Practical 1 : Soil ecosystems-soil biota and food webs

Aim: To identify different types of macrofauna found in different vegetation.

Theory: Ecosystems are made up of abiotic (non-living, environmental) and biotic components. These basic components are important to nearly all types of ecosystems. An ecosystem is all of the organisms in a given place in interaction with their nonliving environment. Abiotic soil components include mineral matter such as clay, silt, sand, water, air and organic matter. Air and water percentages vary significantly with soil texture, weather and plant water uptake. Energy is continually input into an ecosystem in the form of light energy and some energy is lost with each transfer to a higher trophic level. Nutrients are recycled within an ecosystem and their supply normally limits biological activity. Energy is moved through an ecosystem through a food web which is made up of interlocking food chains. Energy is first captured by photosynthesis which is called primary production. Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment. Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses. Soil supports a complex ecosystem, which supports the plants on the surface and creates new soil by breaking down rocks and sand. The soil is a thriving ecosystem of plants and animals which play an important role in the soil. Both plants and animals change the composition and structure in many different ways. Plant roots get energy to grow from sugars through the photosynthesis process that occurs in its leaves. They move through the soil with great force wedging their way between soil particles. A root is strong enough to even fracture rock if it grows into a crack. Once in place, soil nutrients and water are absorbed, sometimes from great depths and moved closer to the surface. The plant uses most of what it has collected by the roots to grow

larger and produce seed such a wheat that we use to make bread. The remaining nutrients and as plant roots die are used the following growing season by another plant. Billions of organisms live in the upper layers of the soil. They break down dead organic matter and releasing the nutrients necessary for plant growth. The microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and fungi. Macro-organisms include earthworms and arthropods such as insects, mites and millipedes. Each group plays a role in the soil ecosystem and can assist the organic farmer in producing a healthy crop. Micro-organisms can be grouped according to their function. Free-living decomposers convert organic matter into nutrients for plants. Other microorganisms such as rhizosphere are symbiotically associated with the plant roots and free-living nitrogen fixers. Microfauna is small often microscopic animals. Single-celled protozoa, small nematodes, small unsegmented worms and tardigrades are the most common components of microfauna. Many inhabit water films or pore spaces in leaf litter and in the soil. Microfauna feeding on smaller microorganisms that decompose organic material. In an undisturbed soil, leaves and other organic debris accumulate on the surface. They are broken down by the decomposers. Aerobic bacteria and certain small animals begin the process. These organisms are joined by actinomycetes and fungi. Mites, springtails, small insects, other arthropods and earthworms help the process by consuming, mixing and transporting materials. The rate of decomposition is affected by soil temperature, moisture and food availability. The main by-products of the decomposition process are soluble plant nutrients and microbial remains that bind the soil particles together, giving a stable crumb structure. Since biological activity is greatest when the soil is warm, nutrient availability is highest during summer, when crop needs are greatest. The decomposers are most active in the upper layer of the soil that is the top 8 cm. Organic farmers incorporate organic matter into the surface layers when conditions are favorable to stimulate decomposition and thereby provide plant nutrients. Stable humus is the final product of the decomposition process. Stable humus provides long term nutrient reserves and improves soil structure. Benefits of humus are

supplies nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur when the plant needs them. Humus holds nutrients, thereby reducing nutrient leaching. Humus also binds soil particles together and stabilizing loose soils against erosion. Humus improves porosity, thereby facilitating air and water movement. This would increase the soil's water holding capacity. Well developed and healthy soils are complex system. Soil pores which are maximised in a well-structured soil, allow oxygen and moisture to infiltrate to depths and plant roots to penetrate to obtain moisture and nutrients. The relationship of soils to biodiversity is intimate and complex. Soil is an asset of biodiversity. The two should not be considered separately when it comes to protecting one or the other. Soil can be managed to optimise its fertility and health under natural and agricultural land uses.

Variables: Manipulating variable : Types of soil Responding variable : Types of macrofauna found in the soil Constant variable : Volume of soil

Hypothesis: Different type of soil consist of different type of macrofauna.

Apparatus: Tulgren funnel Preserving jar Microscope Petri dish (containing glycerine and formalin)

Materials: Ethanol Plastic bag Soil

Procedure: 1. A sample of the leaf litter and topsoil not deeper than 3cm is collected from two different locations. 2. Lawn, native vegetation, garden bed, under different species of trees or other distinctive site is choosen. 3. The sample is placed in plastic bags is sealed. It is labeled with name and the collection site. 4. At each site, the type of vegetation at the site and some of the sites characteristics is recorded in the table. Then it is used to compare the soil habitat of the two sites. 5. On the return to the lab, the soil and leaf litter sample from the same location is mixed thoroughly. 6. A known volume of one sample is put in the Tullgren funnel. 7. It was left for about two days, then the preserving jar containing ethanol is removed and is screwed on the lid. 8. The sample from the second location is placed in the Tullgren funnel and is removed after about two days following the same procedure. 9. From the bags, a measured volume of the leaf litter and the topsoil is examined using a microscope or hand lense. 10. Any fauna found is removed to a clean jar or petridish for identification. All organisms are identified to order. 11. The number of individuals from each order or group is counted. 12. The contents of the collecting jar is made empty into a petridish and as many organisms as possible is identified to Order or group. 13. The number of individuals from each Order or group is counted.

14. The results from both counts is used and the number of Orders or groups per litre of soil and leaf litter and the numbers of individuals from each Order or group per litre of soil and leaf litter is calculated.

Site characteristic Type of vegetation Level of shade Soil dryness/ dampness Soil pH Soil compactness Soil texture

Site 1 Garden Shady Damp Acidic Less compact Loose

Site 2 Field Shady Damp Acidic Less compact Heavy

Diagram:

Tabulation of data: a) Larger macrofauna Macrofauna order or group Number @ location 1 Soil volume= Number @ Location 2 Soil volume=

Snail Insect Ants Termite Milipede

0 0 3 5 1

1 2 1 0 0

b) Smaller macrofauna Macrofauna order or group Number @ location 1 Soil volume= Number @ Location 2 Soil volume=

Clamydomonas Species A Species B Species C Species D Species E

0 6 2 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 1 0

Macrofauna Number of orders or group per litre of soil/ litter Snail Insect Ants Termite Milipede Clamydomonas Species A Species B Species C Species D Species E

Location 1

Location 2

0 0 3 5 1 0 6 2 1 0 1

1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

Discussion: 1) How did the diversity (number of groups and number of individuals) of macrofauna from the soils from the two locations differ? Can you suggest why there might be differences? What soil parameters could you have measured which may help explain the differences? Species Richness (s) is a relative term that refers to the number of species in a community and is directly associated with measuring the diversity of species in a given area. A related term, evenness (E), is another dimension of diversity that defines the number of individuals from each species in the same area. Together, these terms have been used to describe species diversity patterns on Earth. Diversity of macrofauna from the soils from the two locations is different. Soil parameter can be used to measure and explain the differences of diversity of macrofauna of different soil. Soil pH and soil texture can be used as soil parameter to examine this

difference. There are less macrofauna would live in the acidic soil. Whereas, animals will preferred to live in the neutral soil. Besides that, when the soil texture is loose, more diverse macrofauna would live there. When the soil texture is heavy the number of macrofauna live in the soil will decrease. When a place is damped, more shaded and moisture, these criteria made many macrofaunas live in that site compared to other sites which is less damp and less shady.

2) Explain the role of macrofauna in the soil. Macrofauna have body width 2mm. Macrofauna are visible to the naked eye. 90% or more of their specimens visible to the naked eye. Animals that are one centimetre or more long but smaller than an earthworm are macrofauna. Potworms, myriapods, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, snails, fly larvae, beetles, beetle larvae, and spider are typical members of the macrofauna. Many of these animals burrow in the soil, aiding soil drainage and aeration. In addition some organic material passes into the soil through the burrows. Most macrofauna consume decaying plant material and organic debris, but centipedes, some insects and spiders prey on other soil animals.

3) On the food web diagram provided, label the type of biota (eg. Fungi, nematode etc). what they do (predator, leaf shredder etc) and describe which way the energy flows eg where does it first get captured and where does it finish (ie the top of the food chain). What happens to the energy and nutrients when the organisms at the top of the food chain die? The soil food web is the community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil. It describes a complex living system in the soil and how it interacts with the environment, plants and animals. Food webs describe the transfer of energy between species in an ecosystem. Food web is more complex and illustrates all of the potential pathways. Much of this transferred energy comes from the sun. Plants use the suns

energy to convert inorganic compounds into energy rich, organic compounds, turning carbon dioxide and minerals into plant material by photosynthesis. Plants are called autotrophs because they make their own energy. They are also called producers because they produce energy available for other organisms to eat. Heterotrophs are consumers that cannot make their own food. In order to obtain energy they eat plants or other heterotrophs.

A food web diagram shows a series of conversions (represented by arrows) of energy and nutrients as one organism eats another (see food web diagram). All food webs are fueled by the primary producers: the plants, lichens, moss, photosynthetic bacteria, and algae that use the suns energy to fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Most other soil organisms get energy and carbon by consuming the organic compounds found in plants, other organisms, and waste by-products. A few bacteria, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from nitrogen, sulfur or iron compounds rather than carbon compounds or the sun. As organisms decompose complex materials

or consume other organisms, nutrients are converted from one form to another. They made nutrients available to plants and to other soil organisms. Energy from plants and will be transferred to second tropic level organisms when they decompose nutrients from the plants. Third tropic level organisms are predators, shredders and grazers. They will gain energy through eating and decompose nutrients of second tropic level organisms. The energy will be transferred next to fourth tropic level organisms when they eat third tropic level organisms. This forth trophic level organisms will be eaten by fifth or higher trophic level organisms. So, the energy will gained by fifth or higher trophic level organisms. After these animals die their body will decompose in the soil. So, the nutrients and energy will be returned to the soil. plants will absorb nutrients from the soil and the process of energy flow will repeated continuosly. When the organisms at the top of the food chain die, the flow of energy will be disturbed. The next trophic level organisms will not gain nutrients and energy. For example, when second trophic level orgaisms die, the following trophic level organisms will not get food. So, the energy and nutrients will be not transferred further. When this situation continuous for long period, third trophic level organisms to die. Then, the fourth and fifth trophic level organism also will die. Whereas the number of plant will increase as the second trophic level organisms which consume energy from it die.

4) What groups of organisms make up the mesofauna? What groups make up the microfauna? What the main functions of these two main groups? Microfauna are small animals and unicellular organisms visible only under a microscope. Usually microfauna is defined as creatures smaller than 0.1 mm in size. Whereas mesofauna are organisms between 0.1 mm and 2 mm in size. In the soil, microfauna can be found in large numbers. Generally several thousand per gram. Some of the most common and important microfauna are protozoa, mites, springtails, nematodes, rotifers and tardigrades. Microfauna can be found worldwide, wherever there is wet soil and some other places as well. Larger animals also found in the soil are

called mesofauna. Such as earthworms, arthropods, large nematodes, includes burrowing mammals like moles and rabbits. Soil microfauna is important on the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems. Microfauna and mesofauna hold nutrients in the root zone for our plants. They will build soil structure so that water both drains and holds better. Organisms of microfauna and mesofauna helps to prevent soil erosion. They produce plant stimulating hormones. Microfauna and mesofauna fixes nitrogen from nitrogen gas to plant usable nitrogen. They make phosphorus available in a plant usable form. They open the soil so that plant roots can penetrate more deeply.

5) Food webs can indicate the biological complexity, and therefore the health of the soil. Explain how our land management practices alter soil health. Crop rotation and diversification also play an important role in increasing the diversity of food resources and environmental conditions for the soil biota. Crop rotation avoids a decrease in soil fertility. As growing the same crop repeatedly in the same place eventually depletes the soil of various nutrients. A crop that leaches the soil of one kind of nutrient is followed during the next growing season by a dissimilar crop that returns that nutrient to the soil or draws a different ratio of nutrients. Crop rotation farmers can keep their fields under continuous production. They can reduce the need for artificial fertilizers which can be expensive. Rotating crops adds nutrients to the soil and dirt. Crop rotation also seeks to balance the fertility demands of various crops to avoid excessive depletion of soil nutrients.

6) Explain how the soil biota contribute to the functioning of the soil ecosystem. What ecosystem services do they regulate? Soil biota is the diversity of organisms in the soil. Tons of soil biota, including micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae) and soil animals (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects, and earthworms). They can live in an acre of soil and are more diverse than the community of plants and animals above ground. Soil biota

are concentrated in plant litter the upper few inches of soil and along roots. Soil organisms interact with one another, with plant roots and with their environment. Thus, forming the soil food web.

As soil organisms consume organic matter, nutrients and energy are exchanged through the food web and are made available to plants. Each soil organism plays a role in the decomposition of plant residue, dead roots and animal remains. The larger soil organisms, such as millipedes and earthworms, shred dead leaves and residue. These larger organisms mix shred dead leaves and residue with the soil. Then make organic material more accessible to immobile bacteria. Earthworms can completely mix the top 6 inches of a humid grassland soil in 10 to 20 years. Predators in the soil food web include scorpions, centipedes, spiders, mites, some ants, insects and beetles. They control the population of soil biota. The smaller organisms, including mites, springtails, nematodes, and one-celled protozoa, graze on bacteria and fungi. Other organisms feed on dead roots, shredded residue and the fecal by-products of the larger organisms. The smallest soil organisms, microscopic bacteria and fungi make up the bulk of the biota in the soil. They finish the process of decomposition by breaking down the remaining material and storing its energy and nutrients in their cells. Without the soil food web, the remains of dead plants and animals would accumulate on the earths surface, making nutrients unavailable to plants. Soil biota decompose these organic residues and some forms of organic matter in the soil. They convert these materials into new forms of organic matter and release carbon dioxide into the air. Many of the biota can break down pesticides and pollutants. Most of the annual nutrient needs of rangeland plants are supplied through decomposition of organic matter in the soil. As soil organisms consume organic materials, they retain nutrients in their cells. This process prevents the loss of nutrients, such as nitrogen, from the root zone. When fungi and bacteria die or are eaten by other organisms, nutrients are mineralized. That is, slowly released to the soil in plantavailable forms. Nutrient immobilization and mineralization occur continuously throughout the year. Some bacteria and fungi provide nutrients to plants in exchange for

carbon. Special types of bacteria, called nitrogen fixers, infect the roots of clover and other legumes forming visible nodules. The bacteria convert nitrogen from the air in the soil into a form that the plant host can use. When the leaves and roots die and decompose, nitrogen levels increase in the surrounding soil, improving the growth of other plants. Fungi produce hyphae that frequently look like fine white entangled threads in the soil. Some fungal hyphae (mycorrhizal fungi) attach to plant roots and act like an extended root system, providing nutrients and water to the plant. Soil biota form water-stable aggregates that store water and are more resistant to water erosion and wind erosion than individual soil particles. Threads of fungal hyphae bind soil particles together. Bacteria and algae excrete material that glues soil into aggregates. As they tunnel through the soil, the larger soil biota form channels and large pores between aggregates, increasing the water infiltration rate and reducing the runoff rate.

Conclusion: Different type of soil consist of different type of macrofauna.

Bibliography

1. Miller,G.T.(2001).Biodiversity.Environmental Thompson Learning.

Science.

8th Edition.

Brooks/Cole

2. Gaffin, Hoetnagels, Lewis, Parker, ( 1998 ), Life Fourth Edition, MacGraw-Hill: United States. 3. Choong Ngok Mang, Liew Shee Leong, Lee Soon Chin, ( 2004 ), SUCCESS IN BIOLOGY FOR STPM VOLUME 2, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn.Bhd: elangor. 4. Wright, R. t. (2005). Environmental Science Towards A Sustainable Future . United States of America: Pearson Education . 5. Http://www.parameter. editor.htm viewed on 28th July 2010 6. http://www.eco-bio/soil-litt.html viewed on 29th July 2010

Reflection I did experiment about soil ecosystem, soil biota and food webs. I did this experiment in group of four members. First of all, we studied carefully all the procedures of this practical 1. My group members were giving cooperation when conduct this experiment. I face some problems when conduct this experiment. But, I able to overcome all the problems. I had problem to choose site which consist of macrofauna. I took time to find out the proper site which is rich with various macrofauna. I choose garden as I notice there are many macrofauna in the garden. I also face another problem when some macrofauna try to move out from the collected soil. So, I put more soil on it to prevent it from move away from the collected soil. Besides that I also face some obstacles when set up the apparatus. With the help of all group members I manage to overcome this problem. There are two containers in tullgren funnel. Upper container consists of bulb. Lower container is consist of soil. when I set up the tullgren funnel, there was gap between these two containers. So, the light from bulb will be not fully reach the soil. moreover, this gap provide opportunity to macrofauna to move out from the tullgren funnel. So, I cover the gap of these containers by cellophane tape. So, the macrofauna in the soil cannot move out. When set up the Baermann I was not encountered much problem. I able to set up it. I have to leave these set up of apparatus for two days. So, I always went to the lab to see the macrofauna found in the preserving jar. I went to see the apparatus frequently to ensure that there was no short circuit occurs as the bulb continuously supplied with current. This is the precaution that I took to avoid current. I able to identify most of the names of macrofauna. There were some macrofauna which I did not know their name. with the help of other class mates and lecturer I find out all names of macrofuna in the preserving jar of tullgren funnel properly. This enables to me to do the experiment in the proper way. I used microscope to identify the smaller macrofauna in the baermann funnel. The next problem that I face is see the small macrofauna through the microscope. The

next problem that I face is see the small macrofauna through the microscope. I took some time to identify the small macrofauna in baermann funnel. I learned so many new things through this experiment. I gain a new experience when collect soil from garden and set up tullgren and baermann funnel. This knowledge and experience is applicable when I been posted to any school later. In future I can guide my students to set up these apparatus in the correct way. I learn that cooperation among group member is important to complete any work. The cooperation can make work easier. Whereby, we can save time when all the group mates do their work properly. In conclusion, this was a valuable experience for me, where I learnt a lot during this experiment.