydrocyclone
hydrocyclone battery plus underground
underground mine mine water
waterasasfeed.
feed.The
Thesolids
solidsconcentration
concentration
range
range of
of paste
paste tailings for surface
surface disposal
disposal isis from
from71 71to
to74%
74%solids
solidsby
byweight
weight(Cw),
(Cw),with
with
peaks of 76% solids
peaks of 76% solids (Figure 57) [44,72].
Figure 57.
Figure 57. Paste
Paste Tailings
Tailings Viscosity
Viscosity and
and Consistency—Chungar
Consistency—Chungar Thickening
Thickening Plant.
Plant.
7.19. Cobriza Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Doe Run—Peru

The Cobriza Mine is located in the district of San Pedro de Coris, province of Chur-
campa, department of Huancavelica, on the left bank of the Mantaro River, in the east-
ern highlands of Peru, on the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera of the Andes, at
2300 masl [45,73].
The Cobriza mine is an underground mine and is developed from northwest to south-
east through underground galleries. The site’s reservoir consists of a mantle with highly
pyrite characteristics, with slaty and fractured casings. The exploitation of the deposit
is by the ascending mechanized cut-and-fill system. The water used in the operations
and hydraulic filling of the underground mine gives rise to wastewater that represents
an effluent towards the Mantaro River. The mineral concentrator plant was designed to
process 3,000,000 tons/year of copper ore with a nominal feed rate of 9000 mtpd, and the
froth flotation process is carried out there. The ore previously goes through a crushing and
grinding process—classification [45,73].
80% of the tailings generated in the metallurgical process of the mineral from the con-
centrator plant were discharged directly into the Mantaro River, thus constituting the main
problem of environmental contamination of the Cobriza mine, which was identified and
documented by Centromin in the Program of Adaptation and Environmental Monitoring
(PAMA). It is estimated that the tailings were transported and deposited in the Mantaro
River at a rate of approximately 180 tons/hour, thus constituting a total of almost 4500 tons
of tailings per day. The disposal of tailings directly to The Mantaro River continued to be
managed by Doe Run until 30 June 2004, the date on which tailings dumping operations
into the river were halted. In order to meet the objectives defined in the PAMA for the
treatment of tailings, Doe Run carried out the studies for the designs of the 3 tailings ponds
that currently exist and that are located in the different locations of the La Expansión and
Cobriza. The tailings deposits considered are El Platanal, El Limonar and Chacapampa
(Figure 58).
4500 tons of tailings per day. The disposal of tailings directly to The Mantaro River con-
tinued to be managed by Doe Run until 30 June 2004, the date on which tailings dumping
operations into the river were halted. In order to meet the objectives defined in the PAMA
for the treatment of tailings, Doe Run carried out the studies for the designs of the 3 tail-
ings ponds that currently exist and that are located in the different locations of the La
Expansión and Cobriza. The tailings deposits considered are El Platanal, El Limonar and
Chacapampa (Figure 58).
Figure 58. Cobriza Mining Project Layout.

Figure 58. Cobriza Mining Project Layout.
tailings produced is equivalent to a rate of 9000 mtpd, being classified by a battery of
Cobriza
Cobriza has
hydrocyclones has decided
where to
toimplement
the coarse
decided tailingspaste
implement pastetailings
produced aretechnology,
tailings around 3500for
technology, forwhich
tmpd anditthe
which ithas built
fine
has a
tail-
built
deep
aings
deepcone
conethickener
obtained with
are around
thickener a5500
with diameter
mtpd.of
a diameter The14 m
14 and
ofcoarse a height
tailings
m and of used
are
a height 21ofm21(Figure
for 59). The
mhydraulic
(Figure total
filling
59). Theof
total tailings produced
underground mines andistheequivalent to aare
fine tailings rate of 9000 of
disposed mtpd,
on thebeing classified
surface by a battery
using paste tailings
of hydrocyclones
technology. where the coarse
The concentrations tailings
of solids byproduced
weight (Cw)are around
obtained 3500
fortmpd and thethick-
the tailings fine
tailings obtained are around 5500 mtpd. The coarse tailings
ened in the DCT thickener reach values of the order of 70% [45,73]. are used for hydraulic filling of
underground
The pastemines andare
tailings thepumped
fine tailings are disposed
by pumps of ontothe
and pipes thesurface using of
high points paste
the tailings
El Plat-
technology.
anal and El The concentrations
Limonar deposits, of solidsthey
where by weight (Cw) obtained
are discharged from afor the tailings
series thickened
of spigots, which
in the DCT
allow thickener
it to reach reach values
a deposition slopeofofthe
theorder
orderofof70%
3.0 [45,73].
to 4.0% (Figures 59–61) [45,73].
Figure 59.
Figure 59. Cobriza
Cobriza Paste
Paste Thickener
Thickener and
and Limonar
Limonar TSF.
TSF.
The paste tailings are pumped by pumps and pipes to the high points of the El Platanal
and El Limonar deposits, where they are discharged from a series of spigots, which allow it
to reach59.a Cobriza
Figure deposition
Pasteslope of theand
Thickener order of 3.0TSF.
Limonar to 4.0% (Figures 59–61) [45,73].

Figure 60.
Figure 60. Cobriza
Cobriza Paste
Paste Tailings
TailingsDisposal
Disposalin
inLimonar
LimonarTSF.
TSF.
Figure 61.
Figure 61. High
High Viscosity
Viscosity in
in Cobriza
Cobriza Paste
Paste Tailings
Tailings Disposal.
Disposal.
Due
Due to
to the complex topography of of the
the site
siteand
andthe
thelack
lackofofspace
spacetotodeposit
deposittailings
tailingsinin
aa deposit, Cobriza decided
deposit, Cobriza decidedtotomechanically
mechanicallyremoveremove thethe tailings
tailings deposited
deposited in paste
in paste formform
in
in
thethe
El El Platanal
Platanal andand El Limonar
El Limonar deposits
deposits withwith a hydraulic
a hydraulic excavator
excavator andand
dump dump
trucktruck
to beto
be transported
transported to to a new
a new deposit
deposit calledChacapampa
called Chacapampa andplace
and placethem
theminincompacted
compactedlayers
layers
similar
similar to
to aa dry
dry stack deposit. In this
deposit. In this way,
way, the
the capacity
capacityof ofthe
theEl
ElPlatanal
Platanaland
andElElLimonar
Limonar
deposits
deposits isis released
released to continue filling
filling them
them with
withpaste
pastetailings,
tailings,increasing
increasingtheir
theiruseful
usefullife
life
(Figure
(Figure 62)
62) [45,73].
[45,73].
Due to the complex topography of the site and the lack of space to deposit tailings in
a deposit, Cobriza decided to mechanically remove the tailings deposited in paste form in
the El Platanal and El Limonar deposits with a hydraulic excavator and dump truck to be
transported to a new deposit called Chacapampa and place them in compacted layers
similar to a dry stack deposit. In this way, the capacity of the El Platanal and El Limonar
deposits is released to continue filling them with paste tailings, increasing their useful life
(Figure 62) [45,73].
Figure62.
Figure 62. Cobriza
Cobriza Paste
PasteTailings
TailingsDisposal
Disposalin
inPlatanal
PlatanalTSF.
TSF.
7.20. Rumichaca Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Volcan—Peru

The Yauli and Rumichaca mining unit is located between 4000 to 4900 masl in the
department of Junín, 40 km from La Oroya and 170 km from Lima. The unit is made up
of four underground mines and one open pit, whose ore is treated in three concentrator
plants, with an installed capacity of 11,400 mtpd. The zone presents mineralogy related
to polymetallic epithermal systems, replacement bodies and polymetallic vein systems, as
well as mineralization related to porphyries and skarns, which indicates the great potential
of the area [46].
The Victoria concentrator plant produces polymetallic mining tailings from the un-
derground mine called Carahuacra at a rate of 8000 mtpd. These tailings are taken to a
battery of hydrocyclones that allow the tailing to be classified into the coarse fraction and
the fine fraction. The coarse fraction obtained is of the order of 2000 mtpd and is used for
hydraulic backfilling of underground mines, while the fine fraction of the tailings is of the
order of 6000 mtpd and is taken to a deep cone thickener of 20 m diameter (Figure 63) and
deposited in a surface tailings storage facility [46].
The fine tailings are pumped by pipeline from the Victoria concentrator plant to the
area called Rumichaca, where the deep cone thickener is located. In this place, the fine
tailings are thickened until reaching a concentration of solids by weight (Cw) of around
65%. The paste tailings are then pumped and transported by pipeline to the discharge
points located in the upper part of the Rumichaca tailings deposit and thus be able to
deposit the tailings with a slope. The deposition slope values achieved in this case are of
the order of 2.0%. The tailings are deposited from different discharge points or spigots,
allowing the laminar depositing of the tailings in paste, also allowing the tailings to dry
and consolidate for certain periods of time (Figure 64) [46].
The Victoria concentrator plant produces polymetallic mining tailings from the un-
derground mine called Carahuacra at a rate of 8000 mtpd. These tailings are taken to a
battery of hydrocyclones that allow the tailing to be classified into the coarse fraction and
the fine fraction. The coarse fraction obtained is of the order of 2000 mtpd and is used for
hydraulic backfilling of underground mines, while the fine fraction of the tailings is of the
order of 6000 mtpd and is taken to a deep cone thickener of 20 m diameter (Figure 63) and
deposited in a surface tailings storage facility [46].

Figure 63.
Figure 63. Rumichaca
Rumichaca Paste
Paste Tailings Thickener.
Tailings Thickener.
The fine tailings are pumped by pipeline from the Victoria concentrator plant to the
area called Rumichaca, where the deep cone thickener is located. In this place, the fine
tailings are thickened until reaching a concentration of solids by weight (Cw) of around
65%. The paste tailings are then pumped and transported by pipeline to the discharge
points located in the upper part of the Rumichaca tailings deposit and thus be able to
deposit the tailings with a slope. The deposition slope values achieved in this case are of
the order of 2.0%. The tailings are deposited from different discharge points or spigots,
allowing the laminar depositing of the tailings in paste, also allowing the tailings to dry
and consolidate for certain periods of time (Figure 64) [46].
The tailings deposit has a perimeter dam built with borrowed material obtained from
nearby quarries, where the material is placed, compacted and the growth of the dam is
carried out in stages downstream as the tailings deposit is filled (Figure 65) [46].
Figure 64.64.
Figure Layout
LayoutView
Viewof
ofRumichaca PasteTSF.
Rumichaca Paste TSF.
The tailings deposit has a perimeter dam built with borrowed material obtained from
nearby quarries, where the material is placed, compacted and the growth of the dam is
carried out in stages downstream as the tailings deposit is filled (Figure 65) [46].
Figure 64. Layout View of Rumichaca Paste TSF.
Figure 65. Typical Dam Crest View of Rumichaca Paste TSF.

Figure 65. Typical Dam Crest View of Rumichaca Paste TSF.
7.21. Huachuacaja Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—El Brocal—Peru

7.21. Huachuacaja Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—El Brocal—Peru
Sociedad Minera El Brocal S.A.A. operated the Colquijirca Mining Unit which is lo-
Sociedad Minera El Brocal S.A.A. operated the Colquijirca Mining Unit which is
cated to 4300 masl in Peru Region Pasco Province Pasco and District Tinyahuarco consid-
located to 4300 masl in Peru Region Pasco Province Pasco and District Tinyahuarco consid-
ering a 296 km of distance from Lima city. Sociedad Minera El Brocal S.A.A. is a
ering a 296 km of distance from Lima city. Sociedad Minera El Brocal S.A.A. is a polymetallic
polymetallic mining company dedicated to the extraction, concentration and commercial-
mining company dedicated to the extraction, concentration and commercialization of Cu,
ization of Cu,
Pb, Zn and AgPb, Zn and Ag [47,74].
[47,74].
Sociedad
Sociedad Minera El
Minera El Brocal
Brocal S.A.A.
S.A.A. was
was founded
founded on
on 77 May
May 1956,
1956, itit operates
operates 22 continu-
continu-
ous mines:
ous mines:
1.
1. Tajo
Tajo Norte:
Norte: Open-Pit
Open-Pit Mine—produces
Mine—produces minerals
minerals such
such as
as Ag,
Ag, Pb,
Pb, Zn,
Zn, and
and Cu
Cu
2.
2. Marca Punta Norte: Underground Mine—produces
Marca Punta Norte: Underground Mine—produces Cu Cu
Sociedad
Sociedad Minera
Minera ElEl Brocal
Brocal S.A.A.
S.A.A. current
current mining
mining strategy
strategy is
is to
to treat
treat 11,000
11,000 mtpd
mtpd of
of
Pb-Zn (Open Pit), and 7000 mtpd of Cu (Underground) [47,74].
Pb-Zn (Open Pit), and 7000 mtpd of Cu (Underground) [47,74].
The production of tailings is thickened reaching a solid concentration by weight (Cw)
of 65% [47,74]. The thickened tailings generated are storage in the Huachuacaja tailings
storage facility (Figure 66) which was designed considered the following parameters:
• Tailings depositional slope of 2.0%
• Tailings discharged from west side of the valley and from tailings dam
• 28 discharge tailing points, which were built every 200 m approx. (Figure 61)
• Dry tailings deposition density of 1.59 t/m3
• Average production of tailings: 16,740 mtpd
• Annual average volume of the deposit tailing pond: 3.0 million m3
• Capacity: 123 million tons
• Estimated lifetime: 20 years
• Spigots (every 200 m) of diameter of 8” from HDPE SDR-13
The thickened tailings are discharged from a series of spigots located on the perimeter
of the tailings deposit, in such a way as to achieve the maximum tailings deposition slope,
which reaches a value of around 2.0% (Figure 67).
The tailings deposit dam is built with borrowed material in stages with a construction
method in a downstream direction [47,74].
during major storm events. Water will be collected in a supernatant water pond located in
the central part of the impoundment. Water in the impoundment dam will be pumped to
the plant using a floating barge pump in the supernatant pond [47,74].
• 28 discharge tailing points, which were built every 200 m approx. (Figure 61)
• Dry tailings deposition density of 1.59 t/m3
• Average production of tailings: 16,740 mtpd
• Annual average volume of the deposit tailing pond: 3.0 million m3
• Capacity: 123 million tons
• Estimated lifetime: 20 years
• Spigots (every 200 m) of diameter of 8” from HDPE SDR-13

Figure 66.
Figure 66. Huachuacaja
Huachuacaja Thickened
Thickened TSF
TSF Layout.
Layout.
The thickened tailings are discharged from a series of spigots located on the perime-
ter of the tailings deposit, in such a way as to achieve the maximum tailings deposition
slope, which reaches a value of around 2.0% (Figure 67).
The tailings deposit dam is built with borrowed material in stages with a construction
method in a downstream direction [47,74].
during major storm events. Water will be collected in a supernatant water pond located
in the central part of the impoundment. Water in the impoundment dam will be pumped
to the plant using a floating barge pump in the supernatant pond [47,74].
Figure 67. Huachuacaja Thickened TSF Side View.

Figure 67. Huachuacaja Thickened TSF Side View.
7.22. Cerro Corona Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—GoldFields—Peru

Gold
Gold Fields
Fields La
La Cima
Cima S.A.A.
S.A.A. (GFLC),
(GFLC), aa subsidiary
subsidiary of
of Gold
Gold Fields
Fields Limited,
Limited, owns
owns the
the
Cerro Corona mine, an open-pit copper mine with significant gold content.
Cerro Corona mine, an open-pit copper mine with significant gold content. The mine The mine is
is lo-
located in northern Peru in the province of Cajamarca, approximately 600 km north-north-
cated in northern Peru in the province of Cajamarca, approximately 600 km north-northwest
west of Lima,
of Lima, approximately
approximately 80 km by80 road
km by road
north of north of the departmental
the departmental capital of and
capital of Cajamarca Ca-
jamarca and approximately 1.5 km west-northwest of Hualgayoc. The elevation
approximately 1.5 km west-northwest of Hualgayoc. The elevation of the mine site ranges of the
mine site ranges from approximately 3600 to 4000 masl. The mine has been in production
since 2008 and it is estimated that the current mineral reserve will be depleted in 2023. The
Cerro Corona deposit is exploited using the open pit surface mining method (Figure 68)
[48,75].
Gold Fields La Cima S.A.A. (GFLC), a subsidiary of Gold Fields Limited, owns the
Cerro Corona mine, an open-pit copper mine with significant gold content. The mine is
located in northern Peru in the province of Cajamarca, approximately 600 km north-north-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 west of Lima, approximately 80 km by road north of the departmental capital56of of 65
Ca-
jamarca and approximately 1.5 km west-northwest of Hualgayoc. The elevation of the
mine site ranges from approximately 3600 to 4000 masl. The mine has been in production
sinceapproximately
from 2008 and it is estimated thatmasl.
3600 to 4000 the current mineral
The mine reserve
has been will be depleted
in production in 2023.
since 2008 and The
it
is estimated
Cerro Corona that the current
deposit mineralusing
is exploited reserve
thewill
openbepit
depleted
surfaceinmining
2023. The Cerro(Figure
method Corona68)
deposit
[48,75]. is exploited using the open pit surface mining method (Figure 68) [48,75].
Figure68.
Figure 68.Cerro
CerroCorona
CoronaMining
MiningProject
ProjectLayout.
Layout.
Tailings produced by the Cerro Corona processing plant are deposited in the Tailing
Storage Facility (TSF) which is located northwest of the plant site (Figure 69). The TSF
stores both rougher scavenger tailing (RST), which is deposited sub-aerially, and cleaner
scavenger tailing (CST), which is generally deposited sub-aqueously to reduce the potential
for acid generation. RST makes up approximately 95% of the tailing stream. It is thickened
to a solids content by weight (Cw) of approximately 55% prior to disposal. The RST tailing
is then conveyed to the TSF via HDPE tailing delivery pipelines and disposal into the TSF
through a number of spigots which run along the upstream face of the TSF dam. Water
is removed from the TSF impoundment and reclaimed in the mine process circuit by a
floating decant barge located in the impoundment (See Figure 69) [48,75].
The TSF dam is constructed by centerline construction method, and the dam cross
section consists of low-permeability core materials (Zone 1 and 5) placed between upstream
and downstream rockfill (Zone 2, 2B and 2C). The upstream rockfill (mine waste rock) was
incorporated into the design to provide upstream stability based on engineering analyses
considering the anticipated dam raise heights and measured tailings strengths. The core and
rockfill materials are separated by drain and filter zones (Zone 3 and 4) placed immediately
downstream of the low permeability materials to serve as transition zones to reduce the
potential for migration of the core materials into the rockfill. To decrease seepage rates
from the facility, a grout curtain has been installed in the foundation materials along the
axis of the dam [48,75].
scavenger tailing (CST), which is generally deposited sub-aqueously to reduce the poten-
tial for acid generation. RST makes up approximately 95% of the tailing stream. It is thick-
ened to a solids content by weight (Cw) of approximately 55% prior to disposal. The RST
tailing is then conveyed to the TSF via HDPE tailing delivery pipelines and disposal into
the TSF through a number of spigots which run along the upstream face of the TSF dam.
Water is removed from the TSF impoundment and reclaimed in the mine process circuit
by a floating decant barge located in the impoundment (See Figure 69) [48,75].
Figure 69.
Figure 69. Cerro
Cerro Corona
Corona Mining
Mining Thickened
Thickened TSF
TSF.
7.23. The TSF dam

La Quinua is constructed
Thickened by centerline
Tailings—Down Valley construction method, and the dam cross
Discharge—Newmont—Peru
section consists of low-permeability core materials (Zone 1 and 5) placed between up-
Yanacocha is South America’s largest gold mine, located in the province and depart-
stream and downstream rockfill (Zone 2, 2B and 2C). The upstream rockfill (mine waste
ment of Cajamarca, approximately 800 km northeast of Lima, Peru. Yanacocha’s operations
rock) was incorporated into the design to provide upstream stability based on engineering
is operated by Newmont and the facilities are situated between 3500 to 4100 masl with
analyses considering the anticipated dam raise heights and measured tailings strengths.
development activities in four primary basins. The operation is a joint venture between
The core and rockfill materials are separated by drain and filter zones (Zone 3 and 4)
Newmont (51.35%), Minas Buenaventura (43.65%) and Sumitomo Corporation (5%).
placed immediately downstream of the low permeability materials to serve as transition
Yanacocha produces ore from two open pits and is reclaiming three. First production
zones to reduce the potential for migration of the core materials into the rockfill. To de-
came from the Carachugo pit, followed by Maqui Maqui in 1994 and the San José Sur pit
crease seepage rates from the facility, a grout curtain has been installed in the foundation
during 1996. Cerro Yanacocha, opened in 1997, and La Quinua, where production started
materials along the axis of the dam [48,75].
during 2001, provide the current production.
Since the oxide ore is porous, run-of-mine ore can be heap-leached without crushing
7.23. La Quinua Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Newmont—Peru
and the solution treated by the Merrill Crowe process. Cyanide solutions are rendered
Yanacocha
harmless is South
by the Inco America’s
process. largestpit
Subsequent gold mine, located
development in the province
required three more and depart-
leach pads
ment of Cajamarca, approximately 800 km northeast of Lima, Peru. Yanacocha’s
and two more process plants, while working La Quinua necessitated adding a 120,000 opera-
mtpd
tions is operated
crushing by Newmont
and agglomeration and the
facility facilities are situated between 3500 to 4100 masl
in 2001.
withTodevelopment activities in four primary
treat high grade sulphide ore Yanacocha basins. The operation
implemented is a joint
a milling venture
process be-
at the La
tween Newmont (51.35%), Minas Buenaventura (43.65%) and Sumitomo
Quinua operation. However, limited sites were available for the tailings storage facility.Corporation
(5%).
To best utilise the available area the tailings storage facility is fully contained within an
active heap leach pad. Consequently, high concentration thickened tailings were required
to reduce the amount of water placed in the facility (Figure 70). The tailings are pro-
duced at 17,000 mtpd, then are thickened at the mill plant in a high-rate thickener before
being pumped to the storage facility by a train of centrifugal slurry pumps [49]. Some
characteristics of the thickened tailings management at La Quinua are:
• Pipe material: Steel
• Pipe diameter: 300 mm
• Pipeline Length: 4 km
• Pump station: Centrifugal pumps
• Solid concentration by weight (Cw): 65 to 71%
• Yield stress: 8.5 Pa
teristics of the thickened tailings management at La Quinua are:
• Pipe material: Steel
• Pipe diameter: 300 mm
• Pipeline Length: 4 km
• Pump station: Centrifugal pumps
• Solid concentration by weight (Cw): 65 to 71%
• Yield stress: 8.5 Pa
Figure 70. La Quinua Thickened TSF

Figure 70. La Quinua Thickened TSF.
The
The thickened tailings are
thickened tailings aredeposited
depositedininthe
theleach
leachpad
padfacility,
facility, this
this is is a unique
a unique facility
facility of
of
its its kind,
kind, which
which requires
requires controlled
controlled management
management of the
of the construction
construction andand operation
operation of
of the
the
leachleach
padpad
andand tailings
tailings disposal
disposal [49].[49].
8. Opportunities for Tailings Management Improvement in Chile, Peru

and Worldwide
There are many challenges that must be overcome in Chile, Peru and worldwide to
achieve a safe tailings management state-of-the-art outcome. Traditional tailings disposal
methods create environmental problems as they can: (i) take up large surface areas; (ii) be
highly visible; (iii) entrain and possibly store large volumes of water; (iv) seep unwanted
water in-to the ground; (v) release TSF drainage into surface streams; and (vi) cause dust
problems [76,77].
Avoiding these issues, and their associated risks, requires a commitment to rigorous
planning and application of leading practices over the full mine life cycle. Such outcomes
also require foresight and recognition that tailings facilities can incur environmental and
social costs in the long-term if leading practice principles are not heeded [76,78]. TSFs
must meet operator, public health and safety, community, and environmental protection
objectives. These objectives can only be met if TSFs are designed, operated, closed and
rehabilitated to a level of risk that is acceptable to stakeholders for the full operating life of
the facility and beyond [11,76]. A systematic approach to effective tailings management
is therefore advocated. Management strategies need to be risk-based and account for the
viewpoints and expectations of the communities in which companies operate [79]. The
main tailings-related risks to people and the environment can be characterized for the
operational and closure phases. The principal objective of a TSF is for tailings solids and
any stored water to remain contained.
The risk-based approach applied to tailings management must have sufficient flexibil-
ity to allow changing circumstances to be managed. These changes could involve routine
and anticipated TSF raises, unforeseen expansions, or bringing online completely new
facilities and/or new disposal methodologies [79].
The definition of value according to the theory of value is any action or proceeding
to be conducted that leads to realize a certain goal. Under this view and having defined a
spatial-temporal scale, the evolution of tailings management in Chile and Peru during the
20th century has made progress on technical and economic aspects, with recent significant
environmental progress over the past two decades. This undoubtedly is valuable, and
efforts are recognized for managing tailings controlled and physically stable. They are
still pending issues in the pursuit of an integrated or holistic management of tailings
management, which requires an interdisciplinary approach involving professionals who
can support the physical, geochemical and hydrological stability of tailings deposits, with
measures and techniques for the stages of design, operation and closure. Hard work and
dedication have been carried out in technical, economic, risk, environmental and social
studies, showing that this has led to better decisions recently, which reduce the negative
environmental impact, allowing anticipating potential damage and to mitigate or eliminate
adverse effects.
9. Discussions—Strengths and Limitations of Thickened Tailings from Practical

Experiences Presented
distance and the remaining beach is sloped at less than 2.0%. The steeper beach slope
of thickened and paste tailings storage facility, compared to a conventional slurry beach,
provides an opportunity to store tailings above the dam elevation, which reduces the
footprint and height of the dam.
could still occur depending on the tailings particle size distribution and solids content
at deposition.
Compared to conventional tailings storage facilities, less bleed water and consolidation
water is released from thickened and paste tailings deposited. This water, along with
precipitation and runoff, collects in ponds on the tailings surface often near the perimeter
dams, or can be directed off the surface to external collection ponds. The reclaim pond size
on the tailings surface is dependent on topography, tailings surface geometry, hydraulic
design of water conveyance structures, and seasonal climate variations.
The capital cost of specific equipment, such as thickeners, pumps and pipelines and
the operational costs, including high dosages of flocculants, high energy consumption
and specialized operators usually make thickened tailings alternatives more expensive
than conventional disposal [80]. The main economic benefit of using thickened tailings is
associated to with a smaller embankment and high water recovery from tailings. These
advantages can be achieved in flat and abrupt topographies, managing the thickened
tailings deposition angle in the impoundment. When savings in embankment (dam) and
water recovery costs can be realized, thickened tailings disposal is a very attractive option.
The following paragraphs presents the strengths and limitations of thickened tailings
technology based on the practical experience recorded in Chile and Peru.
9.1. Strengths
• Higher water recovery during processing, less water to be managed at the TSF.
• May be non-segregating, producing a tailings product with potentially low hydraulic
conductivity.
• Thickened and paste tailings can be more easily closed as a “dry” facility than a
conventional TSF.
• Failure if it occurs, would likely be local slumping and consequences would be re-
stricted to the local area.
9.2. Limitations
• High-density thickeners require operational attention and are subject to system “up-
sets” from tailings variability, gradation or operator error.
• It could take months to years to optimize the thickening system to produce a consistent
tailings product and the achieved solids content (Cw) is often at least 5% lower than
the design target.
• Positive displacement pumps (PD Pumps) may be required for tailings transportation,
which are more expensive and more challenging to operators.
• Beach slopes are difficult to predict and will vary depending on operational practices,
tailings properties and weather.
• Significant drying time (if required for physical stability) is often not achieved in wet
climates and may require a large drying area and rotation of the tailings discharge
points (spigots).
10. Conclusions
The way in which tailings are managed reflects the history, the regulatory framework
and the environment of the country and locale of the mine. Despite many attempts to find
an environmentally friendly strategy for tailings management that considers a balanced
relationship between society—ecosystem, there is no world-wide agreement regarding the
best available practices of tailings management [76,81]. This article reviews the evolution
of thickened and paste tailings management in Chile and Peru, current practices, and
changes that could or may need to be made to improve practices, as a response to local
environmental conditions. The paper also examines current development of an incipient
progress of thickened and paste tailings management, changing the conventional tailings
management focus. The paper also defines thickened and paste tailings management as
one of the best available technologies (BATs), briefly examining case histories of Chilean
and Peruvian tailings facilities using this technology, which have achieved benefits such as:
(i) reducing the makeup water supply, (ii) reduction of failure risks in seismic zones, thus
improving TSF physical stability, (iii) maximum water recovery, (iv) and obtaining smaller
TSF footprints and effective dust control, all of which reduced negative environmental
impacts. These benefits are a good reason to promote to new or existing large mining
operations a shift from conventional slurry tailings disposal facilities to alternative solutions
incorporating thickened and paste tailings disposal facilities, which day by day are more
accepted, similar to an environmentally sustainable solution.
The conditions of water scarcity in the Atacama Desert (northern Chile and southern
Peru) and a shared use with the communities, has resulted in mining operations imple-
menting more efficient technologies for the management of mining tailings, reducing the
maximum water losses, this is how the technology of thickened tailings and paste has been
an attractive alternative. On the other hand, in Peru, the demands of the community to
avoid the contamination of groundwater with leaks from the tailings storage facilities and
to reduce the risk of generating acid rock drainage in the cyclone tailings sand dams has
allowed the acceptance of the application of thickened tailings technology [82].
Considering the data presented in this article, it is possible to conclude that the
countries of Chile and Peru are currently world leaders in the implementation of thickened
and paste tailings technology, considering small, medium and large-scale mining operations.
In addition, considering the cases of practical studies presented, it is possible to mention
that the good performance and application of thickened tailings technology on a large
industrial scale is a reality. The cases presented in this article demonstrate that it is possible
to apply thickened tailings technology with productions of the order of 100,000 mtpd
or greater. In this scenario, there is still a need for more reliable equipment for paste
tailings thickening plants on large scale specifically, focusing in the tailings water recovery
enhancing for its reuse in mining processing.
The implementation of Codelco’s Talabre TTD TSF project for the production of tailings
of 400,000 mtpd will undoubtedly mark a relevant historical milestone in the application
of Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) technology, being a deposit of dewatered tailings of

great magnitude never seen before.
Each mine is unique with respect to its environment, material properties, water supply,
mineral process used, environmental obligations and energy cost. Therefore, it is difficult
to prescribe a tailings disposal method; each case must be evaluated on its own merits.
However, considering the failures of tailings facilities registered in recent years worldwide
with conventional tailings technology, it has questioned the communities and authorities
about the safety of having dams of large dimensions and heights, this has positioned as a
safer and more feasible alternative to thickened and paste tailings technology. Thickened
and paste tailings allow a much smaller amount of water to be stored in tailings facilities,
considerably reducing the risks of liquefaction, piping (internal erosion by seepage) and
overtopping compared to conventional tailings technology. Encouragingly, technologies to
recover more water from tailings for reuse in the process near the concentrator plant are
advancing rapidly, and where water is a scarce resource, environmental risks are high, or
the mining process justifies reagent recovery or metal values in the water, safe mine tailings
management can be achieved.
The scope of this article has been to carry out a review of the practical cases of appli-
cation of thickened tailings technology in both Chile and Peru. The present investigation
is limited to this geographical area of the world that represents an important part of the
world copper mining production, but it allows leaving the possibility to carry out a future
investigation considering integrating more cases from other countries of the world.
A better environmental perception about TTD of authorities and communities, con-
sidering that this technology allows to satisfy the needs of stable and safe TSFs, make the
TTD be more acceptable, popular and one of the best available technologies (BATs) for
operations with mine tailings.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.C.V. and A.M.P.; formal analysis, C.C.V.; investigation,
C.C.V.; resources, A.M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, C.C.V.; writing—review and editing,
C.C.V.; visualization, C.C.V.; supervision, A.M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research is funded by the Research Department of Catholic University of Temuco, Chile.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
TSF Tailings Storage Facility

BATs Best Available Technologies
TTD Thickened Tailings Disposal
PTD Paste Tailings
CT Conventional Thickener
HRT High Rate Thickener
HDT High Density Thickener
HCT High Compression Thickener
DCT Deep Cone Thickener
Cw Slurry tailings solids content by weight
mtpd Metric tonnes per day
DVD Down Valley Discharge
CDD Cell Dyke Disposal
PD Pumps Positive Displacement Pumps
masl Meters above sea level
U/F Thickener Underflow
FR Thickener Feed Solid Rate
FD Thickener Flocculent Dosage
References
1. Barrera, S.; Cacciuttolo, C.; Caldwell, J. Reassessment of Best Available Tailings Management Practices. In Proceedings of the 19th
International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste T&MW 2015, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 30 January 2015.
2. Cacciuttolo, C.; Tabra, K.; Sandoval, M. Efficient Use of Water in Tailings Management: New Methodologies for the Future. In
Proceedings of the Water Week Latinoamerica 2015 Congress, Viña del Mar, Chile, 24–27 March 2015.
3. Cacciuttolo Vargas, C.; Perez Campomanes, G. Practical Experience of Filtered Tailings Technology in Chile and Peru: An
Environmentally Friendly Solution. Minerals 2022, 12, 889. [CrossRef]
4. Watson, A.H.; Corser, P.G.; Garces Pardo, E.E.; Lopez Christian, T.E.; Vandekeybus, J. A comparison of alternative tailings
disposal methods—The promises and realities. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the Reduction of Risk in
the Management of Tailings and Mine Waste, Perth, Australia, 29 September–1 October 2010; Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Eds.;
pp. 499–514. [CrossRef]
5. Diez, A. Experiencia de los Relaves en Pasta de Delta. In Proceedings of the 3rd Paste Tailings Seminar, RELPAS, Santiago,
Chile, 2011. Available online: http://www.relpas.cl/neo_2011/pdf/2011/M3/03%20Alejandro%20Diez.pdf (accessed on
12 March 2016).
6. Schoenberger, E. Environmentally sustainable mining: The case of tailings storage facilities. Resour. Policy 2016, 49, 119–128.
[CrossRef]
7. Williams, D.J. Lessons from Tailings Dam Failures—Where to Go from Here? Minerals 2021, 11, 853. [CrossRef]
8. Global Tailings Review. Towards Zero Harm: A compendium of papers. Chapter ii Mine Tailings Facilities: Overview and Industry
Trends. 2022. Available online: https://globaltailingsreview.org/compendium/ (accessed on 3 August 2022).
9. East, D.; Fernandez, R. Managing Water to Minimize Risk in Tailings Storage Facility Design, Construction, and Operation. Mine
Water Environ. 2021, 40, 36–41. [CrossRef]
10. Wu, D. Solutions for Surface Disposal of Mine Tailings. In Mine Waste Management in China: Recent Development; Springer:
Singapore, 2020. [CrossRef]
11. Edraki, M.; Baumgartl, T.; Manlapig, E.; Bradshaw, D.; Franks, D.M.; Moran, C.J. Designing mine tailings for better environmental,
social and economic outcomes: A review of alternative approaches. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 84, 411–420. [CrossRef]
12. Cacciuttolo, C.; Valenzuela, F. Efficient Use of Water in Tailings Management: New Technologies and Environmental Strategies
for the Future of Mining. Water 2022, 14, 1741. [CrossRef]
13. Cacciuttolo, C.; Barrera, S.; Caldwell, J.; Vargas, W. Filtered Dry Stacked Tailings: Developments and New Trends. In Proceedings
of the 2nd International Seminar on Tailings Management, Antofagasta, Chile, 6–8 August 2014.
14. Schoenbrunn, F.; Laros, T. Design features and types of sedimentation equipment. Miner. Process. Plant Des. Pract. Control. Proc.
2002, 2, 1331.
15. Schoenbrunn, F. Dewatering to higher densities. In Proceedings of the 14th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings,
Perth, Australia, 5–7 April 2011.
16. Jewell, R.J.; Fourie, A.B. (Eds.) Paste and Thickened Tailings—A Guide, 3rd ed.; The Australian Centre of Geotechnics (ACG) and the
University of Western Australia: Perth, Australia, 2015.
17. Slottee, J.S.; Johnson, J. Paste Thickener Design and Operation Selected to Achieve Downstream Requirements. In Proceedings of
the 12th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Viña Del Mar, Chile, 21–24 April 2009.
18. AVA Montajes. Espesador High Rate de Relaves Collahuasi. Available online: https://www.ava.cl/proyectos-en-ejecucion/
proyecto-collahuasi (accessed on 15 July 2022).
19. Schoenbrunn, F.; Laros, T. Dry Tailings Disposal Using Hi-Density Thickening. In Proceedings of the Fourth International
Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste ‘97, Fort Collins, CO, USA, 13–17 January 1997; pp. 357–363.
20. Pulgar, F.; Jeldres, R.; Concha, F.; Toledo, P. Uso de Agua de Mar en Minería Avances en el Espesamiento de Relaves Ricos en Arcillas;
Centro de Recursos Hídricos para la Agricultura y la Minería CRHIAM, Universidad de Concepción: Concepcion, Chile, 2022.
21. Cochilco, Comisión Chilena del Cobre. Informe de Actualización del Consumo Energético de la Minería del Cobre al año
2018. Ministerio de Minería. 2019. Available online: https://www.cochilco.cl/Mercado%20de%20Metales/Informe%20de%20
Consumo%20de%20Energ%C3%ADa%202018.pdf (accessed on 15 August 2022).
22. ASTM C143/C143M-00; Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Vol. 04.02. American Society for Testing and Materials: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2003.
23. Valdebenito, R.; Paredes, L. Recent experiences on TTD thickened tailings in Chile. In Proceedings of the 1st International Seminar
on Tailings Management, Santiago, Chile, 1–3 August 2013.
24. Pornillos, E. A technique for measuring the reduction of yield stress of thickened tailings. In Proceedings of the 14th International
Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 5–7 April 2011; Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian Centre for
Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2011; pp. 167–174.
25. Robinsky, E.I. Tailings disposal by the thickened discharge method for improved economy and environmental control. Tailings
Disposal Today. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Tailings Symposium, Denver, CO, USA, May 1978.
26. Robinsky, E.I. Thickened Tailing Disposal in any Topography. In Essential Readings in Light Metals; Donaldson, D., Raahauge, B.E.,
Eds.; Springer: Cham, Germany, 2016. [CrossRef]
27. MacNamara, L.; Khoshniaz, N.; Hashemi, S. The Sarcheshmeh thickened tailings disposal projectin. In Proceedings of the 14th
International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 5–7 April 2011; Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian
Centre for Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2011; pp. 237–243. [CrossRef]
28. Roshdieh, A.; Williams, P.; Seddon, K.D. The Sarcheshmeh thickened tailings scheme—A case study. In Proceedings of the 18th
International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Cairns, Australia, 5–7 May 2015; Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian
Centre for Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2015; pp. 587–595. [CrossRef]
29. McPhail, G.; Bello, F.; Engels, J. Beach Profile Modeling at Centinela Mine, Chile. In Proceedings of the 4th International Seminar
on Tailings Management TAILINGS 2017, Santiago, Chile, 8 July 2017.
30. Engels, J.; Gonzalez, H.; Aedo, G.; McPhail, G.I. Implementation of spigot discharge systems for high-density tailings at Sierra
Gorda Sociedad Contractual Minera, Chile. In Proceedings of the 21st International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings,
Perth, Australia, 11–13 April 2018; Jewell, R.J., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian Centre for Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2018;
pp. 389–400. [CrossRef]
31. SEA (Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental). Estudio de Impacto Ambiental “Minerales primarios Minera Spence”. 2022. Available
online: https://seia.sea.gob.cl/documentos/documento.php?idDocumento=2130577305 (accessed on 30 July 2022).
32. Verdugo, R.; Echevarría, J.; Peters, G.; Caro, G. Feasibility Evaluation of Converting a Conventional Tailings Disposal in a
Thickened Tailings Deposit. Paste and Thickened Tailings International Conference 2014, Vancouver Canada. 2014. Available
online: http://www.cmgi.cl/publicaciones-web/peters/feasibility%20evaluation%20of%20converting%20a%20conventional%
20tailings%20disposal%20in%20a%20thickened%20tailings%20deposit.pdf (accessed on 30 July 2022).
33. Barrera, S.; Hills, R. Cerro Negro—Assessment of Beach Slope and Indetermination of the Operational Limits of Centrifugal
Pumps. In Proceedings of the Twelfth International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Viña del Mar, Chile, 21–24 April
2009; Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Barrera, S., Wiertz, J., Eds.; Australian Centre for Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2009; pp. 337–344.
[CrossRef]
34. Consejo Minero Teck. Plataforma Relaves Mineros Teck Carmen de Andacollo. 2022. Available online: https://consejominero.cl/
comunicaciones/plataforma-de-relaves/teck/ (accessed on 14 April 2022).
35. Sotil, A.; Soto, V.; Brouwer, K. Reducing Long Term Risk at the Candelaria Tailings Storage Facility. In Proceedings of the Tailings
and Mine Waste 2020, Keystone, CO, USA, 15–18 November 2020. Available online: https://www.knightpiesold.com/sites/en/
assets/File/TWM%202020%20-%20Reducing%20Long%20Term%20Risk%20at%20the%20Candelaria%20TSF.pdf (accessed on
12 April 2022).
36. Valdebenito, R. Tranques de relaves espesados y en pasta en Chile. In Proceedings of the FLSmidth Tailings Disposal Seminar,
Santiago, Chile, May 2012.
37. Valdebenito, R. Webinar Relaves Espesados con Tecnologia Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD). 2022. Available online: https:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_b_dNY9rC4 (accessed on 12 June 2022).
38. SEA (Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental). EIA: Depósito de Relaves en Pasta Minera Florida. 2015. Available online: http:
//seia.sea.gob.cl/documentos/documento.php?idDocumento=7889337 (accessed on 5 December 2015).
39. Gridley, N.; Salcedo, S. Cemented Paste for Ore Recovery. In Proceedings of the 16th International Seminar on Paste and
Thickened Tailings, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 17–19 June 2013.
40. Gutierrez, M.A. Tesis de Pregrado Operación de la Presa de Relaves del Proyecto Toromocho. Universidad Nacional de San
Agustin, Arequipa, Peru. 2015. Available online: http://repositorio.unsa.edu.pe/bitstream/handle/UNSA/2671/IMgucoma.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 12 April 2022).
41. SENACE (Servicio Nacional de Certificación Ambiental para las Inversiones Sostenibles). Resumen Ejecutivo MEIA Antapaccay
Expansión Tintaya Integración Coroccohuayco. 2018. Available online: https://www.senace.gob.pe/download/comunicaciones/
eia-meia/antapaccay/Resumen-Ejecutivo_Antapaccay.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
42. Runge Pincock Minarco. Competent Person’s Report Las Bambas Mining Project. 2014. Available online: https://www1
.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/sehk/2014/0630/01208_1970351/e119.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
43. Ridlen, P.; Kerr, T.; Dominquez, G.; Varnier, J.B.; Toro, J. Design of a Centerline Method Tailings Dam using Mine Waste Rockfill in
Peru. In Proceedings of the Tailings and Mine Waste 2018, Keystone, CO, USA, 30 September–2 October 2018.
44. Lara, J.L.; Maldonado, R. Design and Operational Experience of the Animon High Density Tailings Deposit-Peru. In Proceedings
of the 19th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Santiago, Chile, 3–6 July 2016.
45. Gonzales, V. Cobriza’s cu Tailings Surface Stacking A Successful story. In Proceedings of the International Seminar on Paste and
Thickened Tailings, Santiago, Chile, 20–22 April 2005; Jewell, R., Barrera, S., Eds.; Australian Centre for Geomechanics: Perth,
Australia, 2005; pp. 261–270. [CrossRef]
46. SENACE (Servicio Nacional de Certificación Ambiental para las Inversiones Sostenibles). INFORME N◦ 00931-2019-SENACE-
PE/DEAR. Evaluación del Cuarto Informe Técnico Sustentatorio de la Unidad Minera Carahuacra, Presentado Por Volcan
Compañía Minera S.A.A. 2019. Available online: https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/1221404/inf-DEAR-931-20
19-RD-18620200808-2289235-1102ruy.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
47. Pezo, J. Tailings Management and Operational Control in Huachuacaja RCF. In Proceedings of the 19th International Seminar on
Paste and Thickened Tailings, Santiago, Chile, 3–6 July 2016.
48. Corser, P.; Rogers, J.; Misiewicz, J.; Ross-Watt, D.; Gutierrez, J. Design, Construction and Operation of a Centerline Rockfill
Tailing Dam with Low Permeability Core Zone. In Proceedings of the Tailings and Mine Waste 2011, Vancouver, Canada,
6–9 November 2011.
49. Kerr, T.F.; Duryea, P.D.; Grobbelaar, W.; Hackney, K. Design of a Thickened Mill Sands Management System within a Heap Leach
Pad. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 13–15 March 2007;
Jewell, R., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian Centre for Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2007; pp. 361–372.
50. Loan, C.; Villanueva, M.L.; Saldía, N. Collahuasi paste thickener—Pilot and full scale results. In Proceedings of the 14th
International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 5–7 April 2011.
51. Flores, I. Disposición de relaves en pasta Faena Cabildo. In Proceedings of the 3rd Paste Tailings Seminar, RELPAS, Santiago, Chile,
2011. Available online: http://www.relpas.cl/neo_2011/pdf/2011/M3/02%20Ivar%20Flores.pdf (accessed on 4 March 2016).
52. Galaz, J. Estado del Arte en la Disposición de Relaves Espesados. In Proceedings of the 3rd Paste Tailings Seminar, RELPAS,
Santiago, Chile, 2011. Available online: http://www.relpas.cl/neo_2011/pdf/2011/M1/01%20Juanita%20Galaz.pdf (accessed on
23 March 2016).
53. Martin, J.; Lopez, A.; Barrera, S.; Jara, C. Mixed system of tailings disposal. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Seminar on
Tailings Management, Santiago, Chile, 19–21 August 2015.
54. Yamana Gold. Paste Tailings Disposal at Compañia Minera Florida Alhue, Chile. 2016. Available online: https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=m6EYsbmb0gQ (accessed on 12 June 2022).
55. Consejo Minero Antofagasta Minerals. Plataforma Relaves Mineros Antofagasta Minerals Centinela. 2022. Available online:
https://consejominero.cl/comunicaciones/plataforma-de-relaves/antofagasta-minerals-3/ (accessed on 14 April 2022).
56. Barrera, S.; Engels, J. High-density thickening for large production rates: Main challenges. In Proceedings of the 21st International
Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 11–13 April 2018; Jewell, R.J., Fourie, A.B., Eds.; Australian Centre for
Geomechanics: Perth, Australia, 2018; pp. 35–42. [CrossRef]
57. Martínez, J.; Franco, E. Propuesta de modelo de optimización de tiempo de vida útil de depósito de relaves espesados. Ingeniare
Rev. Chil. Ing. 2019, 27, 236–245. [CrossRef]
58. Consejo Minero KGHM. Plataforma Relaves Mineros KGHM Sierra Gorda. 2022. Available online: https://consejominero.cl/
comunicaciones/plataforma-de-relaves/kghm-3/ (accessed on 14 April 2022).
59. Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental (SEA). Declaración de Impacto Ambiental Ajustes Constructivos a Instalaciones de Relaves
Espesados Proyecto Radomiro Tomic Codelco. 2022. Available online: https://infofirma.sea.gob.cl/DocumentosSEA/
MostrarDocumento?docId=56/f2/eeb30796ef7365a8f0d0cf93fca9677d5fc2 (accessed on 30 July 2022).
60. Consejo Minero CMP. Plataforma Relaves Mineros CAP Los Corralillos. 2022. Available online: https://consejominero.cl/
comunicaciones/plataforma-de-relaves/cmp-2/ (accessed on 14 April 2022).
61. CMP. Descripción Proyecto Minero Cerro Negro Norte CMP. 2008. Available online: http://www.plataformacaldera.cl/biblioteca/
589/articles-64617_documento.pdf (accessed on 13 April 2022).
62. TECK. INFORME TÉCNICO Inspección de Seguridad (DSI 2018) Compañía Minera TECK—Carmen de Andacollo (TECK-CDA).
2018. Available online: https://www.teck.com/media/DSI-2018-CDA.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
63. Lundin Mining. Presentation Minera Candelaria Tailings Storage Facilities Transition Experience. 2019. Available online:
https://www.ecometales.cl/ecometales/site/docs/20191111/20191111114704/7_lundin_mining_candelara.pdf (accessed on
12 April 2022).
64. Lundin Mining. Technical Report for the Candelaria Copper Mining Complex, Atacama Region, Region III, Chile. 2018. Available
online: https://lundinmining.com/site/assets/files/3641/candelaria_2018_tr.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
65. SMA (Superintendencia del Medio Ambiente). Proyecto Deposito de Relaves en Pasta Sector 5, COEMIN S.A. 2021. Available
online: https://ssa.sma.gob.cl/Documento/Descargar/269881 (accessed on 12 April 2022).
66. Paterson, A.J.C. The pipeline transport of high density slurries—A historical review of past mistakes, lessons learned and current
technologies. In Proceedings of the 14th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 5–7 April 2011.
67. CHINALCO. Resumen Ejecutivo Modificación del Estudio de Impacto Ambiental Para el Proyecto de Expansión de la Unidad
Minera Toromocho A 170 000 TPD. 2020. Available online: https://www.chinalco.com.pe/sites/default/files/meia/1.0%20
Resumen%20Ejecutivo%20MEIA%20Toromocho.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
68. Johnson, J.; Vizcarra, J. Modernization of Chinalco Toromocho Copper Tailings Thickeners. In Proceedings of the 23rd International
Conference on paste Thickened and Filtered Tailings, Santiago, Chile, 12 November 2020.
69. CHINALCO. Entrevista al Gerente General Gerald Wolff en Convención Minera Perumin. 2009. Available online: https:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbaM0rsRGQo (accessed on 19 June 2022).
70. OEFA (Organismo de Evaluación y Fiscalizacion Ambiental). Plan de Evaluacion Ambiental en el Area de Influencia de la Unidad
Minera Antapaccay en el año. 2018. Available online: http://visorsig.oefa.gob.pe/datos_de/PM0201/PM020102/01/PA/PA_18
0-2018-OEFA-DEAM-STEC.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2022).
71. SENACE (Servicio Nacional de Certificación Ambiental para las Inversiones Sostenibles). Resumen Ejecutivo de la Tercera
Modificación del Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de la Unidad Minera Las Bambas. 2016. Available online: http://ceropapel.
senace.gob.pe/share/s/f7Zx6K39RmCIGnbrscekNw (accessed on 12 April 2022).
72. Lozano, F.; Llaury, J.; Lara, F. Uso de Tecnologia de Punta en la Disposicion de Relaves Espesados en la Unidad Chungar. In
Proceedings of the Congreso Nacional de Mineria, Lima, Peru, 10 November 2012.
73. Schoenbrunn, F. High Tonnage Surface Stacking Impediments to Implementation. In Proceedings of the 8th International Seminar
on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Santiago, Chile, 20–22 April 2005.
74. Lara, J.L. Presentacion de Relaves Espesados y Filtrados en Perú, Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas, Jueves Minero. 2013. Available
online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vcYR2gSPjk (accessed on 12 April 2022).
75. Rogers, J.; Weber, C.; Corser, P.; MWH Canada; Gutierrez, J. Influence of tailings deposition environment on deposit homogeneity
and interpretation of cone penetration test data: A case study from the Cerro Corona Mine. In Proceedings of the Tailings and
Mine Waste 2015, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 6–9 November 2015.
76. Franks, D.M.; Boger, D.V.; Cote, C.M.; Mulligan, D.R.Y. Sustainable Development Principles for the Disposal of Mining and
Mineral Processing Wastes. J. Resour. Policy 2011, 36, 114–122. [CrossRef]
77. Kinnunen, P.; Karhu, M.; Yli-Rantala, E.; Kivikytö-Reponen, P.; Mäkinen, J. A review of circular economy strategies for mine
tailings. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2022, 8, 100499. [CrossRef]
78. Beylot, A.; Bodénan, F.; Guezennec, A.; Muller, S. LCA as a support to more sustainable tailings management: Critical review,
lessons learnt and potential way forward. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 183, 106347. [CrossRef]
79. Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR). Tailings Management, Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program
(LPSDP) for the Mining Industry; Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources: Canberra, Australia, 2007.
80. Araya, N.; Ramírez, Y.; Cisternas, L.A.; Kraslawski, A. Use of real options to enhance water-energy nexus in mine tailings
management. Appl. Energy 2021, 303, 117626. [CrossRef]
81. Cacciuttolo, C. Review of tailings management in Chile: Lessons learned, incipient progress of a holistic management, and future
challenges in reducing socio-environmental impacts. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Seminar on Environmental Issues in
Mining, Lima, Peru, 2–4 December 2015.
82. Smith, L. Hydrogeology and Mineral Resource Development; The Groundwater Project: Guelph, ON, Canada, 2021.

Relave Chile 2022

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relave Chile 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relave Chile 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

sustainability

Academic Editor: Glen Corder

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710901 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Tailings Thickening Plants Development and Advances

Figure 3. Tailings High-Rate Thickeners in Los Pelambres Mine—Chile.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 7 of 65

2.4. Paste or Deep Cone Thickeners (DCT)

Parameter Units CT HRT HCT or HDT Paste or DCT

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 9 of 65

3. Control and Performance of Tailings Thickening Plant

Accurate control of the addition of flocculent to any thickener is important to achieve

Table 2. Commonly used Flocculants in Thickening of Mining Tailings [21].

Manufacturer Flocculent Name

4. Thickened Tailings Transport

Figure 8. Thickened tailings positive displacement pump station—Toromocho Mining Project

6. Thickened Tailings Experiences—State of Practice

Table 3. Thickened tailings management technologies in Chile, Peru and Worldwide.

TSF Disposal Parameters

Observing Table 3 it is possible to see projects with thickened tailings technology in

7. Successful Cases in Chile and Peru

7.1. Demo Plant Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Collahuasi—Chile

Table 4. Demo Plant—Thickening Parameters and Tailings Characterization [50].

Paste Thickening Process Parameters Cu Tailings Characterization

7.2. Las Cenizas Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Cabildo—Chile

Paste Thickening Process Parameters Cu Tailings Characterization

7.3. Delta Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Ovalle—Chile

Table 5. Las Cenizas Plant—Thickening Parameters and Tailings Characterization [51].

Paste Thickening Process Parameters Cu Tailings Characterization

7.3. Delta Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Ovalle—Chile

Table 6. Delta Plant—Thickening Process and Tailings Characterization [5].

Paste Thickening Process Parameters Cu Tailings Characterization

7.5. AlhuéPaste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Yamana Gold—Chile

Figure 20. Thickened Tailings Discharge in Spigots in Centinela Mining Project.

Figure 20. Thickened Tailings Discharge in Spigots in Centinela Mining Project.

7.7. Sierra Gorda Thickened Tailings—Cell Dyke Disposal—KGHM—Chile

Figure 22. Sea water reservoir in Sierra Gorda Mining Project.

7.8. Spence Thickened Tailings—Cell Dyke Disposal—BHP—Chile

Figure 25. LayoutFigure

Mining tailingsMining tailings are

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 30 of 65

• Recirculating water reservoir (120,000 m3 capacity).

Figure 33. Layout View of Andacollo Thickened TSF.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 10901 34 of 65

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 37 of 67

Figure 37. Los Diques Thickened TSF.

7.13. Sector N◦ 5 Paste Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Coemin—Chile

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 39 of 67

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 40 of 67

7.14. Toromocho Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—Chinalco—Peru

Figure 41. Coemin Positive Displacement Pump Station.

7.14. Toromocho Thickened Tailings—Down

Figure 42. Tailings Thickeners under Construction—Toromocho Mining Project.

Thickened tailings (non-segregating) were selected based on the following factors:

Figure 45. Toromocho Thickened TSF.

7.15. Antapaccay Thickened Tailings—In Pit Tailings Disposal—Tintaya—Peru

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 45 of 67

7.16. Las Bambas Thickened Tailings—Down Valley Discharge—MMG—Peru

Tailings production is 140,000 mtpd and is processed to be discharged as high-den-