EXPLOsive

PRESENTED BY
DIRECTORATE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE SERVICES, MINISTRY

OF HOME AFFAIRS, GOI ©
NEW DELHI
WORKING PROCEDURE MANUAL: EXPLOSIVE

2021
INDEX
Sr. Chapter Title Page
No.
1 0.1 Abbreviations 2-3
2 Chapter -1 Introduction to Explosives 4-22
3 Chapter -2 Improvised Explosive Devices 23
4 Chapter -3 Systematic Procedure for examination of 24-27
Explosive Evidence
5 Chapter -4 Identification of inorganic Explosives/Low 28-52
Explosives
6 Chapter -5 Identification of Primary High explosives 53-54
(Initiatory compositions)
7 Chapter -6 Identification of Secondary High explosives 55-65
( Main Charge)
8 Chapter-7 Evaluation and Interpretations 66-69
9 Chapter-8 Miscellaneous Explosives 70-79

10 Appendix Work Sheet for Explosive Analysis 80-87
Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 1

blast explosive residue for Forensic Science Laboratories
0.1 ABBREVIATIONS
AAS–Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
ANFO -Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil
CE- Capillary Electrophoresis
DDNP-Diazodinitrophenol
DFSS-Directorate of Forensic Science Services
DNT-Dinitrotoluene
EDX-Energy dispersive X-Ray
EGDN-Ethyleneglycoldinitrate
FT-IR-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
GC-Gas Chromatography
GC-IMS- Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry
GC-MS-Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry
HMTD-Hexamethylene tri peroxide diamine
HMX-Cyclotrimethylene tetra nitramine
HPLC-High Performance Liquid Chromatography
HPTLC-High Performance Thin layer Chromatography
IED-Improvised Explosive Device
IC- Ion Chromatography
ICP-Inductively Coupled Plasma
IR-Infrared spectroscopy
LC-MS-MS –Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry
Lead Azide-Pb(N3 ) 2
Lead trinitroresorcinate- Lead Styphnate

LOX- Liquid Oxygen Explosive
Mercury Fulminate-(Hg (ONC)2
NC- Nitrocellulose
NG-Nitroglycerine
PETN- Pentaerythritol tetra nitrate
RDX- Cyclotrimethelenetrinitramine
Picric Acid -2,4,6-trinitro phenol
SEM-Scanning Electron Microscopy
TATP- Triacetonetriperoxide
Tetrazene-1(5-tetrazylol)-4-guanyl tetrazene hydrate
Tetryl (CE)-2,4,6-trinitrophenyl methyl nitramine
TLC- thin Layer Chromatography
TNT-2,4,6-trinitro toluene
XRD-X –Ray Diffraction
XRF-X ray Fluorescence

Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION TO EXPLOSIVES
1.1 Title: Introduction to Explosive Materials
1.2. Scope: General information on about and classification of Explosive materials.
1.3 Purpose: To have a knowledge about the Nature, uses, characteristics, Classification
composition, chemical nature, Physical and chemical properties of explosive materials.
1.4 Nature of Explosives: -
Explosives are reactive substancesthat undergo rapid burning (deflagration) or

detonation resulting in the formation of large volumes of gases, liberation of heat and
light along with sudden pressure effects (Shock wave and blast wave). These substances
have a large amount of potential energy. The conversion of potential energy to kinetic
energy with production of light, heat, sound and pressure simultaneously is called
explosion.
1.5 Uses of Explosives:-
Explosives are used for both commercial/Industrialand military applications. Commercial

use of explosives includes demolition for construction, fireworks and metal forming etc.
Military use of Explosives is for security purposes. It includes rockets, missiles, bombs
etc. Apart from that antisocial elements use explosives in the form of Improvised
explosives devices to create havoc and instability.
1.6 Categories of Explosives:-
Generally, there are three categories of explosives i.e Chemical, Mechanical and Nuclear
explosives. (Ref.1 page 10).
Chemical Explosives are compounds or mixtures of compounds that react to produce

large volumes of rapidly expanding gases as well as energyin the form of heat light and
shockwaves that exert sudden pressure on the surroundings.
Mechanical Explosives are those substances that tend to undergo physical change such
as overloading of container with compressed air stream.
Nuclear Explosives are the most powerful explosives. They areproducedby sustained
nuclear reactions while releasing a tremendous amount of heat and energy.

For Forensic interest Chemical explosives are of Major concern as these are used in
Improvised explosive devices for terrorist activities. This manual deal mainly with
Chemical explosives.
1.7 Characteristics of Chemical Explosives:-
All explosive compounds can be considered to be composed of three components

namely Fuel, Oxidizer and Sensitizer. Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulphur etc. provide the
essential fuel for the oxygen in the oxidizer. Incorporation of a chemical or physical
sensitizer enhances the ease with which the explosive can be made to react by means of
an initiator. (Ref2,page17).
The characteristics of chemical explosives influence the type of explosives that are used
for a specific application. Such characteristics include, but not limited to sensitivity,
stability, rate of detonation and brisance.
1.8 Classification of Explosives:-
Chemical explosives are classifiedin many ways according to different criteria.
1. According to rate of decomposition- High explosives and Low explosives

2.According to chemical structure: - The most important class includes organic
compounds, which contain the nitro (NO2) group. They are sub divided according to the
atom to which the NO2 group is attached.
Nitro compounds - C-NO2group,
Nitrate esters - C-O-NO2 group
Nitramines - C-N-NO2 group.
3.According to application: - Industrial explosives and Military explosives.(Ref 3, page1).
Figure-1 is a classification of chemical explosives with representative examples. (Ref 3

page 2)

CLASSIFICATION (BASED ON RATES OF DECOMPOSITION)
Explosives
Low Explosives High Explosives
Pyrotechnics Propellants Primary Secondary

Explosives
explosives explosives
Lead Azide
Lead
Boosters Main Charge
Styphnate
Mercury
ndustrial
Fulminate
PETN, Tetryl RDX,HMX,TNT
explosives
DDNP
Tetrazene ,DNT,ANFO,
HMTD Dynamite,
TATP Water gels
Emulsions
Slurry
explosives
Figure-1 Classification of explosives

1.9 Characteristics of High and Low Explosives:-
Table-1 – Characteristics of High and low Explosives
Sr.No Characteristics HIGH EXPLOSIVES LOW EXPLOSIVES
1. Method of initiation Primary explosives by ignition By ignition

and Secondary explosives by
detonation
2. Time of complete Micro seconds Milli seconds

conversion of explosive
to gaseous products
3. Velocity of consumption 1.5 to 10 km s-1 Few centimeters to

of explosives grains meter s-1
4. Velocity of flame front 1.5 to 10 km s-1 0.5 to 1.5 km s-1
5. Pressure of explosion 3,50 to 27,600 kpa Upto 350 kpa
6. Exploded in gun Shatters gun Good propellant
7. Demolition Excellent to poor Nil
8. Uses Demolition, blasting Propellant, blasting
9. Velocity of Detonation More than 1000 m s-1 Less than 1000 m s-1
(VOD)

1.10 High Explosives
High explosives are detonating explosives. Detonation is the explosion effect that is
caused by the transmission of high speed shock wave when the explosive compound or mixture
of compounds decomposes and liberates energy.The chemical reaction propagates with such
rapidity that the rate of reaction zone into the material exceeds velocity of sound and is greater
than 1000m/s. High explosives are further sub-divided in to two groups according to their
susceptibility to initiation i.e. Primary explosives and Secondary explosives. (Figure-1)
1.10.1 Primary HighExplosives:
Primary explosives are among the most powerful and most sensitive of all chemical
explosives.These are the explosives which are used to start or initiate the explosion. These
compounds are easily detonated by mechanical shock, friction and heat and readily ignited by
direct contact with flame or electrical sparks. The main function of Primary explosives is to
initiate a secondary explosive by shock wave. Because of their sensitivity they are used in small
quantities. Initiators are mainly used in military detonators, industrial blasting caps and stab,
and shock primers. (ref 3, page15 ). Examples of primary explosives are Mercury Fulminate,
lead Azide, Lead Styphnate, Dizodinitrophenol (DDNP),Tetrazine etc.
1.10.1.1 Mercury Fulminate :
Mercury fulminate (Hg(ONC)2 is a heavy non hygroscopic crystalline solid. It is thermally

unstable and very sensitive to impact, friction, spark, flame and shock when dry. It reacts with
metals such as aluminium, magnesium, zinc, brass and bronze in moist atmosphere. Being a
mercury derivative, it is a toxic compound. (Ref 3, page 15) and has been replaced by other
primary explosives which are less toxic and more stable. Some properties of compound is given
in Table-2
Table-2 properties of Mercury Fulminate
Colour Colourless crystals

Solubility Practically insoluble in water
Empirical formula C2N2O2Hg
Molecular weight 284.6
Deflagration point 1650C
Impact sensitivity 0.1-0.2 kp

1.10.1.2 Lead Azide: Pb(N3 ) 2
Lead azide has a high temperature of ignition and less sensitive to shock and friction than
Mercury fulminate. It has good stability to heat and storage. Due to its high temperature of
ignition it is generally used in primary mixtures with Lead styphnate which is very easy to ignite.
Its contact with copper must be avoided because it leads to the formation of Copper azide.
Since it is a non-conductor it may be mixed with flaked graphite to form a conductive mixture
for use in low energy electrical detonator. (ref 3, page15).Some properties of compound is
given in Table-3
Table-3 properties of Lead Azide
Colour White buff powder

Solubility insoluble in water
Empirical formula Pb(N3 ) 2
Deflagration point 320 - 3600C
Impact sensitivity 0.25-0.4 kpm
1.10.1.3Lead Styphnate (Lead trinitroresorcinate)
Lead styphnate is a toxic explosive which is thermally stable, non-corrosive and non-
hygroscopic. It is sensitive to flame and electrostatic discharge. It is therefore used to sensitize
lead azideand initiate burning in primer compositions. (ref 3, page 16 ). Chemical structure of
compound is given in figure-2 and some properties of compound is given in Table-4.
Figure-2- Chemical structure of compound

Table-4- Properties of Lead Styphnate
Colour Reddish brown crystals

Empirical formula C6HN3O8Pb
Deflagration point 275 - 2800C
Impact sensitivity 0.25-0.5kpm
1.10.1.4Tetrazene:
Tetrazene (1(5-tetrazylol)-4-guanyl tetrazene hydrate) is a colorless to yellowish solid which

is used for sensitizing primary composition. It is slightly hygroscopic and explodes readily from
flame, producing a large amount of smoke. It decomposes in boiling water. It ignites readily and
is slightly more sensitive to impact than mercury fulminate. Its main use is for the sensitization
of priming compositions. (ref 3, page 16).). Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-3
and some properties of compound is given in Table-5.
Figure-3- Chemical structure of compound
Table-5- Properties of Tetrazene
Colour Pale yellow crystals

Empirical formula C2H6N10. H2O
Impact sensitivity 0.1kpm

1.10.1.5 Diazodinitrophenol(DDNP):-
DDNP is yellowish brown powder which is used for initiating high explosives in propellant
primary devices. The sensitivity of DDNP to friction is about the same as Lead azide but less
than Mercury fulminate.DDNP is used to form priming mixture where a high sensitivity to flame
or heat is desired. Some properties of compound is given in Table-6.
Table-6 Properties of DDNP

Colour yellow crystals
Empirical formula C6H2N4O5
1.10.2 Secondary High Explosives
Secondary explosives are generally used as the main charge. These are relatively
insensitive to heat, flame and shock. They usually require a primary explosive to initiate
detonation. Secondary high explosives include boosters and main charge. The most
commonly used booster is PETN. TNT, RDX, HMX, Dynamites, Binary explosives, emulsions,
watergel etc. are used as main charge. The most important class of main charge is the
organic compounds which contain the nitro group.
1.10.2.1Picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol ):-
It was used in large caliber shells in world war I. In world war II a mixture of ammonium
picrate and TNT was widely used in the press loading of armour piercing shells.(ref 2, pages
3-4).Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-4 and some properties of compound is given
in Table-7.
Figure-4- Chemical structure of Picric Acid

Table-7- Properties of Picric Acid
Colour yellow crystals
Solubility soluble in water,ether,alcohol
Solidification point 122.50c
1.10.2.2 TNT(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) :
TNT is one of the most commonly used High explosive in military weapons and in civilian
mining. It is frequently used as main charge in artillery projects, mortar rounds and aerial
bombsused military explosives. Its main features include low melting point, good chemical
and thermal stability, low sensitivity to impact, friction and high temperature and its
compatibility with other explosives. Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-5 and
some properties of compound is given in Table-8
Figure-5- Chemical structure of TNT

Table-8- Properties of TNT
Colour Pale yellow crystals and flakes
Solubility insoluble in water, soluble in

benzene, toluene and acetone.
Solidification point 80.80c
1.10.2.3 Tetryl(2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine ):
It is used in military boosters. (ref 2, page 4).Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-6
and some properties of compound is given in Table-9.
Figure-6- Chemical structure of Tetryl

Table-9- Properties of Tetryl
Colour Pale yellow crystals
Solubility Insoluble in water, soluble in

acetone.
1.10.2.4 PETN(Pentaerythritoltetranitrate):
PETN is one of the strongest known High explosive. It is used as a base charge in blasting
caps and detonators, as the core explosives in detonating cord, in booster charges, in plastic
explosives, and as an ingredient in other explosives. The chemical stability of PETN is very
high and is considered to be more stable than all other nitrate esters. (ref 3, pages 9-10).
Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-7 and some properties of compound is given in
Table-10.
Figure-7- Chemical structure of PETN

Table-10- Properties of PETN
Colour colourless crystals

acetone and methyl acetate
1.10.2.5 RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine):
It is also known as cyclonite and hexogen. It is one of the most important military explosives
used today. It has high chemical stability and an explosive power.RDX is considerably more
susceptible to shock than TNT fordetonation. RDX is used as a component in mixtures with
other explosives such as TNT and as a plastic explosive also. A well-known plastic explosive,
Semtex is based on RDX and PETN. Mixtures of RDX and wax are used for booster charges in
many military ammunitions especially in artillery shells. (ref 3, pages 5-6). Chemical structure
of compound is given in figure-8 and some properties of compound is given in Table-11.
Figure-8- Chemical structure of RDX

Table-11- Properties of RDX
Colour Colourless crystals

acetone and methyl acetate
1.10.2.6 HMX(Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine):
HMX is also known as octogen. It explodes violently at high temperatures. It is

used as a component of rocket propellent.HMX exists as  (orthorhombic), 
(monoclinic),  (monoclinic) and  (hexagonal) forms, of which ‘’ form is the
least sensitive to impact and the most stable (ref 3, page 7).Chemical structure of
compound is given in figure-9 and some properties of compound is given in Table-12.
Figure-9- Chemical structure of HMX

Table-12- Properties of HMX
Colour colourless crystals
Solubility insoluble in water,

spiranglysoluble in acetone and
ether.
1.10.2.7 Nitroglycerine (NG):
Nitroglycerine is the most powerful explosive for commercial use. It is a key

explosive ingredient used to produce dynamites and rocket propellant. It is very
sensitive to shock, impact and friction and used only when desensitized with
other liquids or absorbent solids or when mixed with nitrocellulose. (ref 3, page
8).Chemical structure of compound is given in figure-10 and some properties of
compound is given in Table-13.
Figure-9- Chemical structure of NG

Table-13- Properties of NG
Colour Brown crystals
Solubility insoluble in water, spirangly

soluble in carbon disulphide .
Solidification point 13.20C
1.10.2.8 Dynamite:
Over the years, formulas for dynamite have been developed to hit every type of
rock blasting. Varieties have been developed for severe water conditions utilizing nitro
cotton to gel the NG (the gelatins are one branch of the dynamite family) for
cohesiveness to enable loading into up holes in mines, for safe usage in under- ground
coal mines (the permissible having salts of various types to cool the explosive reaction
as part of formula) and for economics by making formulas with very high ammonium
nitrate percentages (and thus no cohesiveness or water resistance) where severe field
conditions do not exists. Literally thousands of different formulas might be found, but
for years all had the commonality of having nitroglycerine as a component. Some
typical formulations have been shown in Table below (ref 2, pages 6-7).
Table-14 Dynamite formulations- generalized percent by weight
Material Type*
1 2 3 4 5
Nitroglycerine 40.00 15.8 91.0 26.0 9.5
Nitrocotton 0.1 0.1 6.0 0.4 0.1
Ammonium nitrate 30.0 63.1 -- 39.0 72.2
Sodium nitrate 18.9 11.9 -- 27.5 --

Wood pulp or nut 8.0 3.4 0.5 2.0 2.4
meal
Balsa 2.0 -- -- -- --
Starch or wheat flour -- 3.9 1.5 3.8 4.0
Guar gum -- 1.3 -- -- 1.3
Microballoons -- -- -- 0.3 --
Sodium chloride -- -- -- -- 10.0
Chalk 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.

0
* 1. NG dynamite (ditching dynamite), 2. 60% Extra dynamite,
3. Blasting gelatin, 4. 60% Extra gelatin, 5. Permissible dynamite
1.10.2.9 Liquid oxygen explosives (LOX):
Liquid oxygen explosives (LOX) is a simple formulated explosive.A cloth cartridge

containing carbon black is soaked in a vat of liquid oxygen until the material in the
cartridge is totally saturated. The cartridge is immediately lowered into the bore
hole stemmed and shot. The drawback of LOX is that very limited number of holes
can be loaded since the evaporation of the oxygen is rapid. (ref 2, pages7-8).
1.10.2.10 Ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO)

ANFO is a high explosive component of many explosives which are used in mining. It
is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and diesel fuel oil.These mixtures are made of
porous pills of ammonium nitrate (94%) soaked in fuel oil. In some cases aluminium
powder is added to increase the explosive strength. The components of ANFO are
readily available and not regulated due to commercial use. ANFO is safe to handle
but low in explosives strength and detonation velocity. It cannot be used in
presence of water. (ref 3, page 20-21)

1.10.2.11 Slurry explosives or water gels:
Slurry explosives or water gels are aqueous solutions of oxidizer and/or fuels.These
explosives are made of aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate and sodium or
calcium nitrate, gelled by the addition of guar gum or cross linking agents. They are
sensitized by nitro explosives or organic amine nitrates. Combustible materials such
as Al, urea, sugar or glycol are mixed with these solutions.
Typical slurry explosives contain ammonium nitrate (30 – 70% 0, Sodium nitrate ( 10-
15%), calcium nitrate(15-20%), aliphatic amine nitrate upto 40%, Al ( 10-1L%), TNT
or other explosives sensitizers (5-15%), gellants (1-2%), stabilizers (0.1- 2%), ethylene
glycol (3-15%) and water (10-20%). (ref 2, page 9 & ref 3, page 21).
1.10.2.12 Explosive emulsions:

Emulsions are sensitized by air bubbles introduced by means of hollow glass of
plastic bubble. Because the emulsions are neither gelled nor cross linked, their
storage time is limited. Their relative high detonation velocity compensate for low
explosive strength of the constituents. The common ingredients of explosive
emulsions are ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, fuel oil, wax and emulsifiers
sensitized with plastic micro spheres and other micro-ingredient, (monomethyl amine
nitrate, sodium perchlorate) (ref 2, page 9 & ref 3, pages 21-22).
1.10.2.13 Mixture
A vast number of explosives consisting of mixtures of various explosives compounds
were developed by combatants in world war II. Many of these combinations may
include materials such as HMX, RDX, TNT, Al powder, wax, and plasticizers with or
without other ingredients for special properties. A few worth mentioning are
Composition B- (60% RDX, 40% TNT plus wax)
Cyclotol - (60-75 % RDX, 25-40% TNT)
Torpex 2 - (42% RDX, 40% TNT, 18% Al)
Composition C4 - (91% RDX, 9% plasticisers)
Picratol - (TNT + ammonium picrate)
Tritonal - (TNT + aluminium powder)
Amatol - (TNT +AN)
MOX – (RDX + TNT + Al+Ba(NO3)2 + Calcium stearate+ graphite+ wax)
Pentolite – ( PETN +TNT)

Semtex H – (RDX+PETN+Poly butadiene styrene + oil)
PTX 1- (RDX + TNT + Tetryl)
PTX 2 – (RDX+TNT+PETN) (Ref. 3 page 19)

C1 - RDX + Plasticizer
C2 - RDX+TNT +DNT + MNT +NC+DimethylFormanide
C3 - RDX+TNT+DNT+MNT + Tetryl+NC
1.10.3 Low explosives
Low explosives are compounds or mixtures that deflagrate. These explosives have
propagation speed less than 1000m/s. Low explosives are mechanical mixtures of individual
ingredients. They are used mainly used as propellants because they tend to exert a rapid
pushing effect. Propellants are mixtures of one or more energetic materials, plasticizers,
stabilizer and inorganic additives (ref 3, page 17).The main applications of propellants are
in launching projectiles from guns, rockets and missile systems. Black powder (gun powder)
and smokeless powder are the most commonly used low explosives.
1.10.3.1 Black powder:-

Black powder is one of the oldest explosive. It is very mainly used today as an igniter for NC
gun propellants and to some extent in safety blasting fuses, delay fuse, signal and distress
rockets and in fire crackers. It is also used for mining when a lower power explosive is used.
The various compositions of black powder are:
Potassium nitrate + charcoal + sulphur in the ratio 75:15:10.
Sodium nitrate + charcoal + sulphur
Sulphurless powder : Potassium nitrate + charcoal
Ammonium powder : Potassium nitrate + Ammonium nitrate + charcoal
(ref 3, page 17)
1.10.3.2 Smokeless powder:

Smokeless powder is an extremely flammable low explosive that burns rapidly and
vigorously when ignited. It derives its energy from Nitrocellulose (NC) and Nitro glycerin (
NG). The various types of smokeless Powder are:-
 single based propellants.-NC+ Stabilizer e.g. Diphenyl amine (DPA).
 Double based propellants- NC + nitroglycerine and a stabilizer (DPA).
 Triple base propellants – Nitroguandine+ NC + nitroglycerine and a stabilizer (DPA).

1.10.3.3Pyrotechnic Compositions
These include military pyrotechnic and fire work compositions. Depending upon the use,
various inorganic fuels and oxidisers are mixed in definite proportions to get required
pyrotechnic effect. These are manufactured under valid licenses or under strict quality control
in ordnance factories. The materials used in fire works include
 oxidizing agent such as chlorate of potassium, sodium nitrate etc,
 fuels – viz. aluminium powder ,sulphur ,charcoal ,phosphorous etc,
 colour producing agents –salts of different metals like sodium ,strontium ,and
barium etc,
 smoke producing substances like pitch;hexachloroethane, white phosphorus
 binding agents like dextrin ,tapioca powder, pitch etc
 stabilizers such as linseed oil, boric acid etc. (ref 5, page 1)
References:
1. Narayanan T.V (1996). Modern techniques of Bomb Detection and Disposal.
R.A.Security system, Delhi.
2. Alexander Beveridge. (1998).Forensic Investigation of explosions, Taylor and Francis Ltd,
Bristol.
3. Yinon.J. and Zitrin. S. (1993). Modern Methods and application of analysis of
Explosives, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
4. Yinon.J. and Zitrin.S. (1981).The analysis of explosives . Pergamon press,
New York
5. Ghosh.K.M. (1988). The Principles of fireworks, Economic enterprise, Ahmedabad.
6. Chladek J. The identification of organic peroxides. Advances in analysis an detection of
explosives. Proceedings of the 4th International symposium on Analysis and
detection of Explosives September 7-10: 1992; J Yinon edition. Kluwer academic
publishers, 1993;73-76

Chapter-2
IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES
2.1 Title : - Explosive Devices
2.2 Scope : - General Information about explosive devices including Improvised Explosive
Devices ( IEDs)
2.2.1Improvised Explosive Devices(IEDs)_
Improvised Explosive Devices are thosewhich are not manufactured by any fixed standards.
The materials of construction, composition of ingredients, Initiation method depends upon the
availability of resources, knowledge and skill of user. These devices are mainly used by anti-
social elements for insurgent activities.
2.2.1.1 Common Explosives compositions of IEDs
1) Potassium chlorate + Arsenic sulphide + projectiles (iron nails, glass pieces , stone chips
etc.,) - Throw down device.
2) Potassium chlorate + sugar initiated by conc., Sulphuric acid - Acid bomb
(ref1).
3) Crude RDX or TNT as main charge.
2.2.1.2 Common Improvised Explosive Containers:-
Tiffin carrier, transistor, cement pipe, iron pipe, telephone, Television, toys, cell-phone,
computer, scooter, cycle, the articles which are easily available to the anti-social
elements. ( ref1 ,2&3)
2.2.1.3 Main charge : - High explosives, Low explosives or combinations.

2.2.1.4 Initiation device: Time device, remote device , impact device, battery operated. Acid
pen device etc.
2.2.1.5 Projectile & Missiles: Iron nails, glass pieces, stone ships, ball bearing, generally used in
throw down improvised devices.
References:
1. Joseph Stofell,“Explosives and Home Made Bombs2nd edition 2ndpriniting 1977
charles Thomas Publisher, Spring field Illinois USA.
2. BroadieT Bombs and Bombings 3rd Printing Publisher Charles C Thomas Spring field Illinois
USA.
3. Naranayanan T.V., Modern techniques of bomb detection and disposal
First edition (1996). RA Security Systems ,New Delhi

Chapter – 3
SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURE FOR THE EXAMINATION OF EXPLOSIVE EVIDENCE

3.1 Title: -Systematic Procedure for the examination of explosive evidence.
3.2 Scope: Pre blast (Unexploded) and post blast (exploded) low and high explosives
3.3 Purpose: Detection and identification of explosives.
3.4 Introduction:-
The analysis of Explosive evidence is in one of two forms
i) Analysis of pre blast or unexploded material – bulk analysis

ii) Analysis of post blast or exploded material – Trace analysis
3.5 Systematic Procedure:-
The systematic procedure for both pre blast and post blast explosive evidence is divided in to
Four major steps
1. Preliminary examination
2. Extraction of Explosive material
3. Detection of Inorganic explosives including pyrotechnic composition
4. Detection of organic explosives
3.5.1- Preliminary examination
1. All outside packaging and seal condition is noted.
2. Sample is examined for odour , colour, consistency and any visually observables
ingredients. Ingredients with characteristic odour such as mononitrotoulene may often be
detected at this stage. The colour and consistency may guide to find the general type of
particular explosive . Some ingredients such as fragments / components of the device
(pipe/container/wires/wrappers/fuses/ parts of timing devices/batteries etc)can be readily
identified by their characteristic appearance. Visible contaminants can also be observed at
this stage

3.5.2. Extraction of Explosive material:
The solvent extraction of the Post blast debris is a typical for extraction of explosive residues for further
testing. Pre blast explosives are directly dissolved in to the solvent on the basis of solubility. Four
extracts are required for identification of unknown explosive material/residues.
a. Organic Solvent extract

b. Water extract
c. Alkali extract
d. Pyridine extract
3.5.2.1. Organic solvent extraction:
Acetone is universally accepted broad-spectrum solvent for majority of organic explosives such as RDX,
HMX, TNT, PETN etc. Other organic solvents like ether, benzene and chloroform are also used, which are
suitable for certain groups of organic explosives (nitro aromatic and some nitrate ester like EGDN or
NG). In some instances, methanol or other solvents or their mixtures may be used instead of
acetone.The extracts are concentrated and subjected to various analytical tests for detection and
identification of organic explosives (ref 2, page 221-222).
3.5.2.2. Water Extract:
The residue left after acetone extract is treated with hot water and filtered. The inorganic residue
dissolves readily in hot water. The water extract is concentrated to a small volume. Chemical and other
analytical tests are performed for the detection of water soluble ingredients ( anions and cations ) in
explosives compositions such as low explosives, inorganic explosives and pyrotechnic compositions (ref
2, pages 222-223)
3.5.2.3 Alkali Extract:
The residues left after water extraction often include metals, sulphides of arsenic and antimony, sulphur
carbon etc. A small portion of the dried material is extracted with 2N NaOH and filtered. The filtrate is
preserved for the detection of sulphide, arsenic, antimony, aluminum etc.(ref 5,page 309,229,231,252)
3.5.2.4 Pyridine Extract:

The residue left after the above extraction is dried and extracted with pyridine and filtered. The extract
is preserved for the detection of elemental Sulphur. (ref 4, page 373)
3.5.3 Scheme of analysis
The following analytical scheme in the flow diagram may be applied in general. The scheme is intended
to serve as a general outline of the sequence of the examination.The scheme is intended to serve as a
general outline of the sequence of the examination. Not all of the tests listed in the scheme will be
required for every examination and other unlisted tests may be applicable as required by the
circumstances of individual cases (ref 1, page122)

POST BLAST EXHIBITS
Examination of vapors
Visual Examination
Microscopic Examination
Particles No Particles Found
Organic Extract Water Extract

Spot tests Spot Tests
SEM/EDX OR XRF TLC/HPTLC IC
IR/FTIR HPLC/LC-MS-MS EDX
XRD GC XRD
GC-MS TLC/HPTLC
IR/FTIR HPLC/LC-MS-MS
CE
Organic Solvent Extract Water Extract
Spot testSpot Tests

TLC/HPTLC TLC/HPTLC
UV-VIS UV-VIS
HPLC/LC-MS-MS HPLC/LC-MS-MS
GC XRD
GC-MS CE
IR IC
XRD ICP
CE AAS
GC-IMS
CE – Capillary Electrophoresis, EDX – Energy Dispersive X-ray, GC–Gas Chromatography, HPLC – High Performance Liquid
Chromatography, IC – Ion Chromatography, IR – Infra-red Spectroscopy, GC MS – Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry,
SEM – Scanning Electro Microscopy, TLC – Thin Layer Chromatography, XRF – X-ray Fluorescence, XRD – X-ray Diffraction, ICP
– Inductively coupled plasma spectrometry, GC-IMS – Gas Chromatography – Ion Mobility spectrometry, AAS – Atomic
absorption spectrometry, UV-VIS – Ultra Violet –visible spectro photometry, LC-MS-MS-Liquid Chromatography tandem mass
spectrometry (ref 1, page 123)

References
1. Alexander Beveridge.(1998). Forensic Investigation of explosions, Taylor and Francis Ltd,
Bristol.
2. Yinon.J and Zitrin.S.(1981).The analysis of explosives, Pergamon press, New York.
3. Yinon.J and Zitrin.S.(1993). Modern Methods and Application in Analysis of Explosives,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
4. Fritz Fiegl, (1965). Spot Tests in Inorganic Analysis, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Amsterdam
5. A.I Vogel,(1982) Text Book of Macro and Semi micro Qualitative Inorganic
Analysis,5thedition, Longman London

CHAPTER – 4
IDENTIFICATION OF INORGANIC EXPLOSIVES /LOW EXPLOSIVES

4.1 Title: -Identification of inorganic explosives/Pyrotechnic compositions/Low explosives
4.2 Scope: Chemical tests/TLC/IC/EDXRF/ICP/CEanalysis for identification of inorganic

explosives/ pyrotechnic compositions
4.3 Purpose: Detection and identification of anions and cationsin pre blast and post blast
inorganic explosives/ pyrotechnic compositions.
4.4 Chemical tests for anions
4.4.1 Test for Chloride (Cl-)
Requirements:
i) 2M Nitric acid
ii) Silver nitrate
iii) Lead acetate.
Preparation of reagents:
Reagent A: - Nitric acid (2M). Pour 128 ml conc.nitric acid into 500ml water, dilute to 1lit.
Reagent B: - Silver nitrate (0.1M). Dissolve 16.99 g of AgNO3 in water and dilute to 1lit.
Reagent C: - Lead acetate solution (0.25M).Dissolve 95 g lead acetate trihydrate in a mixture of
500 ml water and 10ml glacial acetic acid and dilute the solution with water to 1lit.
Procedure:
I. Take 1ml of water extract in a clean test tube. Add 2-3 drops of reagent A to it. Then add
2-3 drops of reagent B. White precipitate indicate the presence of chloride ion, which is
soluble in NH4 OH and insoluble in HNO3.
II. Take 1ml of extract in a clean test tube. Add 2-3 drops of reagent C to it. White
precipitate indicates the presence of Cl-
III. The about tests must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
(ref 1, pages 325-326).

Additional tests
Requirements:
i) Potassium dichromate
ii) Conc. H2SO4
iii) Diphenylcarbazide
Reagent A: - 1%Diphenylcarbazide prepared in ethanol

Procedure:-Take 5 ml aqueous extract in a clean test tube, evaporate to dryness, add a small
quantity of solid potassium dichromate and 1 ml conc. H2SO4 . Heat the mixture gently. A red
vapour of Chromyl chloride evolves which turns diphenylcarbizide spot on filter paper violet.
(ref1page 326).
4.4.2 Test for Sulphate: (SO4 2-).

Requirements:
i) Dilute HCl
ii) Barium Chloride
iii) Sodium rhodizonate
Reagent A: - Dilute HCl.

Reagent B:- 0.25M Barium chloride (Dissolve 61.1 g barium chloride dihydrate in water and
dilute to 1 lit.).
Reagent C: - 0.5 % aqueous solution of rhodizonate. Dissolve 0.5 g of sodium rhodizonate in
100ml of water. Reagent should be freshly prepared.
Procedure :-
I. Take 1ml of extract in a clean test tube. Add 2-3 drops of reagent A to it and then the test
tube is kept in a water bath at 1000C for 5 minutes, then add 2-3 drops of reagent B to it. A
white crystalline precipitate indicates the presence of SO4.2-
II.Place 1 drop of reagent B upon filter paper, followed by a drop of freshly prepared solution of
reagent C. Treat the reddish-brown spot with a drop of acidified extract. The coloured spot
disappears.
III. The above test must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank. (ref 1,
pages 347-348 ).

Additional test
Requirements:
i) Barium chloride
ii) Potassium permanganate
iii)Hydrogen peroxide
ReagentA;0.25M Barium chloride (Dissolve 61.1 g barium chloride dihydrate in water and
dilute to 1 lit.)
Reagent B: 0.02 M Potassium permanganate solution in water.( Dissolve 3.16 gm Potassium

permanganate in water and dilute to 1 liter)
Reagent c: 3% Hydrogen peroxide solution
Procedure
Take 3 drops of extract in a semi-micro test tube . Add 2 drops of reagent B and 1 drop
of reagent A. a pink ppt appears. Add a few drops of reagent c and shake well. The colouredppt
becomes clearly visible. (Ref1 page 348).
4.4.3: Test for Nitrite (NO2-)

Requirement:-
i) Sulphanilic acid
ii)  -Naphthylamine
iii) Acetic Acid
iv) Indole
v) Ethanol
vi) Sulphuric acid
Reagent A:- 1% sulphanilic acid in 30% acetic acid. It is prepared by dissolving 1 g of sulphanilic
acid in 100ml of warm 30% acetic acid.
Reagent B:--naphthylaminesolution.Take 0.3 g of  -naphthylamine boil it with 70ml of

distilled water, filter or decant and mix with 30ml of glacial acetic acid.
Reagent C:-Indole reagent.Add 0.015 g of indole in 100ml of 96% of alcohol.

Reagent D:- 8 M Sulphuric acid. To 500ml water add slowly under constant stirring, 445 ml
conc. Sulphuric acid. Finally when the mixture is cool again dilute with water to 1lit.
Procedure:-
I. Place1 drop of neutral or acid extract on a clean spot plate. Add 1 drop of Reagent A and
then 1 drop of reagent B to it. Pink to red colour indicates the presence of NO -. (Griess test).
2
II.Place 1 drops of the extract in a semi micro test tube. Add 10 drops of the reagent C and 2
drops of the reagent D to it. A purplish-red colour indicators the presence of NO -. 2
III.The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standards as well as blank. (ref
1, pages 312-313 ).
4.4.4 Test for Nitrate ion (NO3-)

Requirements:
i) Sulphanilic acid ii) -naphthylamine
iii) Acetic acid iv) Zinc dust
v) Sulphamic acid vi) Ferrous sulphate
vii) Sulphuric acid
Preparation of Reagents:
Reagent A: 1% sulphanilic acid in 30% acetic acid. Dissolve 1 g of sulphanilic acid in 100ml of
warm 30% acetic acid.
Reagent B:  – naphthylamine Boil 0.3 g of -naphthylamine with 70ml of distilled water, filter
or decant and mix with 30ml of glacial acetic acid.
Procedure:-
1. Place 1drop of neutral or acidic extract in a clean spot plate. Add 1 drop of the reagent A
and then 1 drop of reagent B. Then add a pinch of zinc dust. Pink to red colour indicates
the presence of Nitrate. (Griess test).
2. Place a crystal of ferrous sulphate on a spot plate. Add a drop of extract and allow a drop of
conc. sulphuric acid to run at the side of the drop. A brown ring forms round the crystal of
ferrous sulphate indicating presence of nitrate.
N.B: If nitrite is present in the extract, then at first it is removed from the solution by
sulphamic acid or by sodium azide and then test for nitrate is performed.
The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standards as well as blank. (ref 1,
pages 334-337 )

Additional test
Requirements
i) Brucine
ii) Conc. H2SO4
Procedure
Place a few drops of aqueous solution on a clean spot plate. Add one drop of conc. sulphuric
acid and small crystal of Brucine and stir the mixture with a glass rod . A blood red colour is
produced.
Note-Chlorate and Nitrites will interfere hence these ions to be eliminated before testing for
nitrates if they are suspected in exhibit as per 4.4.12.1 and 4.4.12.2
4.4.5 Test for Thiocynate (SCN-)
Requirements:
i) Cobalt nitrate ii) Acetone v) Chloroform
iii) Cupric sulphate iv) Pyridine
Preparation of Reagents
Reagent A: 0.5M Co (NO3)2. (Dissolve 146 g of cobalt nitrate in water and dilute to 1lit.)
Reagent B: 0.25 M CuSO4. (Dissolve 62.42 g of CuSO4.5 H2O in water and dilute to 1lit.)
Procedure:
I Mix one drop of the test solution in a micro-crucible with a very small drop of a reagent
A and evaporate to dryness. The residue whether thiocyanate is present or not is coloured
violet and the colour slowly fades. Add a few drops of acetone, A blue green or green
colouration is obtained.
II Add a few drops of pyridine to 3-4 drops of reagent B. Then introduce about 2ml of
chloroform, followed by 5-6 drops of the extract. Shake the mixture vigorously. The chloroform
layer will acquire a green colour (ref 1, pages 318-319)
III The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standards as well as blank.
Additional test :
Requirement: Ferric Chloride

Preparation of reagent: 5% solution of ferric chloride is freshly prepared.

Procedure: Place a few drops of water extract on a clean spot plate. Add 2 drops of ferric
chloride solution. A red precipitate or colouration is produced.(Ref 1 page 318)
4.4.6 Test for Chlorate : (ClO3-)

Requirements:
i) Concentrated Sulphuric acid ii) Aniline sulphate
iii) Manganoussulphate iv) Phosphoric acid
v) Diphenylcarbazide vi) Ethanol
Reagent A:- 1% Aniline sulphate (Dissolve 1g aniline sulphate in 100ml of water.)

Reagent B: -Manganese(II) sulphate phosphoric acid
It is prepared by mixing equal volumes of saturated manganese sulphate solution
and syrupy phosphoric acid.
Reagent C: 1% Alcoholic DiphenylCarbazide solution.
Procedure:
I 1ml of extract is dried in a spot plate. After cooling add 2-3 drops of conc. Sulphuric acid.
Then add 2-3 drops of reagent A. Blue colour indicates the presence of chlorate ions.
II Place a drop of the extract in a micro crucible and add 1drop of the reagent B. Warm
rapidly over a micro burner and allow to cool. A violet coloration appears. Very pale coloration
may be intensified by adding a drop of reagent C. When a deep violet colour, due to an
oxidation product of the diphenylcarbazide is obtained.
NB:The interference due to peroxodisulphates, nitrites, bromates, iodates can be removed by

adding sulphuric acid solution with a little silver nitrate as catalyst. (ref 1, pages 337-339 )
Additional test:
Requirement:
i) Indigo
ii) conc. Sulphuric acid
iii)sodium sulphite or sulphurous acid
Preparation of reagent :
Reagent A : 1% Indigo in concsulphuric acid
Reagent B: 10% sodium sulphite solution in water

Procedure: Add a few drops of reagent A in 1 ml of water extract until the colour changes to
pale blue. Add Reagent B or dilute sulphurous acid drop by drop. The blue colour disappears.
4.4.7:-Test for Thiosulphate : (S2O32-)

Requirements:
i) Mercuric Chloride ii) Potassium Chloride
iii) Nickel nitrate iv) Ethylene diamine
Reagent A: 2% Mercuric Chloride solution (Dissolve 2 g of mercuric chloride in 100 ml of

distilled water.)
Reagent B: Nickel ethylene diamine nitrate reagent.
It is prepared as and when required by treating a little nickel nitrate solution with
ethylenediamine until a violet colour (due to the formation of the complex
[Ni(en) ]+2 ion) appears.
3
Procedure:
I. Take 1 drop of the water extract in a clean test tube. Add 2 drops of reagent A and mix
it. To it add little KCl. The change of blue litmus paper to red indicates the presence of
thiosulphate. (ref 2, pages 319-320 )
II. Take 1ml of the neutral or slightly alkaline water extract in a clean test tube. Then add
2-3 drops of the reagent B to it. A crystalline violet ppt indicates the presence of thiosulphate.
(ref 1, pages 305-307 ).
III. The above tests must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank.
4.4.8 Test for Perchlorate (ClO4-)
Requirements :
i) Methylene blue indicator

ii) Zinc sulphate.
iii) Absolute Alcohol
Reagent A: 1N Zinc sulphate solution.(Dissolve 28.8 g zinc sulphateheptahydrate in 100 ml of

water.)
Reagent B: 1N Potassium nitrate solution. (Dissolve 10.1 g potassium nitrate in 100 ml of

water.)

Reagent C: 0.05 % Methylene blue solution. (Dissolve 0.05 g methylene blue in 100 ml of
water.)
Procedure:
I. Apply a drop of water extract on a piece of filter paper impregnated with Reagent A -
Reagent B and spray the paper with Reagent C. Violet spot indicates the presence of
perchlorate.
NB:- Persulphates gives an analogous reaction. When they are present the test is carried
out on a TLC plate which is then heated for over 1 hour at 110 C to decompose the
persulphates. Violet spots obtained, following such treatment indicates the presence of
perchlorates. (ref 3, page 102-103 )
II. The above tests must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank.
4.4.9Test for Sulphite (SO32-)
Requirements:
i) ZnSO4
ii) Potassium Ferrocyanide
iii) Sodium Nitroprusside
Reagent A: Saturated solution of zinc sulphate.

Reagent B: 1N potassium ferrocyanide (Dissolve 10.4 g potassium ferrocyanide dissolved in 100
ml water)
Reagent C: 1% Sodium nitroprusside. (Dissolve 1g sodium nitroprusside in 100 ml water.)
Procedure:
I. A drop of reagent B is added to a drop of reagent A and then a of drop of reagent C is
added. White zinc ferrocyanide precipitates. A drop of neutral water extract is added.
Red precipitate appears.
II. The above tests must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank. (ref
3, page 308 )

Additional tests
Requirements :
i) fuchsin:
Preperation of reagent
ReagentA:- 0.015 g fuchsin dissolved in 100ml water.
Procedure:
Place a drop of reagent A on a spot plate. Add one drop of neutral test solution. The reagent is
decolourised. (Ref 1 page 304)
4.4.10 Test for Phosphate (PO 43-)
Requirements:
i) Ammonium molybdate
ii) Benzidine
iii) Conc. Nitric acid
iv) Glacial Acetic acid
v) Saturated solution of Sodium acetate
vi) Conc. Hydrochloric acid.
vii) Sodium hydroxide
Reagent A: Dissolve 0.5g of Ammonium molybdate in 10ml of water. Add 3ml conc. HNO 3.
Reagent B: Dissolve 6.5g Benzidine in 10ml glacial acetic acid and dilute to 35ml with water.
Reagent C: Dissolve 16 g sodium hydroxide in 100 ml water.
Procedure:
Test for Phosphate:
I. Place one drop of water extract in a spot plate. Add one drop of reagent A, wait for 30
seconds. Add one drop of reagent B, wait for 30 sec. Again add 3 drops of saturated
solution of sodium acetate. Blue gray colour indicates the presence of phosphate.
II. The above tests must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank.
4.4.11 Test for Elemental Phosphorus:

Requirements:
i) Ammonium molybdate
ii) Benzidine

iii) Conc. Nitric acid
iv) Glacial Acetic acid
v) Saturated solution of Sodium acetate
vi) Conc. Hydrochloric acid.
viii) Sodium hydroxide
Reagent A: Dissolve 0.5g of Ammonium molybdate in 10ml of water. Add 3ml conc. HNO 3.
Reagent B: Dissolve 6.5g Benzidine in 10ml glacial acetic acid and dilute to 35ml with water.
Reagent C: Dissolve 16 g sodium hydroxide in 100 ml water.
phosphorus is oxidized to phosphate by adding few drops of HNO 3–HCl (mixture 1:1),
boil for 5 minutes, cool and wait for 5 minutes. Place one drop of acidic sample solution on spot
plate and one drop of reagent C and one drop of reagent A and one drop of reagent B. wait for
30 sec. And then add 5 drops of saturated solution of sodium acetate. A blue or blue gray
colour indicates presence of phosphorus. (ref 3, pages 104-105 )
4.4.12 Special tests for mixtures of anions
4.4.12.1Nitrate in the presence of Nitrite

The nitrite is readily detected by the change of colour or starch potassium iodide paper
to blue. The nitrite cannot be detected in presence of Nitrate. The nitrite is therefore
completely decomposed first by adding some sulphamic acid to the solution of the sample. The
Nitrate can then be tested for its presence.
4.4.12.2Nitrate in presence of Chlorate
The chlorate obscure the test for nitrate. The nitrate is reduced to ammonia by boiling
the sample solution with zinc test and sodium hydroxide. The chlorate is also reduced to
chloride which is tested by silver nitrate solution .
4.4.12.3Chloride ,chlorate and perchlorate in presence of each other

Acidify the sample solution with dilute nitric acid and boil. Add silver nitrate solution. A
white precipitate of silver chloride indicates the presence of chloride.
Filter off the precipitates of silver chloride. Introduce a little chloride free sodium nitrite
(which reduces chlorate to chloride) and more silver nitrate solution into the filtrate. A curdy
white precipitate of silver chloride indicates the presence of chlorate perchlorate. Pass excess
sulphur dioxide into the solution to reduce chlorate to chloride, boil off the excess sulphur
dioxide and precipitate the chloride with silver nitrate solution. Afterwards, remove the excess
silver with a solution of sodium carbonate. Evaporate the resulting solution to dryness and

heat to dull redness better in presence of allied free lime to convert perchlorate to chloride.
Extract the residue with water and test for chloride.
4.4.12.4 Sulphide, sulphite, sulphate and thiosulphate

Shake the sample solution with excess of freshly precipitated cadmium carbonate and filter
Residue Filtrate
CdS and excess of CdCO3. Wash and Reject the Add strontium nitrate solution in slight excess.
washings. Digest the residue With dilute acetic Allow to stand overnight and filter.
acid to remove Excess carbonate. Yellow residue Residue Filtrate
Indicates sulphide. Confirm by warming With treat with dil. HCl and Acidify with dil. HCl
dilute HCl and test the evolved H2S with lead filter. Test the residue and boil SO2 is evolved
acetate paper (Sulphide for sulphate (sodium and sulphur is slowly
nitropruside test) and precipitated
filtrate for
Thiosulphate and
sulphite
4.5 Chemical tests for Cations
4.5.1 Test for Sodium ion (Na+)

Requirements:
i) Zinc acetate
ii) Uranyl acetate
iii) Glacial Acetic acid
Reagent A: Uranyl zinc acetate reagent:
Dissolve 10 gms of uranyl acetate dihydrate in a mixture of 5ml glacial acetic acid and 20ml of
water and dilute to 50ml (Solution a). In a separate vessel stir 30 gms of zinc acetate
dihydrate with 5ml glacial acetic acid and 20ml water and dilute to 50ml (solution b). Mix the
two solution a & b and add 0.5g of sodium chloride. Allow to stand for 24 hours, and filter
from the precipitated sodium zinc uranyl acetate Alternatively, The reagent is prepared by
dissolving 10 g of uranyl zinc acetate in 50ml water or in 1M acetic acid.
Procedure :
I. Place a drop of neutral water extract on a black porcelain plate and add 8 drops of
reagent A. Stir with a glass rod when a yellow turbidity or pptappears. In case of smaller
amounts of sodium, place the porcelain plate under UV light. A bright fluorescenceindicate the
presence of sodium.

II. The tests must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank ( ref 2,
page 229 )
4.5.2 Test for Potassium ion (K+):
Requirements:
i) Sodium cobalti nitrite

ii) Dipicrylamine reagent
iii) 0.1N Nitric acid
iv) Sodium carbonate
Reagent A: Dipicrylamine (or hexanitro-diphenylamine) reagent. Dissolve 0.2 g of dipicrylamine

in 2ml 2N sodium carbonate and 15 ml water. Soak strips of filter paper in the reagent and dry
it. This paper should be freshly prepared.
Reagent B: 0.167 M sodium cobaltinitrite solution (Dissolve 6.73g sodium cobaltinitrite in 100
ml water.)
Procedure:
I Place a drop of the water extract upon reagent A paper and add 2 drops of 0.1N HNO 3. A
red stain at the site of the spot appears while all other parts of the reagent paper turn bright
yellow.
NB: First test the suspected material for the presence of ammonium ion. If the extract contain
ammonium, evaporate it to dryness in a micro crucible. After cooling the residue moisten the
residue with water and carry out the test as above. Ammonium ion may be eliminated by boiling
the solution with dilute NaOH solution. (ref 3, pages 105-106 )
II. Take 5 drops of water extract in watch glass, evaporate to about 2 drops and cool, then
add 4 drops of reagent B and warm if necessary. Yellow precipitate insoluble in dilute
acetic acid, .indicates K+ (ref 1, page 289).
a) Test for Potassium ion in presence of ammonium ion, add water extract to a few drops
of perchloric acid white ppt. appears (Ref 1)
b) Add water extract to 1 ml of 10% (W/V) Sodiium hydroxide solution and boil. The
evolution of pungent smelling gas occurs, which produces deme white fume on contact with

a glass rod moistened with conc. Hydrochloric acid, indicating the presence of ammonium
ions.
III. The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
4.5.3 Test for Barium ion (Ba2+)

Requirements:
i) Sodium rhodizonate.
ii) Ethylene diaminedihydrochloride
iii) Hydrochloric acid
Preparation of reagent:
Reagent A: 0.2 % aqueous sodium rhodizonate.

Dissolve 0.2 g of sodium rhodizonate in 100ml of distilled water. The reagent does
not keep well so only small quantities must be prepared at a time for long.
Reagent B: 2% ethylene diaminedihydrochloride solution.
Reagent C: 0.5M HCl. Dilute 4.5ml conc.HCl with water to 100ml.

Procedure:
I. Place one drop of neutral or slightly acidic water extract on a filter paper and
then add a drop of reagent A. A red-brown spot indicates the presence of Ba+2. On
adding reagent C a brilliant red acid salt is formed. The red colour disappears if barium is
absent. (ref 1, page 280)
II. Prepare a relatively stable rhodizonate reagent paper. Impregnate with reagent
B, sprayed with reagent A and dry at a temp less than 800C. The resulting test paper is
stable for at least six months when kept in a dark container (ref 3,page 82). Barium in
presence of Lead a relatively stable rhodizonate reagent paper has been developed for
barium and lead screening. The filter paper is impregnated with reagent B sprayed with
reagent A and dried at a temperature less than 80 C. the resulting test paper is stable for
at least six months when kept in a dark container. (ref 3, page 82 )
III. The above test must be carried out along with reference standard as well as blank.
4.5.4 Test for Calcium ion (Ca2+)
Requirements:
i) Sodium Rhodizonate
ii) 0.5 N Sodium Hydroxide.
Reagent A: 0.2% aqueous solution of Sodium rhodizonate. Dissolve 0.2 g of Sodium
rhodizonate in 100ml of distilled water.

Procedure:
Place one drop of neutral or weakly acidic water extract on a spot plate. Add one drop freshly
prepared reagent A and then add one drop of reagent B. Mix the solution by blowing air briskly
through a pipette. A violet precipitate indicates the presence of calcium. (ref 2, pages 222-223)
The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
4.5.5 Test for Strontium ion (Sr2+)
Requirements:
i) Potassium chromate
ii) Strontium rhodizonate
Reagent A: 0.2% aqueous solution of sodium rhodizonate.
Dissolve 0.2 g of sodium rhodizonate in 100ml of distilled water.
Reagent B: Saturated solution of potassium chromate.
Procedure:
I. Place a drop of neutral extract of sample on a filter paper or in a spot plate. Add a drop
of reagent A. A brownish red coloration or precipitate is produced.
If barium is also present proceed as follow. Impregnate the filter paper with reagent B
and dry it. Place a drop of extract on this paper and after a minute place a drop of
reagent A on the moistened spot. Brownish red spot or ring is formed. (ref 1, pages
281-282 )
II. The above test must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
4.5.6 Flame test for Sodium, Potassium, Barium, Calcium & Strontium.
Take small part of the water extract in a beaker, evaporate it to dryness and cool. Take
conc. HCl in a watch glass. Perform flame test by platinum wire in the non-luminous
flame of the burner. (ref 1, page 466 )

Table-15. Colour of flame
IONS COLOUR OF FLAME
Na+ Golden Yellow
K+ Violet (lilac), Crimson through cobalt

blue glass
Ca2+ Brick-red
Ba2+ Yellowish-green
Sr2+ Crimson
3.5.7 Test for ammonium ion (NH4+)

Requirements:
i) Potassium Iodide ii) Mercuric Chloride
iii) Potassium Hydroxide iv) Hydrochloric Acid
v) Sodium Nitrite vi) Calcium Oxide
Reagent A: Nessler’s Reagent
Dissolve 10 g of potassium iodide in 10ml of ammonia free water (Solution A).

Dissolve 6 g of mercuric chloride in 100ml water (Solution B). Dissolve 45 g of KOH
in water and dilute to 80 ml (Solution C). Add solution B to solution A drop wise
until a slight permanent precipitate is formed. Then add solution C, mix and dilute
with water to 200ml. Allow to stand overnight and decant clear liquid.
Reagent B: Para-nitrobenzene-diazonium chloride reagent.( Riegler’s solution)
Dissolve 1 g of p-nitro aniline in 25ml of 2M. HCl and dilute with water to 160 ml.
Cool and add 20 ml of 5% sodium nitrite solution with vigorous shaking. Continue
the shaking until the precipitate dissolves. The reagent becomes turbid on
keeping, but can be employed again after filtering.
Procedure:
I. Place a drop of neutral or weakly acidic water extract in a spot plate and add a drop of
reagent. An Orange brown precipitate indicates the presence of ammonium ion.

II. Place a drop of the neutral or slightly acidic extract on a spot plate. Cover the drop with
a fine granules of Calcium oxide before adding a drop of reagent B. Lay on adding a
drop of reagent B a red zone forms around calcium oxide, carry out blank test side by
side.(ref 1, page 295 )
4.5.8 Test for Magnesium ion (Mg2+)

Requirement:
i) Quinalizarin
ii) Ethanol
iii) p-Nitrobenzene-azo-resorcinol ( or Magneson I ) Reagent
iv) Sodium hydroxide
Preparation of reagent
Reagent A: Dissolve 0.02 g of Quinializarin in 100ml of ethanol.

Reagent B: Dissolve 0.5 g of Magneson I in a mixture of 10 ml 2M sodium hydroxide and 10ml
water. Dilute the solution with water to 100 ml
Procedure:
Post explosion Test Procedure:
I. Place a drop of water extract in the spot plate and add 2 drops of reagent A. (In an acidic
medium solution is orange colour). Add 2N NaOH until colour changes to violet.
Appearance of blue precipitate or tint that intensifies on standing indicates the presence
of Magnesium. (ref 3, pages 97-98 )
II. Place a drop water extract on a spot plate and add 1-2 drops of reagent B. Add one drop
of 2M NaOH. Blue precipitate is formed indicating the presence of magnesium. (ref 1,
page 288 )
Pre explosion Test Procedure:

Dissolve the unknown sample in 2N hydrochloric acid prior to performing the procedure above
(ref 3, page 98)
4.5.9 Test for Aluminium (Al 3+)

Requirements:
i) 1N acetic acid
ii) Morrin reagent (3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxy flavanol )
iii) Aluminon (Ammonium salt of aurinetricarboxylic acid)
iv) Alizarin-S

v) Sodium hydroxide
vi) Acetic acid
vii) Quinalizarin
Reagent A: Prepare saturated solution of Morrin reagent in 5ml of methyl alcohol in a small
bottle.
Reagent B: Aluminon reagent.(Dissolve 0.25 g of aluminon in 250ml of water.)
Reagent C: Quinalizarin (1,2,5,8-Tetra hydroxyanthraquinone)

Prepare the reagent paper by soaking filter paper in a solution of quinalizarin
obtained by dissolving 0.01 g of quinalizarin in 2ml of pyridine and then diluting with 18
ml of acetone.

I. Add a small amount of 1N acetic acid to the water extract to make it slightly acidic. Place
3 drops of the acidified solution in a black spot plate and then add 2 drops of reagent A.
Observe the spot under UV light. Green fluorescence indicates presence of aluminium.
(ref 3, page 90)
II. Take 1ml of the acidified water extract, add 1 ml 10M ammonium acetate solution and
2 ml 0.1% aqueous solution of reagent B. Shake, allow to stand for 5 minutes and add
excess of ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solution to decolourise excess dyestuff and
lakes due to traces of chromium hydroxide and silica. A bright red precipitate or
colouration persisting in alkaline solution indicates the presence of aluminium.
(ref 1, page 252 )
III. Place a drop of water extract on a reagent paper (reagent C). Hold it for a short time over
a bottle containing conc. ammonia solution and then over glacial aceticacid until the blue
colour just disappears and the unmoistened paper regains the brown colour of free
quanalizarin. A red-violet or red spot is formed. Blank test should also be performed.(ref
1, page 254 )
IV. The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
I. Dissolve the unknown metallic powder in 2 N NaOH and carry out the above tests.(ref 3,
page 90)

4.5.10 Test for sugars.
Reagent A: 15% ethanolic solution of 1-naphthol.
Reagent B: 0.5% solution of 2,3,5-triphenlytetrazolium chloride
Reagent C: 0.1 N sodium hydroxide.
I. Place 2 drops of the test solution on a spot plate add 1 drop of reagent A and 2 drops of
conc. sulphuric acid. A blue or purple blue colour indicates the presence of sugar.
(ref 3, page 106)
II. A drop of the test solution is mixed with reagent B and 1 drop of reagent C in a test
tube. The mixture is boiled for 1-2 min. A red colour or precipitate indicates reducing
sugars. (ref 6, page 338).The above tests must be carried out along with the reference
standard as well as blank.
I. The procedure is same as above ( I) but a purple colour formation indicates a position
result.
4.5.11. Test for Arsenic (As3+)

Requirements:
i) Dilute. Sulphuric acid
ii) Arsenic free Zinc granules
iii) Mercuric Chloride
iv) Cu foil
v) Conc. Hydrochloric acid
Procedure:
I Gutzeit Method:-
Mix a drop of alkali extract with a few grains of zn and few drops of dilute sulphuric acid
in the micro test tube with a flat rim and place a small piece of filter paper moistened
with 20% silver nitrate solution on the flat surface. Gray stain will be obtained. (ref 1,
page 231)

II Reinsch's test:
If a bright copper foil is boiled with extract, acidified with at least one tenth of its bulk of
conc. HCl, the arsenic is deposited upon the copper as a gray film of copper arsenide.
Antimony, Mercury, Silver and other metals are also precipitated under similar
condition. It is therefore necessary to test for arsenic in the deposit in the dry way as
follow. Wash the copper strip having deposits with distilled water, dry between filter
paper and then heat gently in a test tube. A white sublimate of arsenic oxide appears
which is identified by examining under microscope when the sublimate appears as
octahedral and tetrahedral crystals (ref 1, Page 231).
4.5.12 Test for Antimony (Sb3+)

Requirements:
i) Rhodamine-B
ii) Sodium Nitrite
iii) Conc. HCl
Reagent A: Add 0.01g Rhodamine-B in 100ml of distilled water.
Procedure:
I. Take a small portion of NaOH extract in a spot plate. To it add 1-2 drops of conc. HCl and
a few mg sodium nitrite. Add 10 drops of reagent A and mix it. A change of colour from
bright red to violet indicates the presence of Antimony. (ref 3, page 92)
II. The test must be carried out along with reference standards as well as blank.

I. Take a small portion of NaOH extract in a spot plate and add few mg sodium nitrite. Add
10 drops of reagent A and mix it. A change of colour from bright red to violet indicates
the presence of Antimony. (ref 3, page 92)
4.5.13 Test for Sulphide ions (S2-)
Requirements:
i) p-Amino dimethylaniline
ii) Ferric chloride
ii) Hydrogen sulphide
iv) Sodium nitroprusside

Reagent A: 0.1%Methylene blue. Diisolve 0.1 g Methylene blue in 100 ml water.
Reagent B: 1%Sodium nitroprusside. Dissolve 0.1 g Sodium nitroprussidedihydrate in 10 ml
water. (use freshly prepared solution)
Reagent C: 0.5M Ferric chloride. Dissolve 135.2 g Ferric chloride hexa hydrate in water. Add a
few ml conc. HCl, if necessary and dilute with water to 1lit. If the solution turns dark add more
HCl.
Procedure:
I. Place a drop of alkali extract on a spot plate, add a drop of conc. HCl, mix. Add 2-3
drops of reagent A to it. Add a drop of reagent C. A clear blue coloration appears
after a short time (2-3 minutes). (ref 1, page 310)
II. Mix on a spot plate a drop of the alkaline extract with a drop of reagent B. A violet
colour indicates the presence of sulphide. (Ref 1, page 309)
Alternatively filter paper impregnated with 2M ammoniacal solution of sodium
nitroprusside may be employed.
The tests must be carried out along with reference standards as well as blank.
4.5.14 Test for Sulphur
Requirements:
i) 2M Sodium hydroxide
Procedure:
I. Take a small portion of pyridine extract in a small test tube and boil it for one minute.
Add a drop of 2M sodium hydroxide (add in a hot condition). A blue to green colour for
low and red to brown for high concentrations of sulphur is observed. (ref 3, page 107)
II. The above tests must be carried out along with the reference standard as well as blank.
4.5.15 Ion Chromatography
The instrument Ion Chromatograph is calibrated and kept ready for analysis as per the
instrument manual.
Analysis of Anions
Column : Polystyrene/divinylbenzene copolymer, 250mm length, 4.6mm ID
Suppressor : Metrohm Suppressor Module (MSM, 20m mol/L H2SO4)

Eluent : 1.7 Mmol/L NaHCO3/1.8Mmol/L Na2CO3
Flow rate : 1ml/min

Sample volume: 10 μL
pH range : 1 - 13
NB: Any other validated methods may be used for analysis.
Analysis of Cations
Column : Spherical Silica gel with polybutadiene maleic acid groups, 125mm length, 4mm ID
Eluent : 4 Mmol/L Tartaric acid/0.75 Mmol/L Dipicolinic acid : 3 Mmol/L Tartaric
acid/0.5Mmol/L Oxalic acid for basic cations and nickel, zinc, cobalt : 8 Mmol/L Tartaric
acid/10% acetone for basic cations.
Flow rate : 1ml/min
Sample volume: 10 μL
pH range :2-7
4.5.16 Capillary Electrophoresis.
The Capillary Electrophoresis is a complimentary technique to Ion chromatography for the

analysis of inorganic ions.
The instrument is calibrated and kept ready for analysis as per the instrument manual.
Conditions:
Column : Fused silica capillary with 75m I D (Prepared for use by flushing for 2 minutes
with 100 mMNaOH.)
Detector: Scanning UV detector, dual wavelength mode at 280 nm and 205 nm.
Operating Voltage: 20 KV
Buffer: Add 0.53 g of potassium dichromate, 0.76 g of sodium tetraborate, and 2.47 g of
boric acid to 1 liter of de-ionised water, adjust to 7.65 with diethylenetriamine
(DETA) and filter through 0.45  m nylon filter. The resultant buffer solution is
2mM in borate , 40 mM in boric acid and 1.8 mM in dichromate.
Injection: Hydro dynamic injection
Injection time: 5 sec
Ions identified: Cl-, NO2-, ClO3-, NO3-, SO4-, SCN-, ClO4-, HCO3-
(ref 4, page 135 )

4.5.17High Performance Liquid Chromatography for Sugars
Conditions:
Column: LC-NH2, 250mm x 4.6mm(Id)
Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: water (80:20)
Flow rate: 2 ml/ min
For fructose, glucose and sucrose.
Detector: Refractive Index (RI)
4.5.18 EDXRFdataof explosive residues.
XRF Technique based on the emission of characteristic X-ray radiation when a sample is
exposed to exciting radiation from more energetic X-ray. The spectra are displayed as
intensity verses energy or wavelength.
- The sample is irradiated with a beam of primary X-ray knocks out an electron from the K
shell. An electron in the L shell drops into the K shell with concurrent emission of
radiation of characteristic wavelength, the secondary or florescent radiation. An
electron in the M shell drops into the vacancy in the L shell with the emission of
radiation. The process is repeated as an electron in the N shell drops into the newly
created vacancy in the M shell. Hence obtain spectrum consist of well defined peaks
due to these transitions, which are called K, K , K, L, and L for the transition L,
MK, NK, ML and NL. These peaks may have shoulders, because the electron in
the L or M shell can have one of three or five energies depending whether it is in a, s, p
or d sub shell but quantum mechanical selection rule allows two K and two K
transitions.
- The energy differences within a shell are very small compared with the differences
between various shells and these transitions show up. If at all, as extra peaks on the
main peaks, they are labeled K1, K2 and K 1 etc. The X-ray spectrum is thus highly
characteristic of an element.
- According to Moseley for a series of the same type the observed wave length is related
to the atomic number of the element. This leads to two conclusion of analytical
importance: (1) A spectrum of unknown sample will have a series of peaks whose
maximum wavelength is directly related to atomic number of the element in the
sample, i.e. quantitative analysis is simple. (2) The peaks are so characteristic of an
element that quantitative analyses can be carried out without prior separation, i.e.
method is specific.
- Furthermore, because the transitions are between inner shells, the valence state of the
element is of little consequence so that the total amount of an element can be readily
determined regardless of its chemical form.

Detection limits
- Detection limits depends upon the fluorescence efficiency of the desired element, the
apparatus and the matrix in which the particular element is to be determined. Detection
limits are there for different elements and matrices and range from 0.1% for very high
elements in heavy matrices to 0.00001% or 0.1ppm heavy element in light matrices.
- Table-16ENERGY TABLE OF INORGANIC ELEMENT OF EXPLOSIVES
ELEMENT K KB1 Kab L1 LB1 LB2 L1 Llab Lllab Llllb M1
C 0.277 0.284
Na 1.041 1.067 1.072
Mg 1.254 1.296 1.303
Al 1.487 1.553 1.56
S 2.308 2.464 2.471
Cl 2.622 2.816 2.82
k 3.313 3.59 3.608
Ca 3.691 4.013 4.038 0.341 0.345
Fe 6.4 7.058 7.111 0.705 0.718
As 10.532 11.727 11.865 1.282 1.317
Sr 14.142 15.837 16.108 1.807 1.872
Sb 26.279 29.725 30.486 3.605 3.844 4.101 4.348 4.699 4.382 4.132
Ba 32.071 36.381 37.458 4.466 4.828 5.157 5.531 5.996 5.623 5.247
Hg 70.167 80.249 83.1 9.989 11.823 11.924 13.83 14.843 14.251 12.287 2.195
Pb 74.243 84.921 87.995 10.552 12.614 12.623 12.623 15.855 15.205 13.041 2.346

4.6 Table-17 Summary of Techniques used for Explosive Trace Analysis
(ref 7 page 20)
Detection Technique Target Analytes Specificity Typical
LOD
Visual microscopy All Low µg
UV/Vis absorption All Medium ng- µg
Fluorescence Fluorescent organics and Low-Medium ng- µg
Inorganics
Spot test/Chemical colour Several relevant targets Low-Medium µg/ml
test e.g. nitrates, chlorates,
peroxides, sulphur, sugars
Immunoassay Organics Medium ng
Ion Mobility Spectrometry Organics Medium-High pg-ng
(IMS)
Mass spectrometry (MS) All (depending on Medium-unit mass pg-ng
ionization used) resolution
High-High resolution
Scanning Electron Elements Z >10 High pg

Microscopy/Energy
Dispersive Spectroscopy
(SEM/EDS)
X-ray diffraction (XRD) Crystalline organics and High (pure mg
inorganics compounds)
Medium (Mixtures)
Fourier Transform- Infrared Infrared active organics High (pure mg
(FTIR) and inorganics compounds)
Medium(Mixtures) µg (ATR)
Raman Raman active organics and High(pure µg
inorganics compounds)
Medium(mixtures) ng
X Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Elements Z>10 High µg
Inductively Coupled Plasma Elements Z>7 High ng

mass spectrometry or optical
emission spectrometry (ICP-
MS/OES)
Thermal Energy Analyser Nitro- containing High pg
(TEA) compounds
Electron Capture Detector Organics Low pg
(ECD)
Conductivity Inorganics, Sugars Low ng

References:
1. A.I Vogel, (1982). Text Book of Macro and Semi Micro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis,
5th edition, Longman London.
2. Fritz Fiegl. .(1965).Spot Tests in Inorganic Analysis, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Amsterdam.
3 Ervin Jungreis. (1997). Spot Test Analysis, 2nd edition, A Wiely-Interscience publication,
N.York
4 Yinon. J. Advances in Analysis and Detection of Explosives,. Proceedings of the 4th
international Symposium, Ion analysis and Detection of Explosives, Sep 7- 10, 1992,
Jerusalem, Israel. Kluwer Academic Publishers, London.
5 K.E.Hall and B.R.Mc Cord (1993). " The analysis of mono and divalent cations present in
Explosives residues using ion chromatography with conductivity detection",J.Foren.Sci.
Vol 38, No 4, pages 928-934.
6. Fritz Fiegl . (1966).Spot Tests in Organic Analysis, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Amsterdam.
7. Best Practice Manual for the Forensic Recovery, Identification and Analysis of Explosive
Traces (ENFSI-BPM-EXP-01) Version 01 November 2015 by the European Network of
Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI)

CHAPTER – 5
IDENTIFICATION OF PRIMARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES (INITIATORY

COMPOSITION)
5.1 Title: -Identification of Primary High Explosives (Initiatory Composition)
5.2 Scope: Chemical tests and chromatographic methods for identification of Primary High
Explosives (Initiatory Composition)
5.3 Purpose: Detection and identification of Primary High Explosives (Initiatory Composition)
in pre blast and post blast residues.
5.4 Identification of Primary High explosives (Initiatory Composition)
5.4.1 SPOT TEST
5.4.1.1 Mercury Fulminate
Add an equal amount of Vanadium pentoxide to the sample on a spot plate and allow
one drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid to run into the mixture. Mercury fulminate
produces a violet coloration.
5.4.1.2 Lead Azide
Add one drop of freshly prepared ferric chloride solution to the sample dissolved in
saturated ammonium acetate solution. A blood red colouration indicates Azide or Thiocyanate.
In case of azide the colour is discharged by hydrochloric acid but retained in case of
thiocyanate.
The presence of Lead styphnate is indicated by its characteristic yellow green colour.
5.4.2 Thin layer chromatography
Eluents:
1. Methanol/2N hydrochloric acid 80/20

2. Methanol/2N hydrochloric acid/acetone 65/15/10
3. Acetone/concentrated ammonium hydroxide 75/25

TLC Conditions:
Plate coating: MN Silica gel N 0.25mm (thickness)
Solvent: 20% aqueous ammonium acetate:ethanolamine
Sample aliquot : 2ul.
Spray reagent for visualization
1. 2% aqueous Potassium iodide

2. 2% aqueous ferric chloride
3. 2% aqueous acidified sodium sulphide.( ref : 11 page 248 )
Table-18. Rf Values with various solvents and colour of spot
Substance Rf with various eluents colour with various visualisers
1 2 3 1 2 3
MercuryII - - 0.14 Orange - Grey
Brown
Lead II 0.37 0.36 0.00 Yellow - Brown
Grey
Styphnate 0.73 0.71 0.89 Yellow without visualization
Fulminate 0.64 0.63 0.95 - - Brown

Grey
Azide - 0.49 0.62 - Red -
References :-
1.Yallop.H.J. Explosion Investigation 1980. Foren. Sci. Soc. Academic Press, U.K.

CHAPTER – 6
IDENTIFICATION OF SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES (MAIN CHARGE)
6.1 Title: -Identification of Secondary High Explosives (Main Charge)
6.2 Scope: -Chemical tests and chromatographic methods forIdentification of Secondary

High Explosives (Main Charge)
6.3 Purpose: Detection and identification of Identification of Secondary High Explosives

(Main Charge)in pre blast and post blast residues.
6.4 Identification of Secondary High Explosives (Main Charge) by colour tests
Requirements:
i) Diphenylamine ii) Sulphanilic acid
iii) Acetic acid iv) -Naphthlyamine
v) BrucineSulphate vi) Ethanol
vii) Thymol crystals viii) Nitrogen free conc.H2SO4
ix) Potassium hydroxide x) Tetramethylammonium hydroxide
xi) J-acid. xii) conc. Sulphuric acid
Reagent A: Diphenylamine (DPA). Dissolve 1 g of DPA in 10 ml of conc. Sulphuric acid.

Reagent B: 1% Sulphanilic acid in 33% acetic acid. Dissolve 1 g of sulphanilic acid in 100 ml of
33% acetic acid.
Reagent C:  -Naphthaylamine in acetic acid, Dissolve 1 g of  -Naphthylamine in 100ml of
boiling distilled water, cool and decant the colourless supernatant liquid and mix with 110ml
of glacial acetic acid.
Reagent D: Brucine Reagent. Dissolve 5 g brucinesulphate in 100ml of 33% acetic acid.
Reagent E: Alcoholic potassium hydroxide.
Dissolve 10gms of potassium hydroxide in 100ml of absolute alcohol.
Reagent F: 0.1 g J-acid in 100ml of conc. Sulphuric acid.

Procedure:
I Take 1ml of the extract in a clean test tube and add 2 drops of Reagent A.
(ref 1, pages 41-42 and ref 4) and observe the colour for conclusion.
NG -- blue to blue black RDX -- blue PETN -- blue
NC -- blue black HMX -- blue Tetryl -- blue
NS -- blue black TNT -- no color
II Add 1 drop of Reagent B followed by 2 drops of Reagent C to 1ml of extract in a spot
plate. (ref 2, page 683 and ref 4)
NG -- pink to red RDX -- pink to red

NC -- pink Tetryl -- pink to red
NS -- pink TNT -- No colour PETN -- pink to red
III To 1ml of extract in a test tube add 2 drops of Reagent D. (ref 4) and observe the colour
for conclusion.
NG -- orange to red RDX -- orange to red

NC -- orange to red Tetryl -- orange to red
NS -- orange to red PETN -- orange to red TNT -- no reaction
IV Add 1 ml of extract to 2-3 drops of Reagent E in a clean test tube (ref 5, page 108).
TNT -- purple red Tetryl -- red violet
NB: Add one drop of a 1;1 acetone -alcohol mixture and one drop of 25% aqueous
tetramethylammonium hydroxide to 5-10 mg of test material. In the presence of 2,4-dinitrotoluene a
blue colour appears, and in the presence of TNT, a dark red colour. Since the colour will change with
time, the first observation is the decisive one.
V Take 200 mg crystals of thymol in a test tube and add 0.3 ml of conc. sulphuric acid
(nitrogen free) and 1ml of the sample extract, mix well, warm the tube for 5 minutes at
100 C and add 5-10 ml of ethanol.(ref 5, pages 95-96). Observe the colour for
conclusion.
RDX --blue HMX -- pale blue green tint
NB: If the same test is repeated at 150 C RDX will produce blue colour whereas HMX
results in olive colour. Thus RDX can be distinguished from HMX.
VI Place a drop of reagent F on a glass filter paper followed by a drop of the test
solution in Acetone (ref 5, page 94) and observe the colour for conclusion.
RDX -- Yellow fluorescence under UV light

6.5 Identification of Secondary High Explosives (Main Charge) by Thin Layer Chromatography
(TLC)
6.5.1 For separation of general Secondary High explosives
Requirements:
TLC plates (20x20cm or 10x10cm) of Silica gel G layer thickness 250 m.
TLC developing chamber, Sprayer, Capillary tubes.
Developing solvents:
i) Chloroform
ii) Acetone
iii) Toluene
iv) Cyclohexane
v) Ethylacetate
vi) Trichloroethylene
Control samples: Reference standard of high explosives
Procedure:
1. Activate the pre-coated TLC plates by keeping it in air oven at a temperature of 110 0C
for 30 minutes.
2. Prepare reference standards of high explosives by dissolving small amount of explosives

in acetone separately.
3. Take 100ml of eluent in a developing chamber (for 20x20 cm TLC plate), cover with a lid
and allow it for saturation for at least 30 minutes.
4. The concentrated acetone extract of sample is spotted on the pre coated TLC plate
along with reference standard of high explosives, by leaving 2 cm from one edge of the
TLC plate and maintaining minimum distance of 1.5cm between two spots of
applications.
5. The TLC plate is placed in the developing chamber vertically and allowed to develop up
to 10cm from the spots by ascending method.
6. Then the plate is removed and kept aside for the eluent to evaporate at room
temperature.

7. Solvent system for Developing Chromatogram:
1. Trichloroethylene: Acetone (4:1) (ref 7)
2. Chloroform: Acetone(1:1) (ref 11, page 241)
3. Toluene: Cyclohexane (7:3) (ref 3, page 35)
4. Toluene : Ethylacetate (9:1) (ref 6, page 323)
8. Spray (Detection) Reagents

For visualization of the spots after separation.
A. Spray the TLC plate with 5% Diphenylamine (DPA) in 95% ethanol and note the
colour developed, (II) Then keep the TLC plate under UV light for some time note the
colour, (III) The plate is again sprayed with conc. sulphuric acid and the colour
developed is noted.
B. Spray the TLC plate with 1N NaOH in ethanol and keep at 100 0C for 10 minutes in an
air oven. Cool and spray with Griess reagent (0.25% sulphanilic acid and 0.1%. -
Naphthylamine in 1:1 aqueous acetic acid and observe the colour developed as
given in table-1.
C. KOH and Griess as spray reagent. Brown red for TNT, orange brown for tetryl
Table-19.Rf with various solvents and colour of spot
Compound Colour Development Rf Values in Different Solvent Systems.
DPA UV light Sulphuric Griess Trichloro Chloro- Toluene : Toluene

Acid ethylene : form: Cyclo- : ethyl
Acetone Acetone hexane acetate
(4:1) (1:1) (7:3) (9:1)
NG No colour Gray to Blue-gray Pink 0.47 -- 0.42 0.66

green
RDX No colour gray Blue-gray Red 0.15 0.47 0.03 0.13
PETN No colour Gray to Blue-green Red 0.55 0.69 0.45 0.78

green
TNT Orange Orange Colour fades Brown 0.59 - 0.57 0.88

brown brown
TETRYL brown brown Yellow to Red 0.40 0.66 0.25 0.61

Blue-gray
HMX No colour No colour No colour Red 0.40

6.5.2 For differentiation of RDX & HMX: Solvent system: Chloroform : Acetone (2:1)
Spray reagent: Griess reagent,
Rf Value = 0.72 (RDX), 0.35 (HMX)
6.5.3 For Separation of NC: Solvent system: Acetone: Methanol (3:2)
Spray reagent: Griess reagent, Rf value = 0.64
6.5.4 For separation of mono methyl amine nitrate (MMAN):
Solvent system: Chloroform: methanol: water (100:90:14)
Spray reagent: DPA followed by UV light and then

sulphuric acid
Rf value = 0.60 (ref 8)
6.6Identification of Minor components of propellantsbyThin Layer Chromatography (TLC).
6.6.1 Identification of Stabilisers
Plate coating: Silica gel G (0.25 mm thick), Sample aliquot: 5μl.
Eluents:
1. Benzene
2. Benzene/Petroleum Ether (40/60)/methanol 27/9/4
3. Benzene/Petroleum Ether (40/60) I/I
4. Benzene/Ethyl acetate 85/15.
Elution distance: 16 cm
Visualizing reagent :-Potassium dichromate solution

Table-20. Rf values with various eluents
Substance 1 2 3 4 Colour
Resorcinol 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.16 Brown
2-nitrodiphenylamine 0.71 0.86 0.41 0.66 Red
Methyl centralite 0.01 0.69 0.00 0.20 Red
Ethyl centralite 0.02 0.75 0.01 0.33 Red
p-nitro-N-methylaniline 0.25 0.58 0.05 0.37 No change
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine 0.58 0.82 0.24 0.69 Blue
4-nitrodiphenylamine 0.39 0.66 0.08 0.55 Violet
2,4-dinitrodiphenylamine 0.37 0.78 0.08 0.57 No change
2,4-dinitro-N-methylaniline 0.27 0.67 0.05 0.38 No change
Diphenylamine 0.74 0.78 0.48 0.69 Blue
6.6.2 Identification of Phthalates:
Plate coating: Silica gel G (0.25mm thick). Sample aliquot: 50μ l.
Eluents:
1. Dichloromethane 2. Benzene: Ethyl acetate :: 85:15.
Visualising reagent:
1% resorcinol in concentrated sulphuric acid. After elution, the plate is air-dried and sprayed.
After heating at 140-1500C for 15-20 minutes a yellow-green colour is produced.
Table-21. Rf values with various eluents

Substance 1 2
Dimethyl Phthalate 0.38 0.47
Diethyl phthalate 0.44 0.54
Dibutyl phthalate 0.50 0.65
Amyl phthalate 0.59 0.68
Dicyclohexyl phthalate 0.53 0.66

6.7 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)-Acetone extract
1. The instrument HPLC is calibrated and kept ready for analysis as per the operating
instructions described in instrument manual.
2. A solutionof standard of High Explosives is prepared in Acetonitrile of concentration of

about 1mg/ml each and filtered.
3. A solution of Test Sample of High Explosives is prepared in Acetonitrile of

concentration of about 2 mg/ml each and filtered. The concentration of test sample
may vary depending upon purity.
Method 1: For TNT, RDX, HMX, PETN, NG, EGDN, Tetryl (ref 9)
Column : C-18, 25cm x 4.6mm ID
Mobile phase : Acetonitrile: Water (70:30)(HPLC Grade Solvents)
Flow rate : 1ml / min
Detection : UV at 214 nm
Method 2: For NG, EGDN, RDX, PETN, TNT(ref 3, pages 84-85)
Column : Bondapak CN, 10 m particle size
Mobile phase : Isooctane: dichloromethane: methanol (165:35:100)(HPLC Grade Solvents)
Flow rate : 1.5 ml / minute
Detection : TEA , catalytic pyrolyzer operation temperature at 550 C,

reactionchamber pressure 1.8 torr, ozone flow rate 5 ml/minute, carrier
gas nitrogen flow rate 20 ml/minute, cryogenic trap was maintained at - 78 C
with slush bath of ethanol and solid carbon dioxide.
Method 3: For NG, EGDN(ref 3, page 70)
Column : C-18, 25cm x 4.6mm ID, 10 m Particle size

Mobile phase : Acetonitrile: Water (50:50) (HPLC Grade Solvents)
Flow rate : 1ml/ min
Detection : UV at 200 nm

6.8 Gas Chromatography - Mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-Acetone extract
The instrument GC-MS is calibrated and kept ready for analysis as per the operating
instructions given in instrument manual.
Method 1 : For NG, DNT, TNT, PETN, RDX, Tetryl(ref 10)
Column : fused silica capillary, 15m x 0.25 mm ID with 0.25 mm coating of DB-5.
Temperature : Programmed from 70 C to 270 C at the rate of 15 C/ min.
Injector Temp : 180 C
Ion source temp: 140 C
Carrier gas : Helium
Scan range : 30-500 or 40-500 mass units
Scan rate : 1 scan/ sec
Electron energy: 70 eV in electron impact (EI) and chemical ionization (CI) modes
6.9 Infra-Red Spectrometry
Comparison of an IR spectrum of an unknown compound with a library file of IR spectra

(thus taking advantage of the finger print value of an IR spectrum) requires the unknown
compound to be relatively pure. This poses a severe limitation on the use of IR for post
explosion analysis. The extracted residues seldom contain a pure compound. Thus IR finger
print identification is useful only in cases when the extracts are relatively pure or when
unexploded particles of the explosives are collected from the debris or when the IR is preceded
by chromatographic separation. The latter case is rare because the amount of residual
explosives in debris is usually insufficient for the semi-preparative chromatographic separation
needed for recording an IR spectrum. (ref 1, page 154). The inference of IR spectra can be
drawn as :-
General – Absorbing bands in IR range 4000-1300 cm-1 for specific functional groups. Below
1300 cm -1 fingerprint region
NO2 – Symmetric and asymmetric stretching vibrations of group give rise to two distinct
absorption bands – a highly diagnostic value.

Nitro aromatic compounds bands – 1390 – 1320 cm-1 and 1590 – 1510 cm -1
Nitrate esters – NO2 stretching vibrations 1285 – 1270 cm-1 and 1660 – 1640 cm-1
Two stretching vibrations in Nitra amines i.e., 1310 – 1270 cm-1 and 1590 – 1530 cm-1( Ref 15)
6.10:-HPLC-MS/MS (Tandem Mass Spectrometric Method) (ref 16)
1. The instrument HPLC MSMS is calibrated and kept ready for analysis as per the
operating instructions described in instrument manual.
2. A solution of standard of High Explosives Acetate adducts are prepared for RDX, HMX,
Tetryl, TNT, PETN in Acetonitrile of concentration of about 0.1ug/ml each and filtered.
3. A solution of Test Sample of High Explosives acetate adducts is prepared in Acetonitrile

of concentration of about 0.1ug/ml each and filtered. The concentration of test sample
may vary depending upon purity.
4. Ammonium acetate (2mM- 5mM) is used to prepare the adducts of Explosives.
5. The Samples were analyzed by Multiple Reaction Monitoring and Product Ion Scan
modes.
Table 22: LC-MS/MS operational parameters
LC conditions MS conditions
Column C18 (150mmx2.1mmx5µ) with Ion spray voltage -4500V

C18 guard column
Mobile Phase Acetonitrile: water (60:40: Heater temperature 2500C

v/v).
Flow Rate 200µl/min Curtain gas N2
Injection 20µl Curtain gas pressure 25 psi

volume
Run time 8 minutes Collision activated N2

dissociation (CAD)
gas
Collision activated 6 psi.

dissociation gas
pressure

Table 23: Mass spectral parameters (LC-MS/MS)
Mass Explosive compound
Parameters TNT Tetryl RDX HMX PETN
[M-H]- [M-H]- [M+CH3COO]- [M+CH3COO]- [M+CH3COO]-
MRM transition 226/46 286/240 281/46 355/46 375/62
Declustering -28.00 -44.00 -15.00 -17.00 -14.00

Potential (V)
Entrance -5.00 -3.00 -3.00 -4.00 -3.00

Potential (V)
Collision cell -16.00 -10.00 -15.00 -17.00 -14.00

entrance
potential (V)
Collision Energy -51.00 -12.00 -23.00 -34.00 -18.00

(V)
Collision cell exit -6.00 -2.00 -6.00 -7.00 -7.00

potential (V)
References:
1. Yinon.J. and Zitrin .S. (1981).The Analysis of explosives, Pergamon press, New York.
2. Fritz Fiegl . (1966).Spot Tests in Organic Analysis, Elsevier Publishing Company,

Amsterdam.
3. Yinon.J. and Zitrin .S. (1993).Modern Methods and Application in Analysis of Explosives, John
Wiley and Sons, New York
4. Parker.R.G. Stephenson .M.O., McOwen. J.M. and Cherolis J.A. (1975). " Analysis of Explosives
and Explosive Residues Part-1. Chemical tests, Jr. Foren. Sci., 20, 3, 133.
5. Ervin Jungreis. (1997). Spot Test Analysis, 2nd edition. Wiley.Interscience.

6. Alexander Beveridge. (1998). Forensic Investigation of explosions, Taylor and Francis Ltd, Bristol.
7. Kaplan.M.A. and Zitrin.S.(1977). Identification of Post Explosion Residues. J.A.O.A.C, 60,3,619.
8 Parker .R.G.(1975). " Analysis of Explosives and Explosive residues Part-3. Mono Methyl Aamine
Nitrate, Jr. Foren Sci. 20, 2, 257-260.
9. Lyter.A.H. III.(1983). A high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) Study of Seven Common
Explosive Materials, J.Foren.Sci. 28, 2,
446.
10. Tamiri.T. and Zitrin.S. (1986). Capillary column Gas chromatography/ Mass spectrometry of
Explosives. J. Energetic materials, l4, 215.
11. Yallop.H.J. Explosion Investigation 1980. Foren. Sci. Soc. Academic Press, U.K.
12. J.S.Gharia, R.K.Sinha, U.R.Nair, S.R.Nair *& R.M. Roy (2000) “ Tagging of Explosives for
Detection”, Defence Science Journal, 50, 1, 45.(PP 45-49)
13. Yehuda, Yinon, Forensic and Environmental Detection of Explosives, (1999) J Wiley & sons, N.
York.
14. Krishnamurthy R ; Malve M K., Shinde B M , Analytical Report on Bombay Blast cases . March
1993. Journal of Indian Academy of Forensic science 1996 (35) page 54-55.
15. Krishnamurthy .R, Bakre SM , Shinde BM , Simultaneous detection of High Explosives in Post
explosion debris by HPTLC with two successive mobile phases . Journal of Planar
Chromatography Vol 12 Sept –Oct 1999 Page 394-396.
16. Atul Bajaj, Cijo John, Meenu Singh, Explosive post blast analysis: A case study, European Journal
of Forensic Sciences, Issue 2, Vol 3, 2016, 1-5.

CHAPTER – 7
EVALUATION AND INTREPRETATIONS
7.1 Title: -Evaluation and Interpretation of result
7.2 Scope: -Guidance for evaluation of test results and expression of

opinions/interpretation in Test Reports
7.3 Purpose: To have a uniform guide lines for interpretation of results in Test Reports and
while presenting the evidence and the limitations involved.
7.4General
The explosive experts are required to provide in Test Reports thedetails of explosivesor
otherwise based on the analysis result. For bulk materials which are suspected to be explosives
the analysis and interpretationsare easy. However, for post explosion cases the prediction of
original explosive substance (s) based on trace analysis pose challenges due to various factors
namely, protection of explosion scene, use of large quantity of water during firefighting in case
of fire associated with explosion,sample collection, handling, packing, labelling, preserving,
transportation, avoidance of cross contamination and maintenance of chain ofcustody from the
scene of explosion to the laboratory. In the laboratory, also proper care has to be taken to
ensure for proper chain of custody, storage of exhibits, cases are to be opened under
supervision and exhibits are to be handled with utmost care to ensure the sample integrity,
avoidance of cross contamination, proper cleaning of surfaces of case opening area and
working space, un ambiguous labelling of exhibits as well as reagents and good laboratory
practices. The expert has to deal with very small amount of post explosion residues which many
a time deny the possibility of repetition. Also, re- examination of post explosion debris by same
laboratory or another laboratory with same exhibits often leads to inconclusive and misleading
results as most of the available material might have been utilized by the original laboratory by
using repeated solvent extraction process to extract the maximum available residues. Care has
to be taken while prioritization and sequence of examination, handling of items, selection of
test procedures etc. (ref 1)
7.5Interpretation of Results
7.5.1In case of organic explosives normally residues of original explosives substances are
detected in trace level. The selection of test methods are decided by the experts based on the
back ground data provided by the forwarding authority, availability of samples, target analytes,
matrix effects, control samples and availability of resources both internal and external. Hence,
the methods selected to be validated and ensured that it is capable of detecting the

expectedtrace level of such explosives. It is also important to know about the case history,
place of explosion and surroundings. This will help the expert to eliminate the interferences due
to surroundings.
7.5.2 In case of low explosive mixtures and pyrotechnic compositions, for pre blast samples the
ingredients can be detected by the methods mentioned in Chapter 4 of this manual. The
ingredients are identified in ionic forms and elemental form. It is well known that the low
explosives contain mixture of oxidizer and fuel along with flame modifiers, binders, stabilizers
etc. (ref 2,3).The post explosion residues of low explosives may contain ions of original
ingredients or reaction products depending up on nature of explosion and stoichiometric
proportion of oxidizer and fuel.
Table 24. Some Common Inorganic Improvised Explosive Devices and the Target Analytes in
post blast residues (ref 3 & 4)
Device Composition Characteristic Characteristic Other

anions cations ingredients
ANFO Ammonium NO3-, NO2- NH4+ Hydrocarbons
Nitrate-Fuel oil
Black powder Potassium nitrate, NO3-, NO2-,SO42- K+ Sulphur
#Sulphur,Charcoal , S2O32-
Throw down Potassium ClO3-,Cl- K+
2- 2-
(Jute Bomb) #Chlorate S , SO4 As3+
Arsenic Sulphide
Cracker* Potassium ClO4-,Cl- K+ Al
(potassium perchlorate, Al3+
perchlorate+ Aluminium powder
Aluminium
Powder)
Chlorate/Sugar Potassium # ClO3-,Cl- K+
Chlorate/Sugar
Perchlorate/Sugar Potassium ClO4-, Cl- K+
Perchlorate*/Sugar
Chlorate/Sulphur/ Potassium ClO3-,Cl- K+ Al
2- 2- 3+
Aluminium Chlorate#/Sulphur/ SO4 , S2O3 Al
Aluminium
Slurry and Ammonium Nitrate NO3-, NH4+ Higher
Emulsion Mono Methyl Hydrocarbon
Amine fraction
Nitrate/jelling
agent,/Higher
Hydrocarbon
*Instead of potassium perchlorate Ammonium perchlorate, or Sodium perchlorate and

Potassium Chlorate or Sodium Chlorate are also used as oxidizer in Homemade IEDs and
anions and cations may change accordingly
#Sodium nitrate or Sodium Chlorate is also used in Homemade IEDs and cation may change
accordingly
Some inferences can also be drawn in respect of composition of inorganic anions and cations in
mixtures.
1. The presence of ammonium and phosphate can normally be due to ammonium phosphate
since this is the only phosphate likely to be present in an industrial blasting explosive.
2. The presence of ammonium and nitrate can normally be due to ammonium nitrate since
this is a very common constituent of industrial blasting explosives.
3. The presence of sodium and chloride can normally be due to sodium chloride since this is a
common major ingredient of coal mining explosives.
4. If ammonium, nitrate, sodium and chloride are all present this may mean ammonium
nitrate and sodium chloride or, alternatively, the reversed ion mixture i.e. ammonium chloride
and sodium nitrate. The former is far more likely since reversed ion mixture is very uncommon.
The point may be resolved, however, by extracting a portion of explosive with ether and
acetone and examining the residue microscopically for the characteristic cubic crystals of
sodium chloride(ref 5).
5. The presence of barium normally denotes barytes since this is the only barium salt normally
used as a constituent of industrial blasting explosives. By close observation and keen attention
in details, experienced operators can make other deductions with varying degrees of certainty.
After taking into account any known or suspected contaminants, the observations are then
compared with the specified compositions of explosives by manufacturers whose products are
normally used in the country in which the investigation is taking place in some other country, if
this appears relevant. This may be quickly and conveniently done if the components of the
various explosives are recorded on punched cards. It will often be found that only one explosive
has the particular combination of ingredients. When there are two or more observations of
colour, consistency will often resolve the question. But, if this is not so; then a quantitative
determination must be made. It is often not necessary, however, to determine all the
ingredients since normally there will be one ingredient that is present in markedly different
proportions in the possible explosives of a particular class.

References
1. Best Practice Manual for the Forensic Recovery, Identification and Analysis of
Explosive Traces (ENFSI-BPM-EXP-01) Version 01 November 2015 by the
European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI)
2. KPS Kartha (1991) Study on the Sensitiveness of Pyrotechnic Compositions with

Slight Change in Oxidiser Fuel Ratio J. Standards India Vol 5 No.6 pp 192-195 (1991)
3. Joseph P Hutchinson, Christopher J Evenhuis, Cameron Johns, Artaches A. Kazarian,

Michael C Breadmore, MiroslavMacka, Emily F Hilder, Rosanne M.Guijt,Greg W.
Dicinoski and Paul R. Haddad (2007) Identification of Inorganic Improvised Explosive
Devices by Analysis of Post blast Residue Using Portable Capillary Electrophoresis
instrumentation and Indirect Photometric Detection with a Light- Emitting Diode,J
of Analytical Chemistry,Vol.79,No.18,2007
4. Mohamad A fiq Mohamed Huri,UmiKalthomahmad,RolianaIbrahim,Mustafa Omar

(2017) A Review of Explosive residue detection from forensic chemistry perspective,
Malaysian Journal of AnalytIndiaical Sciences, Vol 21 No.2 (2017) pp267-282
5. E. Suresh Babu and Sukhminder Kaur A DSC Analysis of Inverse Salt-pair explosive
Composition Journal of Proppellants,Explosives,Pyrotechnichs 29 (2004) No.1 p 50-
55

CHAPTER – 8
IDENTIFICATION OF MISCELLANEOUS EXPLOSIVES
8.1 Title: -Identification of Miscellaneous Explosives
8.2 Scope: -To identify explosives which are not commonly encountered
8.3 Purpose: To have a procedure to identify explosives which are not commonly used and
to keep the manual open document so as include procedures for new explosive materials.
Some of the miscellaneous explosive materials and their test procedures are mentioned below
8.3.1 PEROXIDE EXPLOSIVES
The peroxide explosives TATP and hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine (HMTD)have become

popular with terrorists because they are easily prepared from readily obtainable ingredients,
although the synthesis is fraught with danger .Although they do not contain NO2 groups, the
O–O bond is a source of oxygen available for potentially rapid self-oxidation and explosion.
Although neat hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is detonable, most of the common industrial
peroxides, which contain only one O–O functionality per molecule, have insufficient oxygen to
gasify the majority of the C and H atoms in the molecule. These peroxides are not usually
considered explosives, even though some have a reported ‘‘TNTequivalence’’. As TATP and
HMTD contain three peroxide linkages per molecule,their explosive output is much higher than
most organic peroxides. TATP is estimated as 88% and HMTD as 60% of TNT blast strength.
The unusual danger to public safety in the case of peroxide explosives is not their explosive
performance but their ease of initiation and the ease with which terrorists have acquired and
used the materials for their synthesis, although synthesis is actually quite hazardous. Both TATP
and HMTD are classed as primary explosives. Hydrogen peroxide at the correct concentration is
also detonable. (ref 3 p21). The detection of post explosion residues of peroxide is very difficult
as most of the material will be consumed during explosion.
8.3.1.1TATP-Triacetonetriperoxide (TATP)
Triacetonetriperoxide (TATP) is a white crystalline solid material .It is one of the most sensitive
explosive known. Being extremely sensitive to impact, temperature change and friction, It is
very easy to detonate. It is an organic peroxide containing neither metallic elements nor nitro
group. Therefore the presence of peroxide group cannot be detected by standard security
procedure like transmission and vapor detector.(ref 1&3).

Acetone TATP
Table-25- Properties of TATP
Colour White crystalline
Solubility Insoluble in water,

Empirical formula C9H18O6
Melting Point 980C
VOD 5300 m/s at maximum density

(1.18 g/cm3),
8.3.1.1.1 Colorimetric detection of TATP
The dark blue color of molybdenum hydrogen bronze suspension is changed to yellow upon
oxidation with TATP. The same reagent can also be used for quick neutralization of the sensitive
explosive: a lasting final blue color indicates complete neutralization. The reaction with TATP is
depicted in following equation (ref 4 P51)
6 Mo2O5 OH + Me2COO 3 12 MoO3 + 3 H2O + 3 Me2CO
TATP
8.3.1.1.2 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) (ref 5)

Conditions-
Plate-Merck pre- coated silicagel 60 F254,0.25mm on glass
Sample- in ethyl acetate
Development Solvent- Toluene
Spray Reagent -1%diphenylamine in conc.H2SO4
Rf value -0.57
8.3.1.1.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (ref. 6)
Conditions-
Instrument-HPLC-DAD-Fluorescence
Column-Merck LiChroSpher RP 18: Particle size 5μm Pore size 300 Ă, Column dimensions –
250 mm x 3 mm.
For UV irradiation- low pressure mercury lamp with 6 W

Mobile Phase-Acetonitrile:Water-60:40
Flow Rate- 0.6mL/min
Post column derivatization-
Immediately after the separation of analytes the latter irradiated with UV light of 254 nm. A 25
m knitted Teflon tubing (inner diameter 0.3 mm) wrapped around the UV lamp and used as
reaction loop. After decomposition of the analytes to hydrogen peroxide, two HPLC pumps are
introduced to deliver the derivatization reagents 1 (a solution of 205mg 91.18 mmol) of K2HPO4
and 7.6 mg (0.05 mmol) of p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (pHPAA) in 100 mL of water) and 2 (a
solution of 8.4 mg of horseradish peroxidase in 100 mL of water).Both reagents are added with
a flow rate of 0.2mL/min. giving an overall floe rate of 1 mL/min. The following reaction loop of
8m knitted Teflon tubing coil (inner diameter 0.3 mm) which is heated to 40 0C. The excitation
wavelength of the fluorescence detector set to 324 nm and the emission wavelength 405 nm.
8.3.1.1.4 FT-IR (ref 10)

Mode- Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR)
Number of background scans 64
Number of sample scans 64
Resolution 4 cm–1
Spectral range (cm-1) 4000-650
–1
Final data spacing 1.928 cm
Detector MCT/A
Optical velocity (cm/s) 1.898
Aperture 69
Principal wave numbers at 3946, 2998, 1376, 1361, 1177,884,784 cm-1
8.3.1.1.5 GC-MS
Conditions
Injector: SSL injector in split mode (ratio 1:10)
Carrier gas: Helium @1.2 mL/min
Injection Volume: 0.2L
Capillary column: TG-5MS (15mx0.25mmx0.25m)
Oven: 500C hold for 3 min.
100C/min to 2000C and hold for 2.0 min
Total run time: 20 min
Detector: ISQLTMS
Ionisation Source: EI @70eV
Transfer Line Temperature: 2000C
Source Temperature: 2000C
Data acquisition mode: Full scan (identification):35 to 350m/z
SIM masses (Quantification) : 43,58,75 m/z

8.3.1.2 Hexamethylene tri peroxide diamine (HMTD)
Hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine is a high explosive organic compound. HMTD is an organic

peroxide, a heterocyclic compound with a cage-like structure. It is a primary explosive. At 400C
HMTD begins to break up in to volatile pungent compounds.(ref 1 )
HMTD
Table-26- Properties of HMTD
Solubility Insoluble in water,

Melting Point Decomposes at 750C

VOD 5100 m/s at around 1.1 g/cm3
8.3.1.2.1 Colorimetric detection of HMTD (ref 1)
To water solution , 1-2 drops of 1% TSS (N,N-diethyl-p-phenylendiaminesulphate) added cherry

red colour indicates the presence of HMTD.
8.3.1.2.2 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (ref. 6)

Conditions-
Instrument-HPLC-DAD-Fluorescence
Column-Merck LiChroSpher RP 18: Particle size 5μm Pore size 300 Ă, Column dimensions –
250 mm x 3 mm.
For UV irradiation- low pressure mercury lamp with 6 W
Mobile Phase-Acetonitrile: Water-60:40
Flow Rate- 0.6mL/min
Post column derivatization-

Immediately after the separation of analytes the latter irradiated with UV light of 254 nm. A 25
m knitted Teflon tubing (inner diameter 0.3 mm) wrapped around the UV lamp and used as
reaction loop. After decomposition of the analytes to hydrogen peroxide, two HPLC pumps are
introduced to deliver the derivatization reagents 1 (a solution of 205mg 91.18 mmol) of K 2HPO4
and 7.6 mg (0.05 mmol) of p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (pHPAA) in 100 mL of water) and 2 (a
solution of 8.4 mg of horseradish peroxidase in 100 mL of water).Both reagents are added with
a flow rate of 0.2mL/min. giving an overall floe rate of 1 mL/min. The following reaction loop of
8m knitted Teflon tubing coil (inner diameter 0.3 mm) which is heated to 40 0C. The excitation
wavelength of the fluorescence detector set to 324 nm and the emission wavelength 405 nm.
8.3.1.2.3 GC-MS
Conditions
Injector: SSL injector in split mode (ratio 1:10)
Carrier gas: Helium @1.2 mL/min
Injection Volume: 0.2L
Capillary column: TG-5MS (15mx0.25mmx0.25m)
Oven: 500C hold for 3 min.
100C/min to 2000C and hold for 2.0 min
Total run time: 20 min
Detector: ISQLTMS
Ionisation Source: EI @70eV
Transfer Line Temperature: 2000C
Source Temperature: 2000C
Data acquisition mode: Full scan (identification):35 to 350m/z
SIM masses (Quantification) : m/z 42 ( C2H3N)+,73 (C2H3NO2)+,176 (HMTD-O2)+
8.3.1 Urea Nitrate (Uronium nitrate)

Urea Nitrate is a powerful explosive frequently made and used by terrorists. It can be prepared
quickly and easily by adding Nitric Acid to a cooled aqueous solution of urea. The white
precipitate thus formed is filtered, washed with cold water and dried in air (ref 4 p- 52)
Urea Nitrate

Table-27- Properties of Urea Nitrate

Solubility Soluble in water and alcohol
Empirical formula CH5N3O4
Melting Point 1630C
VOD 4700 m/s
8.3.2.1 Colorimetric detection of Urea Nitrate (ref 4 p52)
1. Urea nitrate treated with ethanolic solution of p-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (p-DMAC)

under neutral conditions. A red pigment is formed within 1 min from contact. The limit of
detection on filter paper is _0.1 mg/cm2. Urea itself, which is the starting material for urea
nitrate, does not react with p-DMAC under the same conditions. Other potential sources of
false-positive response such as common fertilizers, medications containing the urea moiety and
various amines, do not produce the red pigment with p-DMAC.
2.p-Dimethylaminobenzaldehyde (p-DMAB) which is one vinyl shorterthan p-DMAC, also reacts

with urea nitrate under similar conditions, to producea typical yellow pigment of analogous
structure. The essence of the proposed technique lies in the fact that urea nitrate, as opposed
to urea, is strongly acidic (pH 1–2) because of the presence of the nitric acid moiety in its
molecule. Thus, although neutral urea does not react with p-DMAC, ureanitrate does, as it
provides the necessary acidity for the reaction to occurp-DMAC does not detect urea, but
uronium ion.
8.3.2.2 FTIR (ref.8)

Conditions
Detector: DTGS TEC
Beam splitter: KBr
Spectral range: 650 to 4000 cm-1
Resolution: 4.0 cm-1
Mode: Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) for solids
Scans:32
Principal wave numbers: 3402 cm-1 (NH2 asymmetric stretch),3354 cm-1 (NH stretch), 3198 cm-1
(NH2 symmetric stretch), 1704 cm-1 (CO stretch), 1568 cm-1 (N-H), 1426 cm-1 (C-N), 1298 cm-1
(NO3-)

8.3.2.3 GC-MS (ref.9)
Conditions
Column: Fused silica capillary Column 30mX 0.25 mm (id) coated with HP-5 MS (0.25m film)
Injector Temperature: 1800C
Column Temperature: programmed from 500C to 1800C at a rate of 150C/min,10 min at 1800C,
180-3000C at a rate of 250C/min and 5 min at 3000C.
Transfer Line was held at 2300C.
Ion Source Temperature: 1800C
Quadrupole Temperature: 1200C
Scan range: 29-350 Da
Scan Rate : 2.29 scans/s
Electron energy :70eV
Carrier gas: Helium
Injection: Split less mode
Preparation of xanthydrolalkylcarbamates (xantylurethanes)
Sample and xanthydrol are reacted according to the method described by Mc Cord and de
Perre (ref C.de Perre, B McCord, Trace analysis of urea nitrate by Liquid chromatography-
UV/fluorescence, Forensic Sci. Int.211(2011) 76-82) using three alcohols as solvents; methanol,
ethanol and 1-propanol.The products have been characterized in the reaction mixtures by GC-
MS.
8.3.3 Quantitative Estimation of Ammonium Nitrate
Vide Notification No. G.S.R. S.O. 1678(E) dated 21/07/2011, Ammonium Nitrate having the chemical
formula NH4NO3 or any combination containing more than 45 percent of ammonium nitrate by weight
including emulsions, suspensions, melts or gels (with or without inorganic nitrates) shall be deemed to
be an explosive under the meaning of the Explosives Act 1884. Provided that such ammonium nitrate or
any combination thereof shall not include those fertilizers from which ammonium nitrate cannot be
extracted by any physical or chemical means.(ref.12). Hence, it is important that the purity of
ammonium nitrate needs to be estimated to include it under the purview of the act or otherwise.
8.3.1 Determination of Purity of Ammonium Nitrate on dry basis percent by mass
(ref11 Test Method A-13)
The test method is reproduced here with for ready reference
Outline of the Method- Ammonia from ammonium nitrate reacts quantitatively with excess of
formaldehyde to produce nitric acid

4NH4NO3+6HCHO (CH2)5 N4+4HNO3+6 H2O
This nitric acid can be titrated against standard alkali.
8.3.3. 1.Reagents
8.3.3.1.1 Sodium Hydroxide:0.2 N
8.3.3.1.2 Hydrochloric Acid: 0.2 N
8.3.3.1.3 Phenolphthalein: 1 percent in alcohol
8.3.3.1.4Formaldehyde: 1:1- Mix equal volumes of AR grade formaldehyde ( 37 percent m/m)

and water. Add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrate against standard alkali to its
light pink end point.
8.3.3.2 Procedure- Weigh exactly 0.4 g of sample into a 250 ml conical flask and dissolve in 20
ml of water. Add 50 ml of formaldehyde 1:1 reagent and warm the flask. Cool to room
temperature and titrate against standard alkali till permanent light pink colour appears. Drain
another 2 ml of alkali and note down the volume (V1). Keep it for 10 minutes and titrate against
standard hydrochloric acid using a calibrated micro burette till the solution becomes colourless
and note down the volume (V2). Repeat the same experiment till concordant values are
obtained
8.3.3.3 Calculations
Volume of sodium hydroxide required (V)=V1--(V2xN2)
N1
Percent purity of ammonium nitrate = VxN1x8.005
Purity ( on dry basis) percent by mass = 100xPurity as obtained above
(100-moisture percent)
Where
N1=Normality of sodium hydroxide
N2=Normality of Hydrochloric acid, and
M= Mass of the sample in g

NOTE:
Uncertainty of measurement for the quantitative estimation may be calculated as per ref. 13 by
considering all the contributory factors.
References
1. ChladekJ.(1993)The identification of organic peroxides. Advances in analysis

ondetection of explosives. Proceedings of the 4th International symposium on
Analysis and detection of Explosives September 7-10: 1992; J Yinon edition. Kluwer
academic publishers, 1993;73-76
2. Alvaro J Pena-Quevedo and Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera (2009)Mass spectrometry

analysis of HexamethyleneTriperoxideDiamine by its Decomposition Products.
Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects and Obscured Targets XIV edited
by Russell S. Harmon J Thomas Broach, John H. Holloway Jr. Proceedings of SPIE Vol
7303, 730303,2009.
3. Maurice Marshall and Jimmie Oxley (2009) Aspects of Explosives Detection Elsevier
1st Edition,2009
4. J. Almog and S. Zitrin (2009) Colorimetric Detection of Explosives- Aspects of
Explosives Detection Elsevier 1st Edition,2009
5. Anthony j Bellamy (1999) TriacetoneTriperoxide: Its Chemical Destruction, Journal of
Forensic science 1999,44(3) p 603-608
6. Rasmus Schulte-Ladbeck, Peter Kolla and Uwe Karst (2003) Trace Analysis of
Peroxide- Based Explosives, Journal of Analytical Chemistry, Vol.75 No.4,
February 15,2003,p 731-735
7. Jimmie Oxley, James Smith, Joseph Brady, FainaDubnikova, Ronnie Kosloff, Leila
Zeiri and Yehuda Zeiri (2008) Peroxide- Based Explosives, Applied Specroscopy, Vol
62 No.8,2008 p 906-915
8. Jimmie C. Oxley; James L. Smitha ;SravanthiVadlamannatia ; Austin C. Browna ;
GuangZhanga ; Devon S. Swansona ; Jonathan CaninoaSynthesis and
Characterization of Urea Nitrate and
Nitrourea.energetics.chm.uri.edu/system/files/PEPUNNUManuscript11.
9. Joseph Almog, Dario Espino, TsippyTamiri, Dana Sonenfeld(2013)Trace analysis of

urea nitrate in post-blast debris by GC/MS Forensic Science International Vol. 224 1-
3, 10 January,2013 p 80-83
10. Clayton S.C. Yang , Barry R. Williams, Ashish Tripathi, Melissa S. Hulet, Alan C.
Samuels ,Joseph A. Domanico, Joseph May, Ronald W. Miles, Jr., Augustus W.
FountainIII (April,2014) Spectral Characterization of
RDX,ETN,PETN,TATP,HMTD,HMX, and C-4 in the Mid- Infrared
Region.apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a600508.pdf
11. Bureau of Indian Standards,Indian Standard Specification for Ammonium Nitrate for
Explosives (IS :4668-1985, Reaffirmed 2011) First Revision

12. Ammonium Nitrate Rules, 2012 Published in the Gazette of India Extra ordinary
Part II dated 11th July,2012.
13. EURACHEM / CITAC Guide CG 4 Quantifying Uncertainty in Analytical Measurement
Third Edition www.eurachem.org/images/stories/Guides/pdf/QUAM...

APPENDIX-A
(Page 01 of 08)
Form No.
WORK SHEET FOR EXPLOSIVES ANALYSIS

1. Case No.
2. Date(s) of examination:
I Examination of High Explosives
Extraction with Ether Extraction with Acetone
1) Chemical Tests for High Explosives : Acetone Extract
Sample Alcoholic KOH Test DPA Test Thymol+ Ethylene diamine Test
H2So4+ Ethanol Test
TNT Purple Red No Colour No Colour Maroon
RDX No Colour Blue Blue No Colour
PETN No Colour Blue No colour No Colour
Tetryl Red violet Blue No colour No Colour
NG No Colour Blue No Colour No Colour
HMX No Colour Blue Pale blue green No Colour
Ex-No.
Ex No
Ex No.
Ex No
Signature of Test Scientist Signature of Reporting Officer

(Page 02 of 08)
Case No. Form No.

(2) TLC/HPTLC Test
(a) Experimental Conditions
Solvent System A:
Solvent System B:
Solvent System C:
Spray Reagent:
HR f / λ max values
Results
(3) HPLC with PDA Detector Analysis :

Mobile Phase:
Column:
Flow Rate:
(b)Results

(Page 03 of 08)
Case No. Form No.
(4) GC MS Analysis for High Explosives and Hydro carbons:

Column : fused silica capillary, 15m x 0.25 mm ID with 0.25 mm coating of DB-5.
Temperature : Programmed from 70 C to 270 C at the rate of 15 C/ min.
Injector Temp : 180 C
Ion source temp: 140 C
Carrier gas : Helium
Scan range : 30-500 or 40-500 mass units
Scan rate : 1 scan/ sec
Electron energy: 70 eV in electron impact (EI) and chemical ionisation (CI) modes
(b) Results
(5) Any other Technique
(b)Results

(Page 04 of 08)
Case No. Form No.
II. Chemical Examination for anions
Extraction:
Water extract NaOH extract Pyridine extract
1. Chemical Tests for anions and observation
Name of the Name of the Test conducted Observation With Exhibit No.
Anions control
Chloride AgNO3 Test White curdy ppt sol

in NH4OH
Nitrite Griess Test Pink colour
Nitrate (Griess reagent + Zn dust) Test Pink colour
Chlorate Aniline sulphate Test Deep Blue colour
Perchlorate Methylene blue indicator Test Violet spot
Sulphate BaCl2 Test White crystalline

ppt
Sulphide Sodium nitroprusside Test Violet colour
Na OH
extract
Sulphur Pyridine + NaOH Blue to Green for

low conc.
Pyridine
Extract Red to Brown for
high conc.
Sugar ** Fehling Test Brown to Red
** Optional Tests to be done if these are suspected

(Page 05 of 08)
Case No. Form No.
2.Instrumental Analysis (if required):
4.7 Ion Chromatography for Inorganic Anions

(a) Experimental Condition
Mobile Phase A:
Mobile Phase B:
Mobile Phase C:
Column :
Flow Rate:
(b)Results-
2.2. Any Other Technique
(a)Experimental Condition
(b)Results-

(Page 06 of 08)
Case No. Form No.
Chemical Examination for cations
Extraction:
Water extract NaOH extract
1. Chemical Examination for cations:
Name of the Name of the Test conducted Observation Exhibit No.

cation
with control
Sodium Zinc Uranyl Acetate Test Yellow ppt
Flame Test with Pt wire Golden Yellow
Potassium Sodium Cobalti Nitrate Test Yellow ppt
Dipicryl amine Test Orange spot
Flame Test with Pt. Wire Violet (lilac)
Ammonium Nessler’s reagent Orange brown ppt
Magnesium* Para-nitro benzene azo Blue ppt

resorcinol (Magneson I Test)
Barium* Sodium Rhodizonate Test Red-brown spot
Flame Test Yellowish green
Calcium* Sodium Rhodizonate Test Violetppt
Flame Test Brick Red
Strontium* Sodium Rhodizonate Test Brownish red
Flame Test Crimson
Aluminium Aluminon reagent Brown flakes or ppt
(NaOH Alizarine – S Test Red ppt

extract)

Arsenic Gutzeit’s Test Yellow to Brown
+3
spot
(As ) (NaOH
extract) Reinsch’s Test White sublimate
Antimony
+3
(Sb )
Rhodamine-B Test
* To be conducted if pyrotechnic compositions are suspected
2. Instrumental Analysis( if required)
(2.1) Ion Chromatography test for Inorganic cations
Mobile Phase A:
Mobile Phase B
Mobile Phase C
Column :
Flow Rate:
(b) Result
(Page 07 of 08)

(Page 08 of 08)
Case No. Form No.
3. Any Other Technique

(b) Result
Note: Tests were carried out as per Working Procedure Manual Document No
Inference:

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PRESENTED BY

DIRECTORATE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE SERVICES, MINISTRY

WORKING PROCEDURE MANUAL: EXPLOSIVE

9 Chapter-8 Miscellaneous Explosives 70-79

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 1

ANFO -Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil

CE- Capillary Electrophoresis

DFSS-Directorate of Forensic Science Services

EDX-Energy dispersive X-Ray

FT-IR-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

GC-IMS- Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry

GC-MS-Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry

HMTD-Hexamethylene tri peroxide diamine

HMX-Cyclotrimethylene tetra nitramine

HPLC-High Performance Liquid Chromatography

HPTLC-High Performance Thin layer Chromatography

IED-Improvised Explosive Device

IC- Ion Chromatography

ICP-Inductively Coupled Plasma

LC-MS-MS –Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Lead trinitroresorcinate- Lead Styphnate

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 2

Mercury Fulminate-(Hg (ONC)2

PETN- Pentaerythritol tetra nitrate

Picric Acid -2,4,6-trinitro phenol

SEM-Scanning Electron Microscopy

Tetrazene-1(5-tetrazylol)-4-guanyl tetrazene hydrate

Tetryl (CE)-2,4,6-trinitrophenyl methyl nitramine

TLC- thin Layer Chromatography

XRD-X –Ray Diffraction

XRF-X ray Fluorescence

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 3

1.2. Scope: General information on about and classification of Explosive materials.

1.4 Nature of Explosives: -

Explosives are reactive substancesthat undergo rapid burning (deflagration) or

1.5 Uses of Explosives:-

Explosives are used for both commercial/Industrialand military applications. Commercial

1.6 Categories of Explosives:-

Chemical Explosives are compounds or mixtures of compounds that react to produce

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 4

1.7 Characteristics of Chemical Explosives:-

All explosive compounds can be considered to be composed of three components

1.8 Classification of Explosives:-

Chemical explosives are classifiedin many ways according to different criteria.

1. According to rate of decomposition- High explosives and Low explosives

Figure-1 is a classification of chemical explosives with representative examples. (Ref 3

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 5

Low Explosives High Explosives

Pyrotechnics Propellants Primary Secondary

Figure-1 Classification of explosives

Recommended methods for testing of explosives and post Page 6

Table-1 – Characteristics of High and low Explosives

Sr.No Characteristics HIGH EXPLOSIVES LOW EXPLOSIVES

1. Method of initiation Primary explosives by ignition By ignition

2. Time of complete Micro seconds Milli seconds

3. Velocity of consumption 1.5 to 10 km s-1 Few centimeters to

4. Velocity of flame front 1.5 to 10 km s-1 0.5 to 1.5 km s-1

5. Pressure of explosion 3,50 to 27,600 kpa Upto 350 kpa

6. Exploded in gun Shatters gun Good propellant