Forensic Toxicology

Importance of Forensic Toxicology

Forensic Toxicology is associated with the medico-legal aspects of toxicology; it plays an essential role in criminal and
coroner investigations of poisoning, drug use and death, as well as in suspected cases of doping, inhalant or drug abuse,
and driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. This forensic discipline applies analytical chemistry to isolate and
chemically identify toxic substances, drugs (prescription and illicit), alcohol, volatile substances and industrial,
household or environmental chemicals that adversely affect the human body.

Toxicology – This refers to the branch of science that treats of poison, their origin, physical and chemical properties,
physiological action, treatment of their noxious effect and methods of detection. The etymology of toxicology came from
“toxico” that means poison and "ology that means study or science.

Poison – This refers to a substance that when introduced into the body and is absorbed through the blood stream and acting
chemically is capable of producing noxious effect.

Classification of Poison
1. According to Kingdom
a. Animal – ex Cantharides
b. Vegetable – ex. Strychnine
c. Mineral – ex. Hydrochloric acid

2. According to Chemical Properties

A. Inorganic Poison – poison without carbon
a. Volatile – ex Bromine, Chlorine and lodine
b. Non – volatile – ex. Sulfuric acid
c. Mineral acid – ex. Hydrochloric acid
d. Mineral alkalis – ex. Sodium hydroxide
B. Organic Poison – poison that contains carbon
a. Volatile – ex. Alcohol, Chloroform
b. Alkaloid – ex. Strychnine
Alkaloids – are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter containing usually oxygen that occurs especially in seed
plants.
c. Animal Poison – ex. Snake venom
d. Bacterial – ex. Ptomaine
e. Organic Poison – ex. Salicylic acid
f. Glucosides – ex Digitalis

3. According to Physiological Action

A. Corrosives – highly irritant poisons that cause local destruction of tissues and characterized by
nausea, vomiting, and great local distress. E.g. strong acids and alkalis.
B. Irritants – one that produces irritation or inflammation of the mucus membrane and characterized by
vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging. E.g. arsenic.
C. Narcotics – one that produce stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of feeling. E.g. opium, Demerol
and cocaine.
D. Neurotics – one that act chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium, convulsion and
respiration as the outstanding symptoms. E.g. alcohol, opium, and strychnine.
E. Tetanics – substance that act chiefly upon the spinal column producing such spasmodic and
continuous contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or immobility of the parts to which they are
attached.
F. Depressants or Sedatives – agents that retard or depress the physiological action of an organ. E.g.
Nicotine and cocaine.
 G. Asthenics or Exhaustive – agents that produce exhaustion, marked loss vital or muscular power.
E.g. hydrocyanic acid.

4. According to Pharmacological Action

A. Substance characterized by local of action – ex. Volatile oils and skin irritants.
B. Substances characterized by their action after absorption – ex. Alkaloid.
C. Heavy metals and metalloids – ex. Phosphorous, arsenic and mercury.

5. According to Methods of Isolation

A. Volatile poisons are those isolated by distillation with or without current or steam. E.g. alcohol,
phenol and chloroform.
B. Non – volatile poisons are those isolated by extraction with organic solvents. E.g. alkaloids and
organic acid.
C. Metallic poisons that are isolated by refluxion. E.g. arsenic and mercury.
D. Substances for which special method of isolation are required. E.g. acids and alkali metals are
extracted with water.

Two Types of Poisoning:

I. From Medical Point of View
1. Acute Poisoning – This refers to one that there is prompt and marked disturbance of function death
within a short period of time. Due to either a strong poison in excessive single dose or several doses at
short interval.
2. Sub – Acute Poisoning – This refers to cases of short and extreme violence that may include
symptoms of chronic poisoning.
3. Chronic Poisoning – This refers to kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of
function of tissues and may or may not result in death. Either taking several doses at long intervals or
taking only toxic doses of the drug produces it.

II. From Legal Point of View

1. Accidental Poisoning – This refers to those in which the poison was taken without intention to cause
death. It may be taken by mistake or without knowing that it is poison.
2. Suicidal Poisoning – This refers to those in which the victim voluntarily for the purpose of taking his
own life took the poison.
3. Homicidal Poisoning – This refers those in which the poison was given willfully, wantonly and with
intent to cause death to the victim.
4. Undetermined – This refers to those in which the history is hazy as to how the poison was obtained
and why it was administered.

Action of Poison
1. Local – This refers to the changes or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison come in
contact. Ex. The corrosion produced by corrosive poisons.
2. Remote – This refers to the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the site of
application. Ex. Dilation of the pupils when belladonna is taken orally.
3. Combined – This refers to the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site but affects remote
organs. Ex. Phenol causes corrosion of the gastro – intestinal tract
(local) and causes convulsion (remote).
Conditions Modifying the Action of Poisons
1. Those attributed to the individual
a. Age and sex
b. Health
c. Habit – the repeated taking of small dose of drug
d. Idiosyncrasy – This refers to a term applied to individuals’ reactions to certain substances who exhibit.
e. Diseases
f. Food
g. Sleep
h. Exhaustion
2. Those attributed to the poison itself
a. Physical state or form of the poison
b. Dilution
c. Solubility of the poisons
d. Mode of administration
e. Chemical combination
f. Mechanical combination
g. Dose – This refers to the quantity of a poison to be administered at one time Posology – This refers to
branch of medical science that concerned with form and quantity of medicine to be administered within a
certain period.

Kind of Dose
1. Safe Dose – This refers to one that does not cause harmful effect.
2. Toxic or Poisonous Dose – This refers to one that is harmful to both healthy and sick
3. Lethal Dose – This refers to one that kills.
4. Minimum Dose – This refers to the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect without
harm.
5. Maximum Dose – This refers to the largest amount that will cause no harm but at the same time
produce desired therapeutic effect.
Entrance of Poison
Poison May Enter the Body Through:
1. Mouth and are absorbed into the circulation after passing the stomach and intestinal wall.
2. Nose and enter the blood from the upper respiratory passages or lungs.
3. Eyes
4. Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter by injection
5. Hypodermic Injection
6. Intravenous Injection

Elimination of Poison
Poison May be Eliminated by:
1. Emesis
2. Respiration
3. Feces
4. Urine
5. Milk
6. Saliva
7. Sweat
8. Tears
Diagnosis of Poisoning from Disease
Diagnosis of poisoning before death is very difficult because of:
1. The large number of poisons and the factor modifying them;
2. Some of the symptoms observed in cases of poisoning are also seen in certain diseases.

Distinguishing Poisoning from Disease

1. Symptoms of poisoning come suddenly a person who previously has been in good health, while
disease is usually preceded by a number of hours, days or even weeks of local or general disposition
2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their appearances after taking food or medicine.
3. If several poisons take the same food and drinks, they should all show similar symptoms.
4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are preceded by circumstances as exposure,
recognized symptoms and general or local indisposition of longer duration.

Symptoms Cause by Poisoning and Disease

1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain)
Poisons: Arsenic, Antimony, Corrosive Acid and Alkali, Barium, Cantharides, Digitalis,
Copper, Iodine, Mercury, Phosphorus, Phenols and Wood Alcohol.
Diseases: Gastritis, Gastro – Enteritis, Cholera, Acidosis, Early Stage of Pregnancy, Brain
Tumor.
2. Convulsion
Poisons: Cyanide and Strychnine
Disease: Tetanus, Epilepsy and Uremia
3. Coma
Poison: Opium and most of its derivatives, Chloral Hydrate, Paraldehyde, CO2, Chloroform,
Atropine, Various Alcohols and Phenols.
Diseases: Uremia, Acidosis, Cerebral Thrombosis, Brain Injury, Epilepsy and other Brain
Diseases.
4. Dilation of Pupils
Poisons: Belladonna, Cocaine and Nicotine
Diseases: Certain Nervous Diseases causing Optic Athropy
5. Contraction of Pupils
Poisons: Opium and its derivatives, Physostigmine and its derivatives
Diseases: certain Nervous Diseases
6. General and Partial Paralysis
Poisons: Cyanides, CO2 and Botulism
Diseases: Brain Tumor and Meningitis
7. Slow Respiration
Poisons: Opium and its derivatives
Diseases: Uremia, compression of the brain as from Hemorrhage.
8. Rapid Respiration
Poisons: Atropine Group, Cocaine and CO2
Diseases: Acute Respiratory Disease
9. Delirium
Poisons: Atropine Group, Cannabis and Cocaine
Diseases: Epilepsy, Insanity and Meningitis
10. Cyanosis
Poisons: Nitrobenzene, Aniline, Acetanilide and Opium
 Diseases: disease of Cardiac and Respiratory System
Effects of Blood Alcohol (Ethanol) Concentration

Stage of Percent of Alcohol Clinical Manifestation

Intoxication (Ethanol) in Blood
Stimulation 0.01 – 0.10 Normal by ordinary observation

Apparent 0.05 – 0.20 Decreased inhibition

Stimulation Emotional instability
In coordination
Slowing reaction to stimuli

Confusion 0.10 – 0.30 Disturbance of Sensation

Decrease pain sense
Staggering gait
Slurred Speech
Stupor 0.25 – 0.40 Marked decrease to stimuli
Approaching paralysis

Coma or Death 0.35 – 0.50 Complete unconsciousness

Subnormal temperature
Anesthesia
Impairment of circulation
Stertorous breathing

General Treatment of Poisoning

i. Removal of poison from the stomach – if the poison is taken orally the removal of the poison is
brought about by:
a. Inducing vomiting using emetics
Emetics – are substances or agents that produce vomiting.
b. Use of stomach pump or stomach tube
- if poison is applied or instilled – wash
- if the poison is injected – ligatures and bleeding

ii. Administration of antidotes

a. Mechanical Antidote – an agent that removes the posing without changing it or coats the surface of
the organ so that absorption is prevented. E.g. Stomach tubes or pumps; emetics; Cathartics;
demulcents and precipitants.
Classes of Emetics:
1. Local Emetic – produce their effects by their irritation of the terminal nerve filaments of the pharynx,
esophagus or stomach.
2. System or General Emetics – produce their effects through the medium of circulation.
Cathartics – agents that produce intestinal evacuation
Demulcents – substances that soothe and protect that part which they are applied.
Precipitants – these are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and
rendering them insoluble.
b. Chemical Antidote – substance that make the poison harmless by chemically altering it.
c. Physiological Antidote – sometimes called “antagonist”. An agent that acts upon the system to
counteract the effect of the poison. It merely masks the symptoms produced.
iii. Elimination of poisons by excretion – poisons are eliminated through excretory organs. Made by
intravenous infusion of saline solution, dilute alkali solution or dilute solution of glucose. The poison is
generally excreted through the urine, feces, vomitus or saliva.

iv. Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment

a. For excessive pain – morphine or another analgesic
b. For convulsion – chloroform
c. For shock – oxygen inhalation

v. Special treatment
a. if the poison is gas – immediate need is fresh air and artificial respiration.
b. if poisoning is external (like burn on the hand by concentrated acid) – wash with plenty of water or with
Alcohol, Sodium Bicarbonate, Lime Water or Milk of Magnesia.
c. if alkali burn – wash with lemon or other citrus fruits.
d. if the poison has come from a bite or injection – the poison can be checked from spreading through
the body by applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly above the wound. This retards the
absorption of poison by the blood.

Investigation of Fatal Cases

In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator should be an expert on
the poisons, since a medico – legal officer and a toxicologist will assist in the investigation, but it is
important and will be of great help if the investigator knows the following:
1. Symptoms of various kinds of poisoning;
2. The lethal dose of the poison;
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before death occurs;
4. Where the poison was obtained;
5. The chemical formula of the poison;
6. Other names it is known in the market;
7. Uses of poison; and
8. Antidote for the poison.

Evidence of Poisoning in the Living Body

The evidence of poisoning will depend upon whether the poisoning is acute or chronic. In acute
poisoning the symptoms appear suddenly while the individual is in good health. The person is usually
affected with a group of symptoms of definite characteristics out of consonance with his previous state of
health. In chronic poisoning, the onset of symptoms is more gradual and insidious due to the small
quantity of poison that has been administered on such occasion since the intention is to kill his victim
slowly in order to avert suspicion.

Evidence of Poisoning in the Dead

In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal or not, the presence of poison must
be proven and proofs of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from:
1. Presence of Dye in Hair – an examination of a dead body especially to determine the cause of death.
2. Evidence from the chemical analysis of the organs from the body – the most important proof of
poisoning is the detection of the poison within the body. In some cases, however, on account of the
decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time between death and examination, and the instability of some
poisons, negative results may be obtained even if at the time of death certain poisons are present.
 Post – Mortem Appearance Poison Indicated
1. Lesion of the mouth Sulfuric Acid
a.) Blackening and Sever Corrosion
b.) Brownish yellow stain Strong Mineral Acids, Oxalic
Acids, Lysol
and Carbolic Acid
c.) Corrosion and Softening of tissue of mouth Alkalis
and throat
d.) Severe corrosion without blackening Hydrochloric Acid
e.) Severe corrosion and yellow stain Nitric Acid
f.) Lips swollen, tongue raw, esophagus with red cracks, Ammonia
bronchopneumonia if death is delayed
2. Lesion of the gastric – intestinal tract Strong Acids
a.) Corrosion
b.) Soapiness Caustic Alkalis
c.) Dark brown gelatinous mass in stomach Oxalic Acid
d.) Stomach grayish white Acetic Acid
e.) Stomach yellow or reddish yellow Picric Acid
f.) Stomach green or bluish green Copper Salts
3. Other lesion Hydrocyanic Acid,
a.) Bright red spots on skin Cyanides, CO
b.) Tissue abnormally red Potassium or Sodium
Nitrate, CO
c.) Odors marked upon opening the body Opium and some of its derivatives
in some
cases
d.) Pupils contracted Belladonna
e.) Dry gangrene or extremities Ergot

Specimen/Organ to be submitted for Chemico – Toxicological Analysis

Specimens/Organs Minimum Amount Poison for which Best Suited
1. Stomach Content All available In case of poisoning in which it is
suspected that the poison was taken

2. Stomach The whole stomach For all types of poisoning taken by mouth

3. Intestinal All available For cases in which the poison was taken
Contents by mouth within one or two days
4. Liver 300 grams Metals, barbiturates, fluorides, oxalate,
sulfonals and many other poisons
5. Kidney One Kidney Metals, especially Hg,
Sulfonamides
6. Blood At least 10 ml All gas poisons, sulfonamides,
bromides, alcoholism,
drowning for chloride contents
 7. Brain 500 grams Volatile poisons, barbiturates, alkaloids,
alcoholism
8. Urine All available Nearly all types of poisoning
9. Bone 200 grams Lead, arsenic, radium
10. Muscle 200 grams In most acute poisoning and internal
organs are badly putrefied
11. Hairs 5 grams Chronic Arsenic Poisoning

Interpretation of Toxicological Analysis

Reasons for Negative Results of the Toxicological Examination:
1. Some poisons maybe altered in the body to a form that is not detectable by the methods of analysis
employed.
2. Some poisons with or without previous chemical change maybe rapidly excreted although its toxic
effect remains and may only be detectable in the urine but not in the body tissue or organ.
3. Sometimes symptoms of poisoning may appear, which may be fatal following the administration of
even small and ordinarily harmless quantity of a substance class as poison.

Forensic Questions for the Toxicologist to Answer/Explain

1. Was the death or illness of the subject caused by the poison?
2. What poison produced the illness or death?
3. When and how was the poison administered?
4. Could the substance administered cause illness or death?
5. Was the poison found by the toxicologist in the body the poison that caused death?
6. Is the substance given in minute quantity a poison?
7. Was the poison taken in sufficient quantity to produce death?
8. May the poisoning have occurred and the poison either be or become undetectable?
9. May the poison extracted from the body have an origin other than that of poisoning?
10. May the poisoning be stimulated?

Preservation of Specimen for Toxicological Examination

1. Blood – place in a test tube with sodium oxalate or anticoagulant.
2. Refrigerated with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) good for 72 hours.
3. Chemical preservatives – 100 ml of ethyl alcohol (95%) for each 100 grams of sample and extra 250
ml for analysis.
4. Do not use denatured alcohol, rubbing alcohol or similar preservative since denaturants will give
false and misleading results in the analysis.
5. Formalin – extremely undesirable as preservative of specimen for toxicological examination since it will
seriously interfere with the test for most organic poisons.

Laboratory methods used in the Toxicological Analysis

1. Physical Test
2. Crystalline Test
3. Chemical Test
4. Spectrographic Test
5. Chromatographic Test

Three stages in Chloroform Poisoning and Metallic Poisons

1. Stage of Excitement
2. Stage of Surgical Anesthesia
3. Stage of Paralysis

Common Volatile, Non – Volatile and Metallic Poisons

1. Benzane – This refers to a solvent for rubber gums, resins and fats. It is also called as Benzol.
2. Carbon Disulfide – This refers to a solvent for sulfur. It burns with bluish flame giving carbon
dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
3. Nitrobenzene – This refers to a pale yellow, only liquid with sweet odor. It resembles oil of bitter
almond.
4. Acetone – This refers to a colorless liquid that is characterized by a fruity color. It is use as solvent
for cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose.
5. Ether – This refers to a highly volatile and inflammable liquid. It is a transparent, colorless and
mobile liquid that is used as general anesthesia and safer than chloroform.
6. Caffeine – This refers to a bitter alkaloid found especially in coffee, tea, cacao and kola nuts and
used medicinally as a stimulant and diuretic.
7. Formalin – This refers to a clear aqueous solution of formaldehyde and methanol used especially as a
preservative or most commonly utilized as embalming liquid.
8. Salicylic Acid – This refers to a crystalline phenolic acid that is used medicinally especially as a
skin exfoliant and in the form of salts and other derivatives as an analgesic and antipyretic.
9. Cocaine – This refers to a bitter crystalline alkaloid obtained from coca leaves that is used especially
in the form of its hydrochloride medically as a topical anesthetic and illicitly for its euphoric effects and
that may result in a compulsive psychological need.
10. Picrotoxin - This refers to a poisonous bitter crystalline stimulant and convulsive substance
obtained from the berry of a southeast Asian vine (Anamirta Cocculus) locally known as “Lagtang” and
used intravenously as an antidote for barbiturate poisoning.
11. Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol – This refers to a colorless volatile flammable liquid that is the
intoxicating agent in liquors and is also used as a solvent and in fuel.
12. Ergot – This refers to the black or dark purples sclerotium of fungi (genus Claviceps) that occurs as
a club – shaped body replacing the seed of a grass (such as rye).
13. Barbiturates – This refers to any of various derivatives of barbituric acid (such as Phenobarbital)
that are used especially as sedatives, hypnotics and antispasmodics and are often addictive.
14. Strychnine – This refers to a bitter poisonous alkaloid that is obtained from nux vomica and related
plants (genus Strychnos) and is used as a poison (as for rodents) and medicinally as a stimulant of the
central nervous system.
15. Nicotine – This refers to a poisonous alkaloid that is the chief active principle of tobacco and is
used as an insecticide.
16. Morphine – This refers to a bitter crystalline addictive narcotic base that is the principal alkaloid of
opium and is used in the form of a soluble salt (such as a hydrochloride or a sulfate) as an analgesic and
sedative.
17. Physostigmine – This refers to a tasteless crystalline alkaloid that is an anticholinesterase obtained
from the Calabar bean and is used in medicine parenterally in the form of its salicylate especially to
reverse the toxic effects of an anticholinergic agent (such as astropine) and topically in the form of its
sulfate as a miotic in the treatment of glaucoma. It is also called as eserine.
18. Chloral Hydrate – This refers to a bitter white crystalline drug used as a hypnotic and sedative or
in knockout drops.
19. Carbolic Acid or Phenol – This refers to a corrosive poisonous crystalline acidic compound
present in the tars of coal and wood that in dilute solution is used as a disinfectant.
20. Arsenic – This refers to a poisonous trivalent and pentavalent solid element that commonly occurs
in a brittle, metallic, steel – gray, crystalline form and is used especially in wood preservatives, allots,
and semiconductors. Arsenic used especially as an insecticide or weed killer.
21. Lysol – This refers to a disinfectant consisting of a mixture of cresols and soft soap.
22. Methyl Alcohol or Methanol – A light volatile flammable poisonous liquid alcohol used especially
as solvent, antifreeze or denaturant for ethanol and in the synthesis of other chemicals. If it is consumed by
human it will cause blindness.
23. Chloroform – This refers to a colorless, volatile, sweet – smelling liquid that has a suffocating odor
used as a solvent formerly as a general anesthetic.
24. Carbon Tetrachloride – This refers to a colorless nonflammable toxic liquid that has an odor
resembling that of chloroform and is used as a solvent and a refrigerant. It is also found in “pyrine” fire
extinguisher.
25. Formic Acid – This refers to a colorless pungent fuming vesicant liquid acid found especially in
ants, spiders and in many plants and used chiefly in dyeing and finishing textiles.
26. Hydrogen Cyanide – This refers to a poisonous usually gaseous compound that has the odor of
bitter almonds that is locally found in “Kamoteng Kahoy”. It is also called hydrocyanic acid or prussic
acid.
27. Acetic Acid – This refers to a colorless pungent liquid acid that is the chief acid of vinegar and
that is used especially in synthesis (as of plastic).
28. Aspirin – This refers to a white crystalline derivative of salicylic acid used for relief of pain and
fever.
29. Atropine – This refers to a racemic mixture of hyoscyamine obtained from any of various
solanaceous plants (such as belladonna) and used especially in the form of its sulfate for its
anticholinergic effects (such as pupil dilation or inhibition of smooth muscle spasms).
30. Smygdalin – This refers to a bitter crystalline compound in bitter almonds and the stones of
peaches, apricots, and other fruit.
31. Phosphorus – This refers to a poisonous, combustible nonmetal which exists in two common
allotropic forms:
a. White Phosphorus – This refers to a yellowish waxy solid which ignites spontaneously in air
and glows in the dark.
b. Red Phosphorus – This refers to a less reactive form used in making matches.
32. Peyote – This refers to a hallucinogenic drug containing mescaline that is derived from the dried
discoid tops of a cactus (Lophophora williamsii) and is used especially in the religious ceremonies of
some American Indian peoples.
33. Ptomaine – This refers to any various organic bases which are formed by the action of putrefactive
bacteria (dead or decaying matter) on nitrogenous matter and some of which are poisonous.
34. Isopropyl Alcohol – This refers to a volatile flammable alcohol used especially as a solvent and
rubbing alcohol.
35. Cannabinoids – This refers to any of various naturally – occurring, biological active, chemical
constituents (such as cannabidiol or cannabinol) of hemp or cannabis including some (such as THC) that
possess psychoactive properties.
36. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride – This refers to hydrochloride salt form of methamphetamine,
an amphetamine and sympathomimetic amine with central nervous system simulating properties. It is
locally called as “Shabu”.
37. Heroin – This refers to a light brown powder that is strongly physiologically addictive narcotic
made by acetylation but is more potent that morphine and that is prohibited for medical use but is used
illicitly for its euphoric effects. It is also called as diacetylmorphine.
38. Potassium Cyanide – This refers to a very poisonous crystalline salt used especially in gold and
silver extraction from ore.
39. Opium – This refers to a bitter brownish addictive narcotic drug that consists of the dried latex
obtained from immature seed capsules of the opium poppy.
40. Mescaline – This refers to a hallucinatory crystalline alkaloid that is the chief active principle in
peyote buttons.
41. Cyanides – This refers to a rapidly acting, potentially deadly chemical that can exist in various
forms. It can be colorless gas, such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) or cyanogens chloride (CNCI), or a
crystal form such as sodium cyanide (NaCN) or potassium cyanide (KCN). It is sometimes described as
having a
“bitter almond” smell, but it does not always gives off an odor, and not everyone can detect this odor
and it is also known by the military designations AC (hydrogen cyanide) and CK (cyanogens chloride).
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.)
42. Codeine – This refers to a morphine derivative that is found in opium, is weaker in action than
morphine, and is used especially as an analgesic and antitussive.
43. Conine – This refers to a poisonous colorless liquid alkaloid found in the poison hemlock.
44. Quinine – This refers to a bitter crystalline alkaloid from cinchona bark used in medicine.
45. Cantharide – This refers to a preparation of dried beetles (such as Spanish flies) used in medine as
a counterirritant and formerly as an aphrodisiac.
46. Carbon Monoxide – This refers to a colorless, odorless and very toxic gas that is formed as a
product of the incomplete combustion of carbon or a carbon compound that is found in exhaust of
automobile.
47. Bufotoxin, Bufotalin or Bufotonin – This refers to a moderately potent poison secreted in the skin of
many anuran amphibians, especially the typical toads (genus Bufo).
48. Scopolamine – This refers to a poisonous alkaloid found in some plants of the nightshade family
and used as “truth serum”.
49. Toluene – This refers to a liquid aromatic hydrocarbon that resembles benzene but is less volatile,
flammable, and toxic and is used especially as a solvent, in organic synthesis, and as an antiknock for
gasoline.
50. Hydrogen Sulfide – This refers to a flammable poisonous gas that has an odor suggestive of rotten eggs
and is found especially in many mineral waters and in putrefying matter.