Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr.

Soudod Osama
A View of Life
 It is estimated that there are over 15 million different species, including our
species, Homo sapiens, that inhabit the globe. Furthermore, life may be found
everywhere, from the deepest trenches in the oceans to the tops of the highest
mountains.
 Biology:- is the area of scientific study that focuses on understanding all
aspects of living organisms. To further our understanding of what it means to
be alive, biologists explore life from the molecular level of the information in
our genes to the large-scale ecological interactions of multiple species and their
environments.
 Biology:- is the scientific study of life and living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and interactions with their
environment. It encompasses a wide range of topics and disciplines, from the
molecular level (like DNA and proteins) to entire ecosystems.
Key Areas in Biology:
1. Cell Biology: Study of cells, the basic units of life.
2. Genetics: Study of heredity and gene function.
3. Evolution: Study of how species change over time.
4. Ecology: Study of organisms and their interactions with the environment.
5. Anatomy and Physiology: Study of the structure and function of organisms.
6. Microbiology: Study of microorganisms like bacteria and viruses.
7. Biochemistry: Study of the chemical processes within living organisms.
Zoology:- is a branch of biology that focuses on the study of animals, their behavior,
structure, physiology, classification, distribution, and interactions with their
environment. It encompasses everything related to the animal kingdom, from tiny
microorganisms to large mammals.
Zoology is the study of all animals of all shapes and sizes, from tiny insects to large
mammals. Zoologists investigate what animals eat and how they live, and how
animals interact with their habitats.
Zoology:- science Deals with Animals
Main areas of zoology
Animal Physiology: Study of biological processes and functions in animals.
1. Animal Behavior: Investigation of how animals act and interact in various
environments.
2. Taxonomy: Classification and naming of animals.
3. Evolutionary Biology: Study of how animals have evolved over time.
4. Ecology: Study of animals in relation to their habitats and ecosystems.
5. Entomology: Study of insects.
6. Ichthyology: Study of fish.
7. Herpetology: Study of reptiles and amphibians.
8. Ornithology: Study of birds.
9. Mammalogy: Study of mammals.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama

 Figure 1.1 illustrates the major groups of living organisms From left to
right, bacteria are widely distributed, microscopic organisms with a very
simple structure. A Paramecium is an example of a microscopic protist.
Protists are larger in size and more complex than bacteria.
 The other organisms in Figure are easily seen with the naked eye. They can be
distinguished by how they get their food. A morel is a fungus that digests its
food externally.
 A sunflower is a photosynthetic plant that makes its own food, and an octopus
is an aquatic animal that ingests its food
 The complex organization of life begins with atoms, the basic units of matter.
Atoms combine to form small molecules, which join to form larger molecules
within a cell, the smallest, most basic unit of life. Although a cell is alive, it is
made from nonliving molecules.
 Some cells, such as single-celled paramecium, live independently. In some
cases, single-celled organisms clump together to form colonies, as does the
alga Volvox.
 Many living organisms are multicellular, meaning they contain more than one
cell. In multicellular organisms, similar cells combine to form a tissue—for
example, the nerve and muscle tissues of animals. Tissues make up organs,
such as the brain or a leaf
 Organs work together to form organ systems; for example, the brain works
with the spinal cord and a network of nerves to form the nervous system.
Organ systems are joined together to form an organism ,such as an elephant.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama

Characteristics of Living Organisms:

1. Cellular Organization:- All living organisms are made up of one or more
cells, which are the basic units of life. Examples: Single-celled organisms like
bacteria or multicellular organisms like humans.
Organization:- Living organisms are characterized by having a complex and
independent structure, starting from the basic unit that makes up all forms of
life; the cell.
2. Metabolism:-(catabolism and anabolism) Living organisms carry out
chemical reactions to convert energy and maintain life. Includes processes like
respiration, digestion, and synthesis.
3. The need for energy:- All living organisms need the energy they obtain in the
form of food; in order to carry out metabolic processes and stay alive.
4. Growth and Development:- Organisms increase in size (growth) and undergo
changes over their lifespan (development). Example: A seed growing into a
tree.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
5. Reproduction:- The ability to produce offspring to ensure the continuation of
the species. Can be sexual (involving two parents) or asexual (involving one
parent).
6. Response to Stimuli (Irritability):- Organisms detect and respond to changes
in their environment. Example: Plants bending toward light, or animals fleeing
from danger.
7. Homeostasis:- The ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite
external changes. Example: Humans regulate body temperature through
sweating or shivering.
8. Adaptation:- Over time, organisms evolve traits that enhance their survival in
specific environments. Example: Camouflage in animals to avoid predators.
Adaptation: Acclimatization refers to the ability of an organism to respond to
the requirements of the environment in which it lives.
9. Movement:- Many organisms exhibit movement, either at the cellular level
(e.g.,cytoplasmic streaming) or as whole organisms (e.g., walking, swimming).
Even plants show movement, like the opening and closing of flowers.
10.Excretion:- The process of removing waste products generated during
metabolism. Example: Humans excrete urea through urine.
11.Nutrition:- The process of obtaining and utilizing energy and nutrients from
the environment. Example: Plants perform photosynthesis; animals consume
food.
The elements of life are the chemical elements that are essential for the structure
and function of living organisms. These elements form the building blocks of
biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
The basic elements of life:
1. Carbon (C):- Forms the backbone of organic molecules. Its ability to form
four bonds makes it highly versatile.
2. Hydrogen (H):- A major component of water and organic compounds.
Involved in energy transfer reactions, like in ATP.
3. Oxygen (O):- Essential for respiration and energy production. A key
component of water and organic molecules.
4. Nitrogen :- Found in amino acids (proteins) and nucleotides (DNA and RNA).
5. Crucial for building proteins and genetic material.
6. Phosphorus (P):- A part of nucleotides (DNA, RNA) and energy molecules
like ATP.Found in the structure of cell membranes (phospholipids).
7. Sulfur (S):- Found in certain amino acids (e.g., cysteine and methionine).
Important for protein structure and enzyme function.
These six elements (C, H, O, N, P, S) are often called the "CHNOPS" elements and
are considered the primary elements of life.
Trace Elements: ‫عناصر النزرة‬
In addition to the major elements, living organisms require trace elements in
small amounts for various physiological functions:
Iron (Fe): Essential for oxygen transport in blood (hemoglobin).
Calcium (Ca): Important for bone structure and cellular signaling.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Magnesium (Mg): Crucial for enzyme activation and photosynthesis.
Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na): Involved in nerve impulses and muscle function.
Zinc (Zn): Necessary for enzyme activity.
Together, these elements form the molecular foundation of all living systems.
Molecules and compounds are fundamental concepts in chemistry that help explain
the composition and behavior of matter.
Molecules:- A molecule is a group of two or more atoms bonded together. These
atoms can be of the same element or different elements.
Characteristics:
Held together by covalent bonds.
Can be neutral or charged (if charged, they are called molecular ions).
Types of Molecules:
1. Simple Molecules: Composed of a small number of atoms. Example: Oxygen gas
(O₂), Water (H₂O).
2. Macromolecules: Large, complex molecules found in biological systems. Example:
Proteins, DNA.
Compounds:- A compound is a substance made of two or more different elements
chemically bonded in a fixed ratio.
Characteristics:
 The elements in a compound are chemically combined and cannot be separated
by physical means.
 Compounds have unique properties different from the individual elements that
form them. Examples:
Water (H₂O): Formed from hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Formed from carbon and oxygen.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Table salt, formed from sodium and chlorine.
 All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.
Example: O₂ is a molecule (same element), not a compound.
Example: H₂O is both a molecule and a compound (different elements).
 Understanding molecules and compounds is crucial in biology, chemistry, and
environmental sciences, as they explain the interactions and compositions of matter
in living and non-living systems.
⦿Life Requires Materials and Energy ‫الحياة تتطلب المواد والطاقة‬

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
 Living organisms cannot maintain their organization or carry on life’s activities
without an outside source of nutrients and energy. Food provides nutrients,
which are used as building blocks or for energy.
 Energy is the capacity to do work, and it takes work to maintain the
organization of the cell and the organism.
 When cells use nutrient molecules to make their parts and products, they carry
out a sequence of chemical reactions.
 The term metabolism (Gk. meta, “change”) encompasses all the chemical
reactions that occur in a cell.
 The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the sun. Plants and
certain other organisms are able to capture solar energy
 and carry on photosynthesis, a process that transforms solar energy into the
chemical energy of organic nutrient molecules.
 All life on Earth acquires energy by metabolizing nutrient molecules made by
photosynthesizes. This applies even to plants themselves.
Chemical Cycling and energy flow in an ecosystem.
 In an ecosystem, chemical cycling and energy flow begin when plants use solar
energy and inorganic nutrients to produce their own food.
 Chemicals and energy are passed from one population to another in a food chain.
Eventually, energy dissipates as heat. With the death and decomposition of
organisms, chemicals are returned to living plants once more.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Living Organisms Reproduce and Development
 Life comes only from life. All forms of life have the ability to reproduce, or
make another organism like itself.
 Bacteria, protists ,and other single-celled organisms simply split in two.
 In most multicellular organisms, the reproductive process begins with
thepairing of a sperm from one partner and an egg from the other partner.
 The union of sperm and egg, followed by many cell divisions, results in an
immature stage, which proceeds through stages of development, or change, to
become an adult.
 When living organisms reproduce, their genes, or genetic instructions, are
passed on to the next generation. Random combinations of sperm and egg,
each of which contains a unique collection of genes, ensure that the offspring
has new and different characteristics.
 An embryo develops into a whale, a yellow daffodil, or a human because of the
specific set of genes it inherits from its parents. In all organisms, the genes are
made of long DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. DNA provides the
blueprint, or instructions, for the organization and metabolism of the particular
organism.
 All cells in a multicellular organism contain the same set of genes, but only
certain genes are turned on in each type of specialized cell. You may notice
that not all members of a species are exactly the same, and that there are
obvious differences between species.
 These differences are the result of mutations, or inheritable changes in the
genetic information.
 Mutation provides an important source of variation in the genetic information.
However, not all mutations are bad—the observable differences in eye and hair
color are examples of mutations.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
⦿Evolution—the Core Concept of Biology
 The phrase “common descent with modification” sums up the process of
evolution, because it means that as descent occurs from common ancestors, so
do modifications that cause organisms to be adapted to their environment.
 Through many observations and experiments, Charles Darwin came to the
conclusion that natural selection is the process that makes modification—that
is, adaptation—possible.
Natural Selection
 During the process of natural selection, some aspect of the environment selects
which traits are more apt to be passed on to the next generation. The selective
agent can be an abiotic agent (part of the physical environment, such as
altitude), or it can be a biotic agent
 part of the living environment, such as a deer .the dietary habits of deer might
eventually affect the characteristics of the leaves of a particular land plant.
Mutations fuel natural selection, because mutation introduces variations among
the members of a population. In Figure 1.6
plant species generally produces smooth leaves, but a mutation occurs that
causes one plant to have leaves that are covered with small extensions, or
“hairs”.
The plant with hairy leaves has an advantage, because the deer (the selective
agent) prefer to eat smooth leaves, not hairy leaves.
Therefore, the plant with hairy leaves survives best and produces more seeds
than most of its neighbors.
As a result, generations later most plants of this species produce hairy leaves.
Evolution and Natural Selection
What is Evolution? Evolution is the process through which species of organisms change over
generations through variations in their genetic material. These changes, driven by mutations, gene
flow, genetic drift, and natural selection, can lead to the development of new species or adaptations
that help organisms survive in their environment. Evolution is a fundamental concept in biology
that explains the diversity of life on Earth.
What is Natural Selection?
Natural selection is a mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin. It is the process where
organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and
pass on their advantageous traits to the next generation. Over time, this leads to the adaptation of
species to their environment.
Basic Concepts in Natural Selection
1. Variation: Within a population, individuals have differences in traits (e.g., size, color,
speed).
2. Competition: Organisms compete for limited resources such as food, water, and shelter.
3. Differential Survival and Reproduction: Individuals with traits that give them an
advantage are more likely to survive and reproduce.
4. Heritability: Favorable traits are passed on to the next generation, increasing their
frequency in the population over time.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Examples of Natural Selection
1. Peppered Moths: During the Industrial Revolution in England, darker moths became more common
than lighter ones because they were better camouflaged against soot-covered trees, avoiding
predation.
2. Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria: Overuse of antibiotics has led to bacteria evolving resistance,
making some strains harder to treat.
Importance of Evolution and Natural Selection
 Explains the diversity of life forms.
 Helps understand the relationship between organisms.
 Provides insights into solving biological problems, such as disease resistance and
conservation.
 If you'd like, I can provide a detailed case study or additional examples

 Because life is so diverse, it is helpful to group organisms into categories.

Taxonomy (Gk. tasso, “arrange”; nomos, “usage”) is the discipline of
identifying and grouping organisms according to certain rules.
 Taxonomy makes sense out of the bewildering variety of life on Earth and is
meant to provide valuable insight into evolution.
 Systematics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
 As systematists learn more about living organisms,the taxonomy often
changes.
 DNA technology is now widely used by systematists to revise current
information and to discover previously unknown relationships between
organisms.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Several of the basic classification categories, or taxa, going from least inclusive
to most inclusive, are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and domain (Table 1.1).
⦿The least inclusive category, species (L. species,“model, kind”) , is defined as a :
group of interbreeding individuals.
⦿Each successive classification category above species contains more types of
organisms than the preceding one. Species placed within one genus share many
specific characteristics and are the most closely related, while species placed in the
same kingdom share only general characteristics with one another.

Domains
Current biochemical evidence suggests that there are three domains:
domain Bacteria, domain Archaea, and domain Eukarya.
Figure 1.7 shows how the domains are believed to be related.
Both domain Bacteria and domain Archaea may have evolved from the first
common ancestor soon after life began.
Modern Classification systems use a two- word naming system called
Binomial Nomenclature developed by Linnaeus to identify species.
In this system, the first word identifies the genus name of the organism.
A genus (plural form = genera) consists of a group of similar species. FIRST
NAME
The SECOND NAME, the descriptive word, often times describe a
characteristic of the organism, immediately follows the genus name.
Thus, the scientific name of each species = the genus name, followed by the
descriptive name.
For example: the scientific name of modern humans is Homo sapien.
Note, the genus name always begins with a capital letter, but the descriptive
(second) name always begins with a lower case letter. Both names are always
italicized or underlined. This is true ALL THE TIME
Modern humans are in the genus, “Homo.” And one characteristic of humans is
that they are very bright, or wise. The descriptive word “sapien” means wise.

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Both the genus name & descriptive name is in Latin form.
Latin is the language of scientific names which is still used today because the
language is no longer used in society for conversation. Therefore, it does not
change.
Although a scientific name gives information about the relationship of an
organism & how it is classified, many organisms have common names just like
you & your friends might have nicknames.
Overall, Classifying organisms is a useful tool for scientists as well as others
who work in the agriculture, forestry & medicine field.
Organisms are ranked in a “Taxa” according to have very broad (general) their
characteristics are & how very specific the characteristics are.
The broader the Taxa the more general its characteristics & the more species it
contains.
A Taxa is a further broken-down level of classification found within each
kingdom.
Organisms that look alike & successfully interbreed belong to the same
species.

The 5 Kingdoms of Classification In all, there are 5 Kingdoms of Life.

1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
1. Domain Bacteria (Kingdom: Eubacteria (True bacteria))
Bacteria :- are unicellular prokaryotic microscopic organisms. Their unique feature
covers the presence of peptidoglycan in the cell wall unlike
the Archaea and Eukarya, membrane composed of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages and their unique rRNA type.
Examples: Cyanobacteria, Mycoplasmas, Gram-Positive bacteria, and Gram-
negative bacteria. These are sensitive to most antibacterial antibiotics however show
resistance against antibiotics that affect Eukarya. They show the asexual mode of
reproduction. Generally, these are pathogenic but some are part of essential
microbiota such as commensals. Such commensals play a vital role in digestion and
absorption of foods, preventing pathogen colonization, activation of the immune
system, and many more.
Bacteria are considered to be the primary decomposers of the natural ecosystem.

2. Domain Archaea (Kingdom: Archaebacteria)

These are unicellular prokaryotic organisms that resemble bacteria in their
appearance, and hence were fallaciously placed under bacteria before the rise of three
domain systems. These are the foremost primitive and ancient forms among the three
domains and are known to be present within the most extreme conditions of the
environment. For example, acidophiles- live at pH below 1, alkaliphiles-live in very
salty environments, thermophiles-live at high temperatures (113°C), psychrophiles -
live in cold temperatures (4°C), methanogens- produce the gas methane,
thermoacidophiles-withstand acidic high-temperature water, etc. Contrary to this, all
archaea are not extremophiles as it has been recorded from normal environments such
as soil, and ocean, and also found to cohabit with bacteria like within the human gut,
the occurrence of methane-producing archaea. Their unique characteristics include
their membranes chemistry which consists of branched hydrocarbon chains attached
to glycerol by ether linkages that helps to stabilize them even under extreme
environments. They share a number of the properties that are common to either
bacteria or eukaryotes.
Similarities with bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotic nature
Absence of membrane-bound nucleus and other internal structures

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
Occurrence of single circular chromosome- a chunk of circular, double-
stranded DNA (dsDNA)
Asexual reproduction by the fission process
Presence of flagella for locomotion in their environment
3. Domain Eukarya
Eukarya is the only domain that represents multicellular, nucleated, and visible
organisms with distinct membrane-bound cell organelles although single-celled
eukarya also exist. These lack peptidoglycan in their cell envelope and have distinct
rRNA from bacteria and archaeans. The presence of a double-membrane nucleus with
pores, allows DNA enclosed within to move in and out of it. Cell division involves
the process of mitosis and cytokinesis. These generally show two modes of
reproduction: mitosis and meiosis as means of asexual and sexual reproduction.
Besides these, it’s characterized by the complex cellular organization with unique
features that include the endoplasmic reticulum, acidified vacuoles, Golgi complex,
eukaryotic telomeres, 9+2 flagellar apparatus, mitotic spindle formation, and
presence of specific genes and proteins like tubulins, actin, myosin, calmodulin, etc.
It’s further subdivided into four kingdoms namely:
 Kingdom Protista
These are unicellular eukaryotes except the brown algae, which is multicellular and
reproduce asexually and sexually by cell fusion and zygote formation. Examples:
Slime molds, Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids , and Protozoans.
 Kingdom Fungi
These are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes having specialized cell walls made
of chitin and reproduce sexually, asexually, and vegetatively. However, some fungi
such as yeasts are unicellular. Examples: Mucor, Aspergillus, Agaricus, etc.
 Kingdom Plantae
It includes all multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotic organisms except some that are
partially heterotrophic such as insectivorous plants or parasites. Their cell walls are
mainly made of cellulose and are non-motile. Their lifecycle exhibits a phenomenon
referred to as alternation of generation.

A typical animal cell ‫خلية نموذجية حيوانية‬ A typical plant cell ‫خلية نباتية نموذجية‬

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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama

Taxonomic Categories in Biology

Living organisms: They are organisms that grow, reproduce, and move from one
place to another and have their own characteristics and characteristics. Non-living
organisms are inanimate organisms that do not grow, reproduce, or move. To classify
living organisms, scientists have created what is called “taxonomy”.
The importance of taxonomy:-
1- It is easy to deal with living organisms.
2- It provides us with information about its characteristics.
3- It provides various types of knowledge to those working in the field of life
sciences.
Objectives of taxonomy
1. Naming living organisms.
2. Classification of living organisms.
Haeckel’s three Kingdoms
The classification of living organisms into animals and plants has revealed a lack
of logical connection between them and microscopic organisms, as fungi and most
bacteria do not perform the process of photosynthesis, and some of the spores of
fungi and algae have the ability to move translationally. Zoologists have also
developed some microscopic organisms that carry out the process of photosynthesis,
such as Euglena. Slime molds are within the animal kingdom, while botanists place
them within the plant kingdom.
In 1866, the scientist Haeckel proposed placing microorganisms in a separate
kingdom, the kingdom of Protista. This classification system was built on the
assumed evolutionary relationships that exist between living organisms and was laid
out in a tree-like manner. This classification was based on external characteristics
only, and it is a continuation of Darwin’s theories of evolution, natural selection, and
biology. Belonging to the protists, devoid of tissue differentiation, this kingdom
includes all cellular microorganisms such as algae, archaea, fungi, and bacteria.

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• The five kingdoms classification system
Many workers in the fields of life sciences have classified living organisms into five
kingdoms, and the scientist Robert H. Whitaker (Robert Whitaker) introduced this
system in 1969, as he placed living organisms in five kingdoms divided into three
degrees of advancement. One of these degrees included one kingdom, Monera,
which is a prokaryotic organism, while the second degree also included one kingdom,
which is the protista, which is monophyletic. The eukaryotic cell. The third level
includes multicellular organisms found within the kingdoms of Plantae, Anemalia,
and fungi, which adopted the method of nutrition as the basis of their classification.
Plants are autotrophic, except for a few that are saprophytic or parasitic, while fungi
are heterotrophs, which are similar to Bacteria absorb their pre-digested food.
As for animals, they are living creatures with different types of nutrition that devour
their food.
• Karl Weiss Al-Sanafi system.
The emergence and development of molecular biology in the 1970s supported
attempts to resolve what is related to the taxonomic systems that reflect the
evolutionary relationships between organisms, as this science provided the means to
help find evolutionary relationships between organisms at the molecular level, as the
genetic components of organisms that are close to each other must be similar. .
In 1980, Carl Woese proposed a new classification system containing three basic
kingdoms: -
1- Archaebacterial Kingdom
2- The kingdom of Eubacteria
3- The kingdom of eukaryotic organisms, Eukaryotes
The results of the sequence of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acid showed that the
group of ancient bacteria is genetically distant from the true bacteria (although they
are both prokaryotic organisms), in addition to their difference in the chemical
composition of the cell walls.
The group of ancient bacteria contained some characteristics of the genetic structure
of eukaryotic organisms, such as the presence of an intron between genes and the
DNA containing histone-like proteins.
At present, the most common classification is as follows: -
First: Eukaryotes Protista microorganisms, which includes: -
1- Algae
2- Protozoa
3- Fungi
4- Slime Molds
Second: Prokaryotic microorganisms, which include: -
1- Eubacteria
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Zoology /The first stage Lecture 1-2 Dr. Soudod Osama
2- Archaebacteria
3- Cyanobacteria
Third: Multicellular eukaryotic organisms that include the animal and plant
kingdoms
Archaea are a group of single-celled, prokaryotic organisms that sometimes
produce methane gas during their metabolic processes and live in extreme
environments, for example, a high-temperature, highly acidic environment, or an
environment with a high percentage of salts. These organisms have adapted to these
conditions through changes in their metabolic system or outer shell.

Biological factors play a major role in the balance and stability of ecosystems, and
the mutual relationships and interactions between living organisms in ecosystems
take different shapes and forms, the most prominent of which are the following:
First: Gregariousness: Most living organisms live solitary living, except that
there are other species that live in groups or in schools (fish) or in flocks (birds) or in
herds (cattle), and ungulates are mammals that are structurally separate, but they are
They are behaviorally integrated in general, and there is another type of organized
grouping known as colonies, where social organization occurs when many
individuals of one species live together in an integrated manner, so that each
individual works in a special way for the public good, as in social insects, especially
bees and ants, and animals gather for the purposes of Many of them include: (a) to
obtain food (b) to protect themselves from enemies (c) to reproduce (d) to keep warm
and maintain the temperature appropriately.
Third: Symbiosis: There are two forms of symbiosis between living organisms:
A - Mutualism: exchange of benefit: - In barter - or exchange of benefit, the two
parties benefit from each other, and one cannot live without the other, as is the case
with lichens, which are considered symbiotic living organisms composed of fungi
and moss and barter with each other. The moss, through... Photosynthesis and
building its food provides food for the fungus, while the fungus supplies the moss
with water and other essential mineral elements, and may also protect it from
dehydration, as well as the symbiotic relationship between termites and some

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flagellate protozoa found in their intestines, or the mutualistic relationship between
the bacterial nodules (bacteria) found on the roots. Leguminous plants and among the
leguminous plants themselves.

B- Commensalisms: It is a symbiotic relationship in which two different types of

living organisms coexist in a way that guarantees benefit and benefit to one of them,
while the other party does not benefit from it and is not harmed. Living is with, on, or
within another species without harm or benefit to the second type. The connection
between the two parties may be permanent or temporary, such as the protozoa that
live in the human intestines, the crabs that live regularly in the tubes of some annelid
worms, and the crabs that reside in the barnyard cavities of sea oysters, or it may be
temporary, such as the ramura fish that attaches itself using a dorsal sucker to other
fish to ensure transmission from One place to another.

C. Phoresis: - In this type of relationship, the smaller of the two types of organisms,
which is the phorant, bears mechanically on the larger type, which is the host, and
there is no physiological relationship between the two organisms, as in the case of the
dysentery amoeba Entamoeba histolytica with the legs of flies, and although flies are
involuntary transmitters of the amoeba, the life of each of them is The two beings and
their continuity are not linked to this relationship that came about by chance.
Fourth: Predation: An animal that preys on another animal is called a predator,
while the animal that is eaten itself is called prey. The relationship of predation can
be observed, as the name indicates, in living organisms preying on other living

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organisms and feeding on them. The relationship of predation can be observed
between many types of animal organisms. And plants. Predation differs from
parasitism in that the predator kills its prey immediately, but the parasite feeds on the
living family, usually continuously.
Fifth: Competition: Competition means the competition and conflict that occurs
between living organisms of various types and sizes, whether within one species or
between different species. The competitive relationship takes several forms and goals
related to competition for: A- Food B- Shelter and place C- And water D-
Reproduction and combining males and females, or competition for females in
general, e - and light (in plants), and competition is intense between individuals of the
same species because they have the same life requirements of food, shelter, places to
live and reproduce...etc. This competition is useful in regulating the numbers of
individuals of the species. One and thus the balance and stability of ecosystems.

Sixth: Saprophytism: In the saprophytism relationship, living organisms obtain

their food by living on the bodies of dead animals and plants. This is why we find this
type of living organisms with the ability to decompose dead organic food materials
with the help of their digestive enzymes and then absorb them. As in bacteria and
fungi, through this relationship, humans get rid of dead organic materials, remove
waste, and increase soil fertility.
Seventh: Parasitism: In this relationship, the smaller of the two organisms,
which is the parasite, depends on the other organism (the host) in terms of food and
housing, and causes it harm. The parasite here, unlike the eater, obtains its food
directly from the host. For example, the malaria parasite Plasmodium malaria feeds
on the host’s red blood cells, and the liver snail Fasciola hepatica feeds on the host’s
cells. Because of this relationship between the parasite and the host, the host
generates antibodies to the parasites or their secretions.
Host: The organism that supports the parasite and is harmed by it without benefiting
from it.

18
‫‪Zoology /The first stage‬‬ ‫‪Lecture 1-2‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Soudod Osama‬‬
‫الموقع التصنيفي لألحياء المجهرية ضمن عالم الكائنات الحية ‪-:‬‬
‫قبل اكتشاف األحياء المجهرية كانت الكائنات الحية تصنف في مملكتين هما الحيوانية والنباتية وكان الفيصل في هذا‬
‫التصنيف هو البناء الضوئي ‪ Photosynthesis‬فاذا كانت الكائنات قادرة على البناء الضوئي تصنف مع النباتات وأال فإنها‬
‫تصنف مع الحيوانات‪ .‬ومع اكتشاف األحياء المجهرية حاول العلماء ايجاد موقع تصنيفي لها بين الكائنات الراقية المصنفة ضمن‬
‫عدت الكائنات الحية وحيدة الخلية التي تحوي على غالف مرن شبيه بغالف الخاليا الحيوانية‬ ‫ْ‬ ‫المملكتين الحيوانية والنباتية فقد‬
‫مثل البروتوزوا ‪ Protozoa‬االبتدائيات أعدت من الحيوانات وصنفت مع مملكتها اما الطحالب ‪ Algae‬فقد صنفت مع النباتات‬
‫لقدرتها على البناء الضوئي والمتالكها جدار صلب للخلية مثل الخاليا النباتية كما صنفت الفطريات والبكتريا ضمن المملكة‬
‫النباتية ألسباب غير واضحة وقد استمر القبول بهذا التصنيف غير الدقيق لألحياء المجهرية حتى عام ‪ 1866‬حيث اقترح هيكل‬
‫‪ Heackel‬احد تالمذة دارون وضع األحياء المجهرية في مملكة مستقلة اسماها ‪ Protista‬الطليعيات وتشمل هذه المملكة جميع‬
‫الكائنات الحية الخالية من التمايز النسيجي اي الكائنات التي ال ترتقي خالياها الى مستوى أنسجة متميزة وتضم تضم وحسب‬
‫التعريف جميع الكائنات الحية الدقيقة التي كانت معروفة حتى ذلك الوقت من البكتريا واالبتدائيات والفطريات والطحالب وكان‬
‫اال عتماد في هذا التصنيف على الصفات المظهرية تحديدا وسمي تصنيف هيكل ذي ثالث ممالك بـ ‪Heackel three‬‬
‫‪ Kingdoms‬وهي المملكة الحيوانية والنباتية والطليعيات‪.‬‬
‫اما النظام التصنيفي ذي خمسة ممالك ‪ Five Kingdoms‬وضعة العالم وتكر ‪ Whitaker 1969‬ويقدم على توزيع‬
‫الكائنات الحية الى خمسة ممالك مقسمة الى ثالث مستويات من الرقي وتشمل احدى هذه المستويات مملكة مستقلة هي ‪Monera‬‬
‫وتضم الكائنات الحية البدائية النواة ‪ Prokaryotic‬حيث يشمل المستوى األخر مملكة أخرى هي مملكة الطليعيات ‪Protista‬‬
‫وتضم الكائنات الحية احادية الخلية حقيقية النواة ‪ Eukaryotic‬اما المستوى الثالث من درجة الرقي فتشمل ثالث ممالك هي‬
‫مملكة الفطريات والحيوانية والنباتية وتعتمد توزيع الكائنات في الممالك الثالث االخيرة على طرق تغذية هذه الكائنات وحسب هذا‬
‫النظام فان المونيرا يمثل الشكل القديم من الحياة وان عملية التطور أدت إلى نشوء الطليعيات وعانت الكائنات بتطورات الحقة‬
‫فتكونت األحياء التي تنطوي تحت الممالك الثالث الباقية ‪.‬‬
‫تقسيم ‪ Whitaker 1969‬للكائنات الحية ‪-:‬‬

‫األمثلة‬ ‫مستوى الرقي الممالك‬

‫جميع بدائيات النواة مثل البكتريا‬ ‫‪Monera‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫معظمها كائنات احادية الخلية حقيقية النواة مثل البروتوزوا‬ ‫‪Protista‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫النباتات الراقية القائمة بالتركيب الضوئي‬ ‫‪Plantae‬‬
‫الحيوانات المختلفة القائمة بعملية الهضم‬ ‫‪Animalia‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫متعددة الخاليا حقيقية النواة تتغذى بطريقة االمتصاص مثل الفطريات‬ ‫‪Fungi‬‬
‫تصنيف كارول ووز‪ -: Carl woese 1980‬في محاولة في حسم الخالفات المتعلقة بتصنيف الكائنات الحية وباالستفادة من علم‬
‫الحياة الجزيئي المتطور (‪ )Molecular Biology‬وهو العلم الذي يدرس الكائنات الحية على مستوى الجزيئات الداخلية في‬
‫تركيب اجزائها الخلوية المغلقة ‪ ,‬وما وفره ه ذا العلم من معلومات جديدة وقيمة عن الكائنات الحية بصورة عامة وعن االحياء‬
‫المجهرية بصورة خاصة على المستويين الجزئي والوراثي و التي حددت الى حد كبير مدى التقارب الوراثي ما بين هذه الكائنات‬
‫فقد وضع الباحث كارول ووز عام ‪ 1980‬نظاما ً ذي ثالث ممالك لألحياء المجهرية هي ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬مملكة البكتريا القديمة ‪Archaebacteria‬‬
‫‪ .2‬مملكة البكتريا الحقيقية ‪Eubacteria‬‬
‫‪ .3‬مملكة االحياء المجهرية حقيقية النواة ‪Eukaryotes‬‬
‫َّ‬
‫وان المملكتين االولى والثانية بدائية النواة لذا يمكن القول ان التصنيف الساري لألحياء المجهرية هي كالتالي‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬طليعيات حقيقية النواة ‪ Eukaryotes Protista‬مثل ( الطحالب– الطليعيات ‪ -‬الفطريات ‪ -‬األعفان المخاطية )‬
‫‪ ‬األحياء بدائية النواة ‪ Prokaryotes‬البكتريا‪ ,‬البكتريا الحقيقية ‪ ,‬السيانوبكتريا‬
‫‪Cyanobacteria‬‬
‫فالعتائق ‪ Archaea‬هي مجموعة من الكائنات وحيدة الخلية وبدائية النواة و تنتج أحيانا غاز الميثان خالل عملياتها االيضية‬
‫وتعيش في البيئة المتطرفة مثال البيئة العالية الحرارة أو مرتفعة الحامضية او البيئة ذات نسبة االمالح العالية‪ .‬وقد تكيفت هذه‬
‫الكائنات لهذه الظروف عن طريق تغييرات في نظامها االيضي أو غالفها الخارجي‪.‬‬

‫‪19‬‬
‫‪Zoology /The first stage‬‬ ‫‪Lecture 1-2‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Soudod Osama‬‬
‫السلم التصنيفي للكائنات الحية من ضمنها االحياء الدقيقة ‪:‬‬
‫استطاع الباحثون والعلماء من تصنيف الكائنات الحية إلى ممالك (‪ )Kingdoms‬بناء على الوحدة العامة بين جميع أجناس‬
‫(‪ )Genes‬وأنواع (‪ )Species‬هذه الممالك‪.‬‬
‫ففي مملكة البدائيات (‪ :)Kingdom Monera‬جميع الكائنات الحية فيها أولية النواة (‪ )Prokaryotic‬فالمادة النووية غير‬
‫محاطة بغشاء يفصلها عن سيتوبالزم الخلية ‪,‬وهي جميعها ذات أفراد وحيدة الخلية (‪ )Unicellular‬وتتغذى باالمتصاص‬
‫(‪ )Absorption‬وبعضها يتغذى بالبناء الضوئي (‪ ,)Photosynthesis‬ولها جدار خلوي (‪ ,)Cell wall‬وتتكاثر بالتكاثر‬
‫الالجنسي (‪ )Asexual Reproduction‬عادة ‪ ,‬ونادرا ً ما تتكاثر جنسيا ً (‪ )Sexual Reproduction‬ومن أمثلتها‪ :‬البكتيريا‬
‫(‪)Bacteria‬‬
‫أما مملكة الطليعيات (‪ -:)Kingdom Protista‬فجميع أجناسها حقيقية النواة (‪,)Eukaryotic‬أي أن نواتها محاطة بغشاء‬
‫مزدوج يفصلها عن السيتوبالزم ومعظمها وحيدة الخاليا (‪,)Unicellular‬وتمتص الغذاء الجاهز‪ ,‬أو تقوم بعملية البناء الضوئي‪,‬‬
‫والجدار الخلوي (‪ )Cell wall‬موجود في األشكال الطحلبية‪ ,‬وتتكاثر بالتكاثر الجنسي والالجنسي‪ ,‬ومن أمثلتها‪ :‬اليوجلينا‬
‫‪,Euglena‬والبراميسيوم ‪ Paramecium‬وغيرها‪.‬‬
‫وفي مملكة الفطريات (‪:)Kingdom Fungi (mycota‬الخاليا حقيقية النواة‪ ,‬عديدة الخاليا (ما عدا في الخميرة)‪ ,‬وتتغذى‬
‫بالهضم الخارجي اإلنزيمي باإلنزيمات التي تفرزها خارج خالياها‪ ,‬وتمتص الغذاء المهضوم‪ ,‬ولها جدار خلوي ‪ ,‬وتتكاثر بالتكاثر‬
‫الجنسي والالجنسي ومن أمثلتها البنسيليوم ‪ ,Penicillium‬وعيش الغراب ‪ ,Agaricus‬والخميرة ‪Saccharomyces‬‬
‫أما المملكة الحيوانية (‪ -:)Kingdom Animalia‬فهي حقيقية النواة‪ ,‬عديدة الخاليا (‪ ,)Multicellular‬وتتغذى بالبلع‬
‫(‪ )Ingest‬للغذاء الجاهز‪ ,‬والجدار الخلوي غائب‪ ,‬وتتكاثر بالتكاثر الجنسي والتكاثر الالجنسي وأمثلتها معروفة‪.‬‬
‫أما في المملكة النباتية ( ‪ :)Plantae Kingdom‬فجميع أجناسها حقيقية النواة‪ ,‬عديدة الخاليا‪ ,‬تتغذى بالبناء الضوئي‪ ,‬ما عدا‬
‫األجناس النادرة المتطفلة‪ ,‬والجدار الخلوي (‪ )Cell Wall‬موجود‪ ,‬وتتكاثر بالتكاثر الالجنسي والجنسي وأمثلتها معروفة‪.‬‬
‫وقد قسمت الممالك السابقة إلى أقسام (‪ )Divisions‬في المملكة النباتية‪ ,‬ومملكة الفطريات‪ ,‬يجمعها قواسم مشتركة وإلى شعب‬
‫(‪ )Phylum‬مشتركة الصفات في المملكة الحيوانية ‪ ,‬وقسمت الشعب واألقسام إلى طوائف أو أصناف (‪ )Classes‬والطوائف إلى‬
‫رتب (‪ ,)Orders‬والرتب إلى عائالت (‪ )Families‬والعائالت تحتوي األجناس (‪ ,)Genera‬واألجناس تقسم إلى أنواع‬
‫(‪ )Species‬وتحتوي بعض األنواع أصنافا ً (‪ )Varieties‬مختلفة‪.‬‬
‫مستويات التنظيم (التعضية ‪)Organization‬‬
‫إن أهم ما يميز الكائنات الحية هو االنتظام الحيوي المتدرج في تركيبها المعقد ‪ ،‬وهو ما يعرف بالتعضية (‪)Organization‬‬ ‫ّ‬
‫أن عدد ًا ال يستهان به من الكائنات الحية مثل النباتات الراقية‬‫ذلك أنها تتدرج في تركيبها في مستويات متدرجة في التعقيد‪ّ .‬‬
‫والحيوانات الالفقارية والفقارية وعلى رأسها اإلنسان أو األفراد ‪ Individual‬تتكون من أجهزة ‪ System‬مثل الجهاز التنفسي‬
‫والدوري والتناسلي والهضمي‪ ..‬الخ‪ .‬وكل جهاز يتكون بدوره من أعضاء ‪ Organs‬مثل المعدة واألمعاء في الجهاز الهضمي‬
‫والقلب واألوعية الدموية في الجهاز الدوري والجذر والورق والساق‪ ،‬وهو المستوى العضوي (‪ )Organic level‬كما إ ّن ك ّل‬
‫عضو ‪ Organ‬يتكون من أنسجة ‪ Tissues‬وهو المستوى النسيجي ‪ ،Tissue level‬مثل النسيج العصبي والعضلي والطالئي‪..‬‬
‫الخ ‪ .‬و كل نسيج يتكون من مجموعة الخاليا المتشابهة في التركيب والوظيفة‪ ،‬وهذا المستوى يعرف بالمستوى الخلوي‬
‫(‪.)Cellular level‬وكل خلية تتكون من عضيات مثل البالستيدات والميتوكوندريا والكروموزومات والنوية‪..‬الخ‪.‬‬
‫‪ Organelles‬وكل عضيه تتكون من جزيئات ‪ Molecules‬مثل البروتينات والكربوهيدرات واألمالح‪ .‬والجزيئات تتكون من‬
‫ذرات ‪ Atoms‬مثل الكربون والهيدروجين واألكسيجين‪ ،‬وهذا يمثل المستوى الكيميائي (‪ )Chemical level‬والذرة هي أصغر‬
‫وحدة تدخل في تركيب أي عنصر كيميائي‪ .‬وكل العناصر الكيميائية تتكون من ذرات متشابهة في التركيب وتختلف عن بعضها في‬
‫عدد جسيمات البروتونات واإللكترونات‪ Flementary particles.‬الذي يعدّ من أبسط المستويات ‪ .‬ويعرف تدرج الكائنات الحية‬
‫في تركيبها في مستويات متدرجة في التعقيد بمبدأ التسلسل التركيبي للكائنات الحية أو التعضية‪.‬‬

‫‪20‬‬