CORE COURSE 1: UNIT 8 : BASICS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

Systematics: definition, place and role in biology.

Taxonomy : Definition, scope and different levels (alpha, beta and

gamma taxonomy, micro and macrotaxonomy).

ICZN and its important rules (Principle of nomenclature, authorship,

priority, synonymy and homonymy).

Type concept.

Six kingdom and three domain concept of classification.

SYSTEMATICS: MEANING AND CONTRIBUTION

Definition:

Simpson(1961): Scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any
and all relationships among them.

Mayr(1969): Science of the diversity of organisms.

Systematics=systema-toputtogether.

First used by Linnaeus for the systems of classification (Systema

Naturae, 1735, 4thedition).

Kinds and diversity of organisms:

There are many species of birds, fishes and such others. When we talk about a
species of crow, we should know that species of crow does not represent the entire
population of that species. Variation is a natural phenomenon and not a single
specimen can represent all members of a species. This refers to the kinds of
organisms. Diversity, for example, mammalian diversity, stands for the how many
species of mammals are there in an ecosystem.

Relationships-Any and All:

Relationship: Each and all species in nature are related to one another by virtue of
evolution and speciation.
How? During speciation and evolution, some structures of a species become
modified and few newer structures develop. The modification is a trend to suit newer
habitat for foraging, reproduction and other functions of life. Thus continuity is
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established. This continuity helps us to detect the path way of evolution. The species
on this line are thus related to each other. For example, the heart in vertebrates,
which shows gradual complexity from simpler tubular heart in fish.

Like above example of an organ, we can trace relationship in the mode of

reproduction, food habit , thermoregulation and similar aspects of a species. For
example, the biting and chewing mouth parts (e.g.Cockroach) has been modified
variously in different groups of insects.

Such relationships bring related groups in one group and separate distantly related
groups. Thus a structure of classification is developed based on those characters and
their modifications.

Classification:
Zoological classifications are the ordering of animals into groups (or sets) on
the basis of their relationships or of associations by contiguity, similarity or both.
The classification, if natural and based on true and diagnostic characters, will
develop a concept of phylogeny, i.e., a tree with braches showing the evolution of
those species. Thus systematic develops phylogenetic tree.

Place of systematic in Biology:

The study of the relationships among particular kinds of organisms and their
environments will thus develop Autecology.

Diversity, for example, avian diversity, stands for the taxonomic types of birds in a
zone (smallerorbigger). In any ecosystem, we find diversity of various taxa and their
interaction with the environment. Thus develops the concept of Synecology.

Both autecology and synecology provides much important information of the

systematic .These are foraging evolution, host preference, prey-predator interaction,
and reproductive behaviour and so on.

Biogeographic zones are different based on many factors. The plants in such one
zone will respond accordingly and animals will there by be modified to suit to that
system. The modifications will show a gradual evolution of some structures and will
show relationships with its ancestral form. Thus biogeography and systematics are
inseparable. This happens as dispersal and adaptation are innate qualities of every
species.

A species is defined as whose members share a common gene pool. Now, gene pool
is continuously changing by addition of newer genes contributed by the recently
modified structures of an existing/new species. Thus all members of a species are
genetically connected to each other and also with the primitive forms as their
ancestors.

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Systematics is a higher level at the base of which is taxonomy.
Taxonomy will identify the species status of an organism. The different
species will be related by descent. The characters used in taxonomy will
show relationships among diverse organisms (=systematic).
Taxonomy provides names of animals.

This is Zoological nomenclature and can be defined as: It is the

application of distinctive names to each of the groups recognized in any given
zoological classification.

PLACEOF SYSTEMATIC IN BIOLOGY: HIGHLIGHTS

1.Taxonomy: As discussed, taxonomy is at the base or first step to understand

systematic. There fore taxonomy of animal world will be understood. Identificationis
based on unique diagnostic characters of a species by which the species gene pool is
recognized. The identification is based on fewer characters.
2.Classification: Identified animals are placed in a hierarchy of classification
based or relationships. This is at a higher level of taxonomy.
3.Biogeography: Classification requires totality of characters of a species and
includes all variations of all members of that species occupying all geographical
habitats.
4.Phylogeny: The classification reveals evolution of those animals, i.e.,
phylogeny of the species.
5.New discovery: Classification being an information retrieval system, newly
discovered animals can easily be identified and put to its proper rank.
6.Researchonbiologicalsystems: No research on animal can be accurate
unless we know about its organization (anatomy, morphology, ethology etc.
including its evolution). The species must accurately be identified to obtain the right
prediction or result. Results vary with the species under consideration.

ROLE AND EXPANSE OF SYSTEMATICS IN TODAY BIOLOGY

Before the knowledge of genetics, understanding organic diversity was entirely
based on systematists. The evolution, speciation and phylogenetic analysis, concept
of missing link and other problems in evolution were carried out and solved through
the knowledge of systematic.

Present day systematic is continuously assisting to understand the entire living

world let alone the betterment of humankind. The following major subjects are
linked with systematics.

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Population genetics:
The exact characteristics of a population can only be understood by classification
and systematic. They also show the pathway of speciation.

Science of Behaviour:
The taxonomist and naturalists unearthed and solved the complex science of
ethology and developed the phylogeny of behavior.

Mutation and Natural selection:

It was once believed that the theory of natural selection was gone. But, systematics
has clearlye xplained the direction of natural selection in a steady environment with
less mutation or in a perturbed environment with numerous mutations.

Geological time scale determination:

Through the identification of flora and fauna on a substratum (soil, rocketc), the
taxonomist can understand age of that species. The other common method of dating
is the use of radioactive decay of carbon isotope.

Biodiversity conservation:
Biodiversity of a ountry reflects the richness of flora and fauna of a country for which
the country is proud of. More over good biodiversity is an indication of naturalness
of that country. The taxonomy and systematic are continuously providing
information on the biodiversity. This has become most important task of the
present era when anthropogenic threats made many species vulnerable or
threatened and many species have wiped out from our earth.

Environmental issues:
The importance of bio-indicators of soil and water in the identification of the health
of our ecosystem is now well understood. These indicator species are identified with
the help of taxonomists. Increase or decrease of the species clearly tells us the
present condition and help us to find justified solution.

The accumulation and quantity of non-biodegradable substances in animal body

reflects the type and source of various pollutants of the nature. The bioaccumulation
happens and affects the health of all animals and plants including humans The
results are highly deleterious to the existence of life forms on earth.

Agriculture:
Soil analysis is most important to all farmers. The Agriculture officer explains the
soil fertility including other parameters to farmers and suggest the type of crop,
fertilizer required for farming. The soil fertility depends on soil microarthropods.
Taxonomist identifies the community and can confidently tell the condition of soil.
Thus systematic of the biotic communality plays vital role in agriculture.
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Pest and vector management:
If we know the exact relationships between pest, predator along with host, we can
certainly tell the type of pests and their management. There are many types of
biological control methods, such as host-parasite, predatory forms, pathogens and
others. A sound knowledge of taxonomy and systematic can help to provide
optimum condition for the predators to tackle a pest problem.
Indiscriminate use of pesticide is not only killing pest but also causing death of
numerous other harmless and beneficial organisms thereby disturbing the
ecosystem and environmental degradation. The same is true for vector control
programme and epidemic situation.

Farm management: Pisciculture, poultry, apiculture,

sericulture:
With more demands of food and industry our government is introducing comercially
viable breeds, strains of species of animals for culture. They include many varieties
of fishes, honeybee, silkworms etc. They are adapted to our environment through
proper knowledge of their taxonomic position. Taxonomy determines the global
distribution, the adaptive capability, host so that they can infer optimum conditions
like temperature and humidity required to culture them.

TAXONOMY: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND DIFFERENT LEVELS

Definition of Taxonomy:
The term taxonomy is derived from two Greek words–taxis meaning arrangement,
and nomos meaning law.
m It was first proposed in by A.P. de Candolle (1813) for the theory of plant
classification. Candolle defined as “Taxonomy is the theoretical study of
classification, including its bases, principles, procedures and rules”.
m Mayr (1982) defined the term as “Taxonomy is the theory and practice of
classifying organisms”.

Explanation:
Both the definitions are centered round a common term classification. However, as
defined, classification requires entire knowledge of the species under consideration.
This involves morphology, anatomy, genetics etc of an organism which will
constitute the characters of that organism. This knowledge will help to identify
relationships by which a classification can be done.
A classification is again based on some principles and guidelines. Thus theoretical
knowledge of organisms and principles and procedure of classification are important
and based on them one can of understand taxonomy.

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 THE THREE LEVELS OF TAXONOMY

1.Alpha(α)taxonomy: This is first step in taxonomy where a new species is

identified and named following Linnaeus system of binomial nomenclature. Rules of
zoological nomenclature is followed (cases of synonymy and others including
publication and type deposition).

2.Beta(β)taxonomy: An identified species, based on characters and

relationships is placed in a natural system of hierarchical categories.

3.Gamma(Ƴ)taxonomy: Most animals could not be worked up to this level.

The three levels are interlinked and inseparable. At this level, studies are done on
intraspecific variation (study on population), speciation and evolution (phylogeny),
reproductive biology, ethology, biochemistry, SEM, TEM and molecular genetics.

SCOPE OF TAXONOMY
Þ It provides scientific names of all organisms by which they are known to all
people of the world. However, local names exist.

Þ Taxonomy deals with characters of a species which are stored and retrieved for
future purpose such as identifying unknown or new species.

Þ Such information produces key to identification for all species so far known not
only for taxonomists but also for lay man and farmers .

Þ It provides classification, which are of great heuristic and explanatory values in

most branches of biology like evolutionary biochemistry, immunology, ecology,
genetics, ethology, historical geology etc.

Þ It works out a vivid picture of the existing organic diversity of our earth and is the
only science that does so.

Þ It provides much ofthe information, making it possible for the reconstruction of

the phylogeny of life.

Þ It reveals various interesting evolutionary phenomena, making them available for

casual study by other branches of biology.

Þ Almost entirely, it supplies information needed by the various branches of

biology.

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Þ It is important in the study of economically or medically important organisms.

Þ It makes important conceptual contributions in population thinking, thereby

making it accessible to experimental biologists. It thus contributes significantly to
the broadening of biology and to a better balance within biological science as a
whole.

MICRO AND MACRO TAXONOMY

Mayr and Ashlock (1991) have divided taxonomy into two levels viz Micro and Macro
Taxonomy.
m The work, which is used to define species, is termed as Microtaxonomy.
Thus microtaxonomy is related to studies related to variations, relationships and
characteristics on a small scale and can be observed or identified.

m Macrotaxonomy deals with the study of groups a thighe rtaxonomic ranks.

Macrotaxonomy is related to studies related to variations, relationships and
characteristics on a large scale and can not be observed or viewed.

« The term species problem: is defined as the difficulties as to how species would be
classified into any specific group of organisms.

International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

International Zoological Congress elects a judicial body called International

Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. This commission has prepared a
guideline for understanding and working with the naming of organisms used in
taxonomy. This guideline formulated by the commission is called International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Any grievance related to naming,
authorship or classification is undertaken for discussion and judgment by the
commission.

Some features of ICZN:

1.The name should ideally be a binomen and rarely trinomen; using a subgenus
name, this becomes quadrinomen.

2.Name should be in Latin or be Latinized.

3.Genus and subgenus starts with capital letter; for species and subspecies name, all
letters are small.
4.Author name should not be abbreviated (Linnaeus not Linne).

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5.Taxon leve lendings:
Superfamily-...oidea
Family..........idae
Subfamily......inae
Tribe............ini

Example:
Superfamily..Blattopter..oidea
Family..Mant..idae
Subfamily…Mant..inae
Tribe….Mant..ini Superfamily-...oidea

6.Law of Priority : Taxonomists are working for decades and publishing their
findings in journals. Many of them may not be aware of certain publications due to
various reasons. Therefore different cases about naming and framing a name at any
level may be unjustified. Thus there are cases of synonymy and Homonymy.

SYNONYMY: Sometimes different names are applied to some species which are
actually conspecific and are done by mistakes involving insuffiencies in
knowledge/communication on the part of the author(s). Such cases persists in
taxonomy and there will be no change in authorship. A subsequent reviser or
reviewer corrects the situation and hold the earliest name as Senior Synonym and
rest, year-wise mentioned below the senior as Junior Synonym.

Synonym may also be divided into two categories, such as:

(a)Subjective synonym : This is also known as Taxonomic synonym or
Heterotypic synonym. These synonyms are based upon different type materials.
These are indicated by the sign =.
(b)Objective synonym: This is also called Nomeclaturalsynonym or obligate
synonym or Homotypicsynonym. These are based upon the same original type and
indicated by the sign ≡.

Synonyms posses problem to taxonomists and only expert decision will solve the
situations.
Example
Hymenopus coronatus (Olivier, 1792)....Senior, objective
Mantis coronata (Olivier, 1792).... Jumior, objective
Empusa bicornis (Latreille, 1807).... Junior, subjective
Mantis bicornis (Latreille, 1807). In: Stoll, 1813. Junior, objective to
Empusa bicornis (Latreille, 1807).

HOMONYMS: When same name is applied to another species under same genus
by a later worker being unaware that the name is preoccupied. In homonyms the
species are different.
A reviser or the later worker who deed this naming by mistake will correct the
situation by applying a different name for his/her new species.
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The reviser who corrects the name will get authorship. The earliest name is retained
as it is (= senior homonym) and puts the rest as junior homonym.
Example:
Apis alba Stall, 1887senior homonym
Apis alba Bolivar, 1908junior homonym
Apis bolivarii Rehn, 1950, nomen novum for Apisalba Bolivar, 1908.

TYPE CONCEPT

Typification:
It is the process of determination and naming a species during first discovery is done
by:
Þ Done by original author who describes a new species.
Þ By subsequent authors who select types from duly preserved samples of the
original author or when the original type material is lost.

Essential features of typification:

1. A ‘Zoological type’ is the objective basis with which a ‘Zoological name’ is
permanently linked.
2. A ‘type species’ is a natural specimen of that species; this can be type species of a
genus if a new genus is created based on this species.
3. A single or few specimens of a species can not reflect the variabilitiesof its entire
population and thus the characters of those few specimens are not concerned as
exclusive features of that species. Thus the type remains as ‘name bearer’ of the
species.
4. In Linnaean period, ‘old types’ were replaced by ‘new types’. Later, the original
type was treated as ‘type’ and subsequent types as ‘cotype= paratype’. Many such
type names were used in those era. This is not practiced in present taxonomy.
5. Simpson (1940) used the term ‘hypodigm’ to refer to all specimens of available to
a taxonomist at any point of time. This is same as the term ‘members’ of a sample.

Categories of Type:
There are some 12 different categories of type in taxonomy under two broad groups.
A. Primary types--designated at the time of description of a new taxon.
B. Secondary types--designated by subsequent author.

q Primary types:-
1. Holotype::
A single specimen of a particular sex chosen best in all condition by the original
author as a model of a species during first description. This single specimen is

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labelled as ‘Holotype’. There may be single or two or several examples of the
specimen.
2. Allotype::
This is the best specimens among two or more examples at hand of original
describer of a species and this should be of opposite sex of the holotype. Zoological
code, however, does not favourthe usage of allotype.
3. Paratype::
After selection of holotypeand allotype, the rest materials in the collection of original
describer is labelled as paratype.
4. Chirotype::
This is a manuscript species; the species was not duly published but the author
designated name of a new species.
5. Metatype::
One or several examples when compared with the type specimen by the original
author and proved to be perfectly similar, then those examples are termed as ‘
metatype’.

q Secondary types:-
1. Homotype::
This similar to metatypebut the comparison was done by other than original author.
This type becomes important upon loss or damage of the original type material.
2. Lectotype::
In earlier history of taxonomy, the original describer of a species labelledhis/her
materials as ‘important ‘or similar words, and has not labelledany example as ‘type’,
a later author may label a best example among those materials as ‘lectotype’.
3. Paralectotype::
After designation of lectotype, rest examples, if any, are labelled as paralectotype.
4.Neotype::
When the original holotype/lectotypeetc. are lost due to fire, natural disaster etc.
then a subsequent author may collect another sample from the type locality of
original type and identified as exact replica, then such specimen is termed as
neotype.
5. Plastotype::
Mostly in paleontology, a plastercastof the type is used as plastotype.
6. Topotype::
A reviser or subsequent author collects and identify examples from the type locality
and designates them as topotype.

q Special kinds of typification:-A.Type culture: Prokaryotes, bacteria are

preserved in living state in specific laboratories for decades for their specific

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 essential features and identification. These are reference material for a specific
strain.
B.Hapanotype: A new species of protozoon is
duly preserved on a slide permanently where many examples are present.

SIX KINGDOM THREE DOMAIN

In biology, Kingdoms are the highest taxonomic groups of living organisms.
Biologists since the time of Aristotle (384-322 BC) have divided the living world into
two kingdoms, Plants and animals.

Demerits or Limitations:
(a) The two kingdom system of classification did not indicate any evolutionary
relationship between plants and animals.
(b) It grouped together the prokaryotes (bacteria, Blue green algae) with other
eukaryotes.
(c) It also grouped unicellular and multi-cellular organisms together.
(d) This system did not distinguish the heterotrophic fungi and the autotrophic
green plants.
(e) Dual organisms like Euglena and lichens did not fall into either kingdom.
(f)Slimemould,atypeoffungi,canneitherbegroupedinfunginorplants.Theylacktypicalc
ellwall,haveamembraneandholozoicinvegetativestage,butdevelopcellwallinthereprod
uctivestage.
(g)Itdidnotmentionsomeacellularorganismslikevirusesandviroids.

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The German biologist Earnst Haeckel (1866) suggested a three-kingdom system
(Protista,Plantae and Animalia). In the third kingdom Protista he grouped all the
single-celled organisms that are intermediate in many respects between plants and
animals.
Herbert Copeland (1956) have suggested a fourth kingdom, originally called Mycota
but later referred to as the Monera, to include the prokaryotes like bacteria and blue-
green algae, which have many characteristics in common.
R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American Taxonomist, classified all organisms into five
kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animal. He used following criteria
for classification:
(i)Complexity of cell structure
(ii)Complexity of body organization
(ii)The mode of nutrition
(iv)Lifestyle (ecological role) and
(v)Phylogenetic relationship.

Some scientists have proposed that organisms be divided into even more (may be as
many as 8) kingdoms.

Currently most biologists recognize six kingdoms: two prokaryotic kingdoms

(Archaebacteria and Bacteria), a large unicellular eukaryotic kingdom (Protista) and
three Multicellular eukaryotic kingdoms (Fungi, Plantae and Animalia).
« Avirusdoesnotbelongtoanyofthekingdomsoflife.
«
«

Characteristics of virus:
1.Viruses have no metabolic apparatus and do not digest, respire.
2.They are not made of cells. They have no cell membrane, nucleus, orcytoplasm.
3.They are crystalline when evaporated.
4.They can reproduce but only inside a host.
5.They contain genes made of either DNA or RNA.
6.They can take over the cell activity of hosts they invade, not jus tkill them.
7.They can cause transmittable (contagious) diseases.

-------------------------------

The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese et

al. in 1977.
It divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains. In
particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally
called Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea).
On the basis of differences in 16S rRNA genes, Woesesuggested that, these two
groups and the eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly
developed genetic machinery, often called aprogenote. To reflect these primary lines
of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms.
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Woese initially used the term "kingdom" to refer to the three primary phylogenic
groupings, and this nomenclature was widely used until the term "domain" was
adopted in 1990.

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Salient characteristics of the Six Kingdoms:

Kingdom Archaebacteria“extreme bacteria” :-

P Cell Type –Prokaryotic
P Cellular Organization –Unicellular
P Mode of nutrition –Autotrophic or Heterotrophic.
P Reproduction –asexual
P Motility –some are motile
P Cell Wall –cell walls without peptidoglycan
P Habitat –hot springs, geysers, volcanic hot pools, brine pools, black smokers
( geothermal vents, no light, carry out chemosynthesis instead of photosynthesis.

Kingdom Eubacteria:-
P Cell Type –Prokaryotic; shapes: rods, spheres, spirals.
P Cellular Organization –Unicellular; cell wall more complex
than Archaebacteria
P Mode of nutrition –Autotrophic or heterotrophic
P Reproduction –asexual
P Motility –some are motile
P Cell Wall –Thick cells walls with peptidoglycan
P Habitat –everywhere!
Examples: Procholorococcus; E. coli

Kingdom Protista: “Catch All Kingdom” :-

P Cell Type –Eukaryotic
P Cellular Organization –Most unicellular, some multicellular
P Mode of Nutrition –Auto and heterotrophic
P Reproduction –Sexual and asexual
P Cell Wall –Some with cell walls containing cellulose
P Motility –Some are motile, some are not
P Habitat –All aquatic.
Ex: Volvox; Euglena; Amoeba

Kingdom Fungi :-
P Cell Type –Eukaryotic
P Cellular Organization –Most multicellular
P Mode of Nutrition –Heterotrophic (decomposers)
P Reproduction –Sexual and asexual
P Cell Wall –Cell walls containing chitin
P Motility –Non-motile
P Habitat –Terrestrial

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Kingdom Plantae:-
P Cell Type –Eukaryotic
P Cellular Organization –Multicellular
P Mode of Nutrition –Autotrophic
P Reproduction –Sexual, vegetative
P Cell Wall –Cell walls containing cellulose
P Motility –Nonmotile
P Habitat –Aquatic and terrestrial

Kingdom Animalia:-
P Cell Type –Eukaryotic
P Cellular Organization –Multicellular
P Mode of Nutrition –Heterotrophic
P Reproduction –Mostly sexual
P Cell Wall –None
P Motility –All are motile
P Habitat –Aquatic and terrestrial

How does the system of three domains differ from that of the
previous concept of five kingdom?

Each of these three domains contains unique rRNA. This forms the basis of the
three-domain system.
The presence of a nuclear membrane differentiates the Eukarya from the Archaea
and Bacteria, both of which lack a nuclear membrane, distinct biochemical and RNA
markers differentiate the Archaea and Bacteria from each other.
Previously categorized kingdoms are much more closely related. The traditional
kingdoms also left out many eukaryotic organisms that didn't fit into any of the
existing groups and were treated as "Protista".
Kingdoms are no longer really used. There is just too much diversity below the
domain level and above the phylum level to deal with by separating into a handful of
kingdoms.
Most eukaryotic diversity was previously tossed into Protista, which as a group
means nothing in terms of evolution.
Traditional kingdoms match very poorly to actual relationships between organism.
Animals and Fungi are traditionally separate kingdoms, but they're quite closely
related.

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