15 CV 741

Design Of Bridges
MODULE1
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Types of bridges
1.2Computation of discharge
1.3 Afflux
1.4 Scour depth
1.5Loads
1.6 Assigininment Questions
1.7 Further study
Bridge Engineering
The first bridges were made by nature — as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first
bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and eventually stones,
using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early bridges could not
support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the
development of better bridges. The oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou
Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically
significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. The first book
on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. With the Industrial Revolution in
the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did
not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high
tensile strength, much larger bridges werenotes4free.in
built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
Bridges are classified on the basis that how the four forces namely shear, compression, tension,
and moment are distributed in the bridge structure.
Generally speaking, bridges can be divided into two categories: standard overpass bridges or
unique-design bridges over rivers, chasms, or estuaries. This article describes features common
to both types, but it concentrates on the unique bridges because of their greater technical,
economic, and aesthetic interest.
Definition
A structure built to span and provide passage over a river, chasm, road, or any other physical
hurdle. The function required from the bridge and the area where it is constructed decides the
design of the bridge.
1.2 Types of bridges
Bridges can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories include the type of
structural elements used, by what they carry, whether they are fixed or movable, and by the
materials used.
Structure type
DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 1

Design Of Bridges
Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear
are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to
some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a
suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In
other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss.
Beam bridges: are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be
either simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous when
the beams are connected across two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the
intermediate supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat
across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from
small, wooden beams to large, steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and
flexural load on the beam which is transferred down its length to the substructures on either side
They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Girder bridges and Plate girder bridges,
usually made from steel, are types of Beam bridges. Box girder bridges, made from steel,
concrete, or both are also beam bridges. Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long,
as the flexural stresses increase proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases
proportional to the 4th power of the length)
A truss bridge: is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. This truss
is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected elements (typically
straight) may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic
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loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss
bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be easily analyzed by nineteenth
and early twentieth century engineers. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its
efficient use of materials.
Cantilever bridges: are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on only one end.
Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the
supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are
constructed using much the same materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes
in the action of the forces through the bridge
Arch bridges: have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments
at either side. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the Greeks, and include the Bridge.
With the span of 220 metres (720 ft), the Solkan Bridge over the Soča River at Solkan in
Slovenia is the second largest stone bridge in the world and the longest railroad stone bridge. It
was completed in 1905. Its arch, which was constructed from over 5,000 tonnes (4,900 long tons;
5,500 short tons) of stone
Tied arch :bridges have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from conventional arch
bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge and traffic loads into thrust forces into
the abutments, the ends of the arches are restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the
structure. They are also called bowstring arches.

Design Of Bridges
Suspension bridges: are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of
ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers
that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into
the bed of the lake, river or sea. Sub-types include the simple suspension bridge, the stressed
ribbon bridge, the under spanned suspension bridge, the suspended-deck suspension bridge, and
the self-anchored suspension bridge. There is also what is sometimes called a "semi-suspension"
bridge, of which the Ferry Bridge in Burton-upon-Trent is the only one of its kind in Europe
Cable-stayed bridges: like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a cable-
stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately higher
1.3 Computation of discharge
Hydraulics is the essential feature of bridge design. Fair assessment of flood levels, maximum
flood discharge expected to occur at bridge site during design life of bridge, and maximum scour
levels are essential aspects of bridge hydraulics.
Faulty determination of these parameters may lead to failure of structures. While doing hydraulic
calculations attention should be paid to the following:
1. The river cross section should be truly representative. The cross section should not be vitiated
by artificial cuts etc. notes4free.in
2. If the bridge site is along the existing natural crossing, the cross section for hydraulics should
be across the nearby natural undisturbed channel. The cross section within 100 m U/S or D/S
may be quite useful.
3. Spill channels should be properly located, marked and catered for.
4. Appropriate coefficient of rigidity should be used. The same rigidity coefficient should not be
used for bed and banks, as the nature of stream changes according to properties of material and
vegetation growth etc.
5. The reasonableness of computed velocity should be judged in relation to bed material for e.g
existence of boulders in the stream and low velocity of flow do not generally go together.
6. In tidal creeks the possibility of high tides and floods coinciding should be kept in view. In
such cases discharge by usual ways i.e. by Manning’s formula should be carefully worked out
and tallied with Inglis discharge.
7. The adoption of either the observed H.F.L. obtained by local enquiry or the computed H.F.L.
as design level should be done judiciously. The observed H.F.L. may be effected by obstructions
like rice fields, bunds, blocking of spill channels etc. Higher of the two values be adopted as
design H.F.L.

Design Of Bridges
8. Details of various levels is explained as below.
 HFL (observed) Highest flood levels ever recorded. (50 years record)
 HFL(Inglis) Flood level giving Manning’s discharge equal to Inglis discharge.
 HFL(Modified Inglis) Flood level giving Manning’s discharge equal to Modified Inglis
discharge.
 O.F.L. Ordinary flood level. This is level of flood when cleared by bridge (without
submergence of bridge) that will not give more than permissible interruption to traffic
during floods.
9. Maximum permissible interruptions for various standards of roads are as follows- National
Highways – No interruptions.
1.4 Afflux
Bridges are built across a waterway and the structure may be of single span or multiple spans. In
a multiple span bridge piers need to be constructed in the river bed. These piers obstruct the
natural flow. If the obstruction is considerable, the level of water on the upstream rises slightly
compared to that at the downstream.
This rise in level is called afflux. Designer's calculate the afflux and incorporate the same in the
design of sub structure so as to keep the superstructure clear of flood water.
Afflux is defined as heading up of water when they hit any obstruction. In bridges the
notes4free.in
water hit at u/s side. When hiring the water rises.
In design the height of bridge the afflux is taken into consideration with HFL. Hope u
will understand. This picture helps u for understanding
Afflux can be estimated by using several empirical equations e.g. IRC:89 (1985) Nagler (1918),
Rhebock (1921), Yarnel (1934), Rao (1997) etc.
IRC-SP 13 recommends use of wier /orifice formula for computing flow with known afflux or
vice versa. For shallow channels with wide flood planes (as observed in most of the rivers across

Design Of Bridges
the bridges on this roadway a rough first approximation of finding afflux can be obtained from
the following expression, (Bradley 1970).
h *1 = 3( 1- M) V2n2/2 g
where M=Qb/Q
where
Qb =is that portion of the total discharge Q in the approach channel within a width equal to the
projected length of the bridge
Vn2 = Q/An2
An2 =is the gross area of waterway under the bridge opening below normal stream
depth corresponding to design flood discharge.
IRC:5 and 89 recommend use of Molesworth’s equation for computing approximate
afflux given below:
h = {V2/17.88 + 0.01524} x {(A/a) 2– 1}
For minor and medium bridges, weir and orifice formula given in IRC:SP-13 can be used
for computing afflux depending on whether the flow under the bridge is choked or free.
For choked weir type flow: Q = Cd Leff (Du + u2 /2g)3/2 if h1*Dd > 0.25
For orifice flow : Q = Cd Leff Dd √2g. h1* if h1*/Dd <0.25
Where Cd & Co are the coefficients of discharges for weir and orifice type flows respectively.
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Cd and Co values are given in the IRC code,
h*1 = afflux = (Du-Dd).

Du and Dd are the upstream and downstream depths measured from the lowest bed level under
the bridge taken as datum.
1.5 Scour depth
Scouring can be defined as a process due to which the particles of the soil or rock around the
periphery of the abutment or pier of the highway bridge spanning over a water body, gets eroded
and removed over a certain depth called scour depth. Scouring usually occurs when the velocity
of the flowing water increases or crosses the limiting value that the soil particles can easily
handle
Scouring can be easily observed during the flood being passed through that water body. Scouring
is initiated at the nose of the piers or at the sharp bends. Estimation of scour depth is very
important for the design of foundation for abutment or pier. Scouring compromises the structural
integrity and thus causes failure of the structure. It has been estimated that over 60 % of the
highway bridges are being collapsed due to scouring.

Design Of Bridges
When the discharge within the water body passes the allowed discharge; which is usually the
case when flood is there; the scour is initiated; the scour depth can easily be obtained after the
flood by finding the depth of the scour in reference with the surroundings or existing structures.
If this is not possible the mean depth of scour may be easily obtained by a mathematical formula
for natural streams in the alluvial depth
Ygs = Ymax [(0.0685 Vm^0.8) / (Yh^0.4 Se ^0.3)-1]
Where Ygs = general scour depth (ft), Ymax is maximum depth of flow, Vm is the average
velocity of flow(ft/sec), Yh is hydraulic depth of flow (ft) and Se is the energy slope (or bed
slope foruniformflow),(ft)From actual field measuring scour depth charts to estimate scour
depth,This method is applicable only for coarser sands where the bed slope ranges from 0.004 ft
to 0.008 ft. Other empirical methods are also there like Neil, Blench and Lacey for estimation of
the scour depth
1.6 Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures
Various design loads to be considered in the design of bridges are:
1. Dead load
2. Live load notes4free.in
3. Impact load
4. Wind load
5. Longitudinal forces
6. Centrifugal forces
7. Buoyancy effect
8. Effect of water current
9. Thermal effects
10. Deformation and horizontal effects
11. Erection stresses
12. Seismic loads
1. Dead Load
The dead load is nothing but a self-weight of the bridge elements. The different elements of
bridge are deck slab, wearing coat, railings, parapet, stiffeners and other utilities. It is the first
design load to be calculated in the design of bridge.

Design Of Bridges
2. Live Load
The live load on the bridge, is moving load on the bridge throughout its length. The moving
loads are vehicles, Pedestrians etc. but it is difficult to select one vehicle or a group of vehicles to
design a safe bridge.
So, IRC recommended some imaginary vehicles as live loads which will give safe results against
the any type of vehicle moving on the bridge. The vehicle loadings are categorized in to three
types and they are
 IRC class AA loading

 IRC class A loading
 IRC class B loading
 IRC Class AA Loading
This type of loading is considered for the design of new bridge especially heavy loading bridges
like bridges on highways, in cities, industrial areas etc. In class AA loading generally two types
of vehicles considered, and they are
 Tracked type notes4free.in

 Wheeled type

Design Of Bridges
IRC Class A Loading
This type of loading is used in the design of all permanent bridges. It is considered as standard
live load of bridge. When we design a bridge using class AA type loading, then it must be
checked for class A loading also.
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IRC Class B Loading
This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges like Timber Bridge etc. It is considered
as light loading. Both IRC class A and Class B are shown in below figure.

Design Of Bridges
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3. Impact Loads
The Impact load on bridge is due to sudden loads which are caused when the vehicle is moving
on the bridge. When the wheel is in movement, the live load will change periodically from one
wheel to another which results the impact load on bridge.
To consider impact loads on bridges, an impact factor is used. Impact factor is a multiplying
factor which depends upon many factors such as weight of vehicle, span of bridge, velocity of
vehicle etc. The impact factors for different IRC loadings are given below.
For IRC Class AA Loading and 70R Loading

Design Of Bridges
Span Vehicle type Impact factor
25% up to 5m and linearly reducing to 10% from 5

Tracked vehicle
m to 9 m.
Less than 9 meters
Wheeled vehicle 25% up to 9 m
Tracked vehicle (RCC

10% up to 40 m
bridge)
Wheeled vehicle (RCC

25% up to 12m
bridge)
Greater than 9
meters
Tracked vehicle (steel
10% for all spans
bridge)
Wheeled vehicle (steel

25% up to 23 m
bridge)
If the length exceeds in any of the above limits, the impact factor should be considered from the
notes4free.in
graph given by IRC which is shown below.
For IRC class A and class B loadings

Design Of Bridges
Bridge type A B
RCC 4.5 6.0
Steel 9.0 13.50
Impact factor If = A/(B+L)
Where L = span in meters
A and B are constants
Apart from the super structure impact factor is also considered for substructures
 For bed blocks, If = 0.5

 For substructure up to the depth of 3 meters If = 0.5 to 0
 For substructure greater than 3notes4free.in
m depth If = 0
4. Wind Loads
Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span bridges, wind load can be
negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind load should be considered for substructure design.
For long span bridges, wind load is considered in the design of super structure.
5. Longitudinal Forces
The longitudinal forces are caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on the bridge. When the
vehicle stops suddenly or accelerates suddenly it induces longitudinal forces on the bridge
structure especially on the substructure. So, IRC recommends 20% of live load should be
considered as longitudinal force on the bridges.
Design Of Bridges
6. Centrifugal Forces
If bridge is to be built on horizontal curves, then the movement of vehicle along curves will
cause centrifugal force on to the super structure. Hence, in this case design should be done for
centrifugal forces also.
Centrifugal force can be calculated by C (kN/m) = (WV2)/(12.7R)
Where
W = live load (kN)
V = Design speed (kmph)
R = Radius of curve (m)
7. Buoyancy Effect
Buoyancy effect is considered for substructures of large bridges submerged under deep water
bodies. Is the depth of submergence is less it can be negligible.
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8. Forces by Water Current
When the bridge is to be constructed across a river, some part of the substructure is under
submergence of water. The water current induces horizontal forces on submerged portion. The
forces caused by water currents are maximum at the top of water level and zero at the bottom
water level or at the bed level.
The pressure by water current is P = KW [V2/2g]
Where P = pressure (kN/m2)
K = constant (value depending upon shape of pier)

W = unit weight of water
V = water current velocity (m/s)
G = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Design Of Bridges
9. Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature. When the temperature is very high or very low
they induce stresses in the bridge elements especially at bearings and deck joints. These stresses
are tensile in nature so, concrete cannot withstand against this and cracks are formed.
To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main reinforcement should be

provided. Expansion joints are also provided.
10. Seismic Loads
When the bridge is to be built in seismic zone or earthquake zone, earthquake loads must be
considered. They induce both vertical and horizontal forces during earthquake. The amount of
forces exerted is mainly depends on the self-weight of the structure. If weight of structure is
more, larger forces will be exerted.
notes4free.in
11. Deformation and Horizontal Effects
Deformation stresses are occurred due to change is material properties either internally or
externally. The change may be creep, shrinkage of concrete etc. similarly horizontal forces will
develop due to temperature changes, braking of vehicles, earthquakes etc. Hence, these are also
be considered as design loads in bridge design.
12. Erection Stresses
Erection stress is induced by the construction equipment during the bridge construction. These
can be resisted by providing suitable supports for the members.
1.7 Assigininment Questions?
1. Explain different types of bridges

2. Explain different types of load on bridges?

Design Of Bridges
3. Explain IRC loading on Bridges?
1.8 Further study

1. Steel.fsv.cvut.cz/suscos/PP/1C03-12-Footbridges.pdf
2. https://www.scribd.com/document/337010258/Bridge-Engineering-Lecture-Note-pdf
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Module 2
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Skew Bridge
2.2 Slab Bridge
2.3 Assiginiment Questions
2.4 Further Reading
Bridges in the area are typically composed of short spans with span lengths of approximately 15
m. Bridges are simple spans with expansion joints at each pier and supported on elastomeric
bearings with no continuity of the superstructure or any fixity at the intermediate diaphragms. L
shaped abutments are typical for all newer concrete and older masonry bridges. The substructure
of most bridges is wall piers supported on shallow foundations with no consideration for
ductility. Use of deep foundations is not prevalent, even though liquefaction and lateral
spreading is to be expected in the region in a seismic event. Both existing bridges and those
under notes4free.in
2.1 SKEW BRIDGE
The behaviour of skew bridges differs widely from that of normal bridges and therefore, the
design of skew bridges needs special attention. In normal bridges, the deck slab is perpendicular
to the supports and as such the load placed on the deck slab is transferred to the supports which
are placed normal to the slab.
Load transference from a skew slab bridge, on the other-hand, is a complicated problem because
there remains always a doubt as to the direction in which the slab will span and the manner in
which the load will be transferred to the support.
It is believed that the load travels to the support in proportion to the rigidity of the various paths
and since the thickness of the slab is the same everywhere, the rigidity will be maximum along
shortest span i.e. along the span normal to the faces of the piers or abutments.
Though the span of the deck is the length BC or DE, the slab will span along AB or CD being the
shortest distance between the supports. Therefore, the plane of maximum stresses in a skew slab
are not parallel to the centre line of roadway and the deflection of such slab produces a warped
surface.
Dept of Civil ,ATMECCE Page 15

17CV741
Figure showing plan of skew bridge
The effect of skew in deck slabs having skew angles up to 20 degrees is not so significant and in
designing such bridges, the length parallel to the centre line of the roadway is taken as the span.
The thickness of the slab and the reinforcement are calculated with this span lengths and the
reinforcement are placed parallel to the centre line of the roadway.
such cases, the slab thickness is determined with shortest span but the reinforcement worked out
notes4free.in
on the basis of shortest span are multiplied by Sec.2 θ (θ being the skew angle) and are placed
parallel to the roadway as shown in Fig. 1, the distribution bars being placed parallel to the
supports as usual.
It is also a common practice to place the reinforcement perpendicular to the support when the
skew angle lies between 20 degrees to 50 degrees.
2.2 Slab bridge
A short-span bridge consisting of a reinforced-concrete slab resting on

abutments

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2. 3 Assiginiment questions?
notes4free.in
1. Design a solid slab skew bridge having a clear span of 7.5 m along the roadway without
any footpath and a skew angle of 25 degrees with IRC loading for N.H. Standard. M20
grade concrete and S415 grade steel will be used.
2.4Further reading
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105165/13
2. https://www.scribd.com/document/345712603/Design-of-Slab-Bridge

Design of bridges
MODULE 3
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design of t-bridges
3.3 Problems
3.4 Course outcomes
3.5 Further reading
3.1 introduction
T-beam Bridge is composite concrete structure which is composed of slab panel, longitudinal
girder and cross girder. Present study is mainly focuses on design of longitudinal girder by IRC:
112-2011 and IRC: 21-2000. In India, till now girders are designed and constructed according to
Indian road congress guidelines as per IRC: 21-2000 code in which working stress method is
used. Recently Indian road congress has introduced another code IRC: 112-2011 for design of
prestress and RCC bridges using limit state method. In regards to this, present study has been
performed to know how design of IRC-112 differs from IRC-21 and an attempt is made to study
undefined parameters of IRC: 112-2011 such as span to depth (L/d) ratio.
notes4free.in
3.2 Design of t-bridges
T-beam, used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete with a t-shaped

cross section. The top of the T-shaped cross section serves as a flange or compression member
in resisting compressive stresses. The web of the beam below the compression flange serves to
resist shear stress and to provide greater separation for the coupled forces of bending. Fig.1
components of T- beam bridge
Dept of Civil,ATMECE Page 19

Design of bridges
A beam and slab bridge or T- beam bridge is constructed when the span is between 10 -25 m.
The bridge deck essentially consists of a concrete slab monolithically cast over longitudinal
girders so that the T-beam effect prevails. To impart transverse stiffness to the deck, cross
girders or diaphragms are provided at regular intervals. The number of longitudinal girders
depends on the width of the road. Three girders are normally provided for a two lane road
bridge. T-beam bridges are composed of deck slab 20 to 25cm thick and longitudinal girders
spaced from 1.9 to 2.5m and cross beams are provided at 3 to 5m interval
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A typical tee beam bridge generally comprises the longitudinal girder, continuous deck slab
between the tee beams and cross girders to provide lateral rigidity to the bridge deck. It is
known that the bridge loads are transmitted from the deck to the superstructure and then to
the supporting substructure elements. It is rather difficult to imagine how these loads get
transferred. If a vehicle is moving on the top of a particular beam, it is reasonable to say that,
this particular beam is resisting the vehicle or truck load. However, this beam is not alone; it is
connected to adjacent members through the slab and cross girders. This connectivity allows
different members to work together in resisting loads. The supporting girders share the live
load in varying proportions depending on the flexural stiffness of the deck and the position of
the live load on the deck. The distribution of live load among the longitudinal girders can be
estimated by any of the following rational methods.
1. Courbon’s method
2. Guyon Massonet method
3. Hendry Jaegar method
Courbon’s Method Among the above mentioned methods, Courbon’s method is the simplest
and is applicable when the following conditions are satisfied:  The ratio of span to width of

Design of bridges
deck is greater than 2 but less than 4.  The longitudinal girders are interconnected by at least
five symmetrically spaced cross girders.  The cross girder extends to a depth of at least
0.75times the depth of the longitudinal girders. Courbon’s method is popular due to the
simplicity of computations as detailed below: When the live loads are positioned nearer to the
kerb as shown below.
notes4free.in
The center of gravity of live load acts eccentrically with the centre of gravity of the girder
system. Due to this eccentricity, the loads shared by each girder are increased or decreased
depending upon the position of the girders. This is calculated by Courbon’s theory by a reaction
factor given by
Where, Rx=Reaction factor for the girder under consideration
I = Moment of inertia of each longitudinal girder
dx= Distance of the girder under consideration from the central axis of the bridge
W = Total concentrated live load

Design of bridges
n = Number of longitudinal girders
e = Eccentricity of live load with respect to the axis of the bridge.
The live load bending moments and shear forces are computed for each of the girders. The
maximum design moments and shear forces are obtained by adding the live load and dead load
bending moments. The reinforcement in the main longitudinal girders are designed for the
maximum moments and shears developed in the girders.
3.3 Problems
AVAILABLE DATA:
 Effective span of T-beam bridge: 18.33m

 Total length of bridge: 55m
 Clear width of carriage way 7.5m (IRC 5: 1998 & IRC 6: 2014)
 Kerb width: 600mm (both side, pedestrians are allowed)
 Parapet: 1000 mm  150 mm  150 mm @ 1.5m c/c with 3-cast iron pipes as railing
 Camber: 1 in 100 (37.5 mm at center linearly varying to zero at kerbs)
 Wearing coat: 80mm
 Kerb height above pavement: 200mm (insurmountable type)
 Kerb type: full safety ensured notes4free.in
 Total kerb height above deck slab: 280 mm
 Clear depth of Longitudinal girders: 1400 mm
 Width of longitudinal girder: 400mm
 Width of cross girder: 300mm
 Clear depth of cross girder: 1400 mm
 Deck slab thickness: 250 mm
 Cantilever slab: 400 mm at girder face; linearly varying @ 0.11 to ends i.e. 200 mm
 Total overall depth of the super structure: 1800mm
 c/c spacing of longitudinal girders: 2500 mm
 c/c spacing of cross girders: 4507.50 mm
 clear distance of cantilever span from face of girder: 1800mm
 Grade of concrete: M35
 Design strength: fcd = 0.67fck/mMPa (Annex – A2 of IRC 112: 2011)
 Grade of steel : Fe415 (IS 1786 : 2000)
 Design strength of steel : fy/1.15 = 0.87fy MPa (clause-15.2.3.3 of IRC 112:2011)
 Poisson’s ratio:  = 0.2 (Annex-B; B-3-1 of IRC 112:2011 )
 Analysis of deck slab: Piegaud’s curve
DESIGN OF INTERIOR SLAB PANEL:

Design of bridges
The slab is supported on four sides by longitudinal and cross girders which c/c spacing is as
shown in the figure above. The slab thickness is 250 mm and breadth and length respectively
are 2.5m and 4.5075 m. the effective span will be taken as the clear span of the slabs since
these are the continuous slabs. So effective width Beff = 2.1m and effective length Leff =
4.2075m.
B
v 4.5075m
L
One-wheel
loaded
area of
vehicle
2.5 m
Fig-1 (Interior Slab Panel with one wheel of Tracked Vehicle)
Bending Moment of the Slab Panel due notes4free.in

to Dead Load:
Weight of slab = 0.25  1 1 25 = 6.25 kN/m2

Weight of wearing coat = 0.080  22 1 1 = 1.76 kN/m2
Weight of camber = 0.45 kN/m2
Total dead weight = 8.46 kN/m2
As Pieguad’s curve is used in design,

hence K = B/L = 2.5/4.5075 = 0.55
Also dead load moment is to be computed and hence u/B = 1.0 and v/L = 1.0
Using Pieguad’s curve for K=0.5, u/B = 1.0 and v/L=1.0,

m1=0.047 and m2=0.004
Also for K=0.6, u/B = 1.0 and v/L = 1.0,

m1=0.047 and m2 = 0.016
After interpolation, we find that m1=0.047 and m2=0.0145
Total dead load on the slab is given by = 8.46 2.54.5075 = 95.33

Short span moment is MB = 95.33 (0.047+0.200.0145) = 4.76 kN-m

Design of bridges
Long span moment is ML = 95.33 (0.0145+0.200.047) = 2.28 kN-m

Since these are continuous slabs, a continuity factor of 0.8 will be multiplied. So final end
moment is given by MBF = 3.81 kN-m and MBL = 1.824 kN-m
Bending Moment due to Live Load:
a. IRC class AA tracked Vehicle:

The wheel is placed at the center of the slab as shown in the figure previously. For maximum
bending moment to be occurred, the load dispersion is taken to be occurring through wearing
coat only. The load is disperses at 450 through the wearing coat as per Annex-B of IRC 112:2011.
Hence u = 0.85+20.080 = 1.01m and v = 3.60 + 20.080 = 3.76m
Hence u/B = 0.404 , v/L = 0.8342 and K = B/L = 2.5/4.5075 = 0.55.
Referring to Pieguad’s curve,
For K = 0.5, and for above u/B and v/L values,

m1 = 0.084 , m2 = 0.009
Similarly for K = 0.6, we get

m1 = 0.095 and m2 = 0.03
notes4free.in
After interpolating, we get
m1 = 0.089 and m2 = 0.019
Short span bending moment is given by, (taking continuity into account)
MB = 0.8350(0.089+0.20.019) = 25.984 kN-m
ML = 0.8 350(0.019+0.20.089) = 10.304 kN-m
As per IRC 6:2010, clause – 208.3, for tracked vehicles, the impact factor is 10% for spans up to
40m.
So MB = 28.58 kN-m and ML = 11.334 kN-m
b. IRC class-AA wheeled vehicle:

Following different references and guides on bridge engineering, it’s clearly understood that
though tracked vehicle gives the severest effect along short span/direction but along long span,
the wheeled vehicle gives severest effect. By going through “Essentials of Bridge Engineering:
D.J Victor” and “R.C.C design: B.C. Punmia, A.K Jain and A.K Jain” we find the following load
positioning gives the severest effect among other combinations.

Design of bridges
1250 mm 1250 mm
W 1 = 37.5 kw
2253.75 mm
W 2 =W 3= 62.5 kw
1 2 3
150 W1 W2 W3
300 m 1000 mm
600 mm
2253.75 mm
4 5 6
W1 W2 W3
Fig-2 (Loading of wheeled vehicle for severest effect)
Also as per IRC 6:2014 specifications, no other vehicles can come on to the panel during the
above arrangement.
Bending Moment calculation due to Wheel Load -2:
Tyre contact dimension : 300 mm  150 notes4free.in

mm
So u = 0.3+20.080 = 0.460 m and v = 0.15+20.080 = 0.310 m
The value of u/B = 0.184 , v/L = 0.069 and B/L = 0.55
Using Pieguad’s curve, m1 = 0.22 and m2 = 0.20
Hence MB1 = 62.5 (0.22+0.20.2) = 16.25 kN-m and ML1 = 62.5(0.2+0.220.2) = 15.25 kN-m
Bending Moment due to Wheel Load -1
Since Pieguad’s curve is applicable to only symmetrical loading pattern, it cannot be used
directly for unsymmetrical loading. In order to calculate the moment, a dummy load having
equal magnitude will be arranged at equal distance as per real load from the center of slab or
from the vertical axis of the slab. The arrangement is shown in the figure.

Design of bridges
370 mm
W1 0.31 m
W1
450 mm 450 mm
600 mm 600 mm
Fig-3 (Bending moment calculation due to Wheel Load-1)
So u = 2(u1 + x) = 2(0.46+0.37) = 1.66m and v = 0.31m

Load intensity = 37.5/(.31.46) = 262.973 kN/m2
K = B/L = 0.55, u/B = 0.664 and v/L = 0.069

Hence m1 = 0.12 and m2 = 0.14
MB = (0.12+0.20.14)262.9731.660.31 = 20.03 kN-m
Similarly ML = 22.193 kN-m
 Now u = 2x = 20.37 = 0.74 and v = 0.31

K = 0.55, u/B = 0.296 and v/L = 0.069
From Pieguad’s curve, m1 = 0.184notes4free.in
and m2 = 0.189
’ ’
MB = 13.38 kN-m and ML = 13.622 kN-m
Hence total moment is given by,
MB2 = (20.03 – 13.38) 0.5 kN-m = 3.325 kN-m

ML2 = (22.193 – 13.622) 0.5 kN-m = 4.285 kN-m
Bending Moment due to Wheel Load-3:
 Now in this case u = 2(0.46+0.77) = 2.46m , v = 0.31 m

Load intensity is 62.5/(.31.46) = 438.3 kN/m2
K = 0.55, u/B = 0984 and v/L = 0.069
From Pieguad’s curve, m1 = 0.09 and m2 = 0.09
MB = 36.10 kN-m and ML = 36.10 kN-m
 Taking u = 2x = 20.77 = 1.54 and v = 0.31,
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.616 and v/L = 0.069
Hence m1 = 0.125 and m2 = 0.14
MB’ = 32.01 kN-m and ML’= 34.52 kN-m
MB3 = [36.10 - 32.01] 0.5 = 2.045 kN-m
ML3 = [36.10 - 34.52] 0.5 = 0.79 kN-m

Design of bridges
Bending Moment due to Wheel Load at - 5:
 u =0.46m, v = 2(v1+x) = 2(0.31 + 1.045) = 2.71m

Load intensity = 62.5/(0.460.31) = 438.3 kN/m2
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.184, v/L = 0.60
So m1 = 0.125 and m2 = 0.0306
MB = 71.57 kN-m and ML = 30.35 kN-m
 u = 0.46m and v = 2x = 21.045 = 2.09m
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.184 and v/L = 0.464
From Pieguad’s curve, m1 = 0.1441 and m2 = 0.043
MB’ = 64.30 kN-m and ML’ = 30.25 kN-m
So MB = 3.635 kN-m and ML = 0.05 kN-m
Bending Moment due to wheel Load at – 4:
 u = 2(u1+x) = 2(0.46+0.37) = 1.66m and v = 2(v1+y) = 2(0.31+1.045) = 2.71m

K = 0.55, u/B = 0.664 and v/L = 0.601
Coefficient m1 = 0.09205 and m2 = 0.027
After multiplying with (u1+x)(v1+y) with both coefficients,
m1’ = 0.1015 and m2’ = 0.0304
 u = 2x = 20.37 = 0.74m, v = 2y =notes4free.in
21.045 = 2.09m
K = 0.588, u/B = 0.296 and v/L = 0.464
So m1 = 0.134 and m2 = 0.0405
Multiplying with xy,
we get m1’=0.052 and m2’ = 0.016
 u = 0.74m, v = 2.71m
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.296 and v/L = 0.601
m1 = 0.12 and m2 = 0.03 and multiplying with x(v1+y) = 0.5013,
m1’ = 0.060 and m2’=0.015
 u =1.66 m and v = 2.09m
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.664 and v/L = 0.464
m1 = 0.095 and m2 = 0.038
Multiplying with y(u1+x) = 0.87,
m1’=0.083 and m2’ =0.033
So m1 = [(0.1015+0.052)-(0.060+0.083)] = 0.0105
m2 = [(0.0304+0.016)-(0.015+0.033)]  0
MB4 = [0.0105+0.20] = 2.761 kN-m



Design of bridges
ML4 = [0.20.0105+0] = 0.552 kN-m


Bending Moment due to Wheel Load at -6:
 1 u = 2[u1+x] = 2[0.46+0.77] = 2.46 m and v = 2[v1+x] = 2[0.31+1.045] = 2.71 m

K = 0.55, u/B = 0.984 and v/L = 0.601
m1 = 0.068, m2 = 0.02
[u1+x][v1+y] = 1.231.355 = 1.67
m1’=0.113 and m2’ = 0.0334
 2 u = 2x =1.54m and v = 2y = 2.09m
K=0.55, u/B = 0.616 and v/L = 0.464
m1 = 0.097, m2 = 0.038
xy = 0.804
Hence m1’ = 0.078 and m2’ = 0.0305
 3 u = 2[u1+x] = 2.46m and v = 2y =2.09m
K = 0.55, u/B = 0984 and v/L = 0.464
m1 =0.074 and m2 = 0.03
y(u1+x) = 1.285
m1’ = 0.095 and m2’=0.038
 4 u = 2x = 1.54m and v = 2(v1+y) = 2.71m
notes4free.in
K = 0.55, u/B = 0.616 and v/L = 0.6012
m1 = 0.092 and m2 = 0.025
Multiplying x(v1+y) = 1.043 with above coefficients,
m1’ = 0.096 and m2’ = 0.026
So final coefficients are,
m1 = [(0.113+0.078)-(0.095+0.096)] = 0
m2 = [(0.0334+0.0305)-(0.038+0.026)] 0
The resulting moment is given by,
MB6 = ML6 = 0 kN-m
Total bending moment is given by,
MB= 16.25+3.325+2.045+3.635+2.761 = 28.016 kN-m

ML = 15.25+4.285+0.79+0.05+0.552 = 20.93 kN-m
Applying continuity and impact,

MB = 28.016  0.8  1.18 = 26.45 kN-m
ML = 20.93  0.8 1.18 = 19.76 kN-m
The impact factor is taken as 18% as per clause-208.4 of IRC 6: 2014. It can be seen that the
moment along short span for tracked load is greater while the wheel load bending moment

Design of bridges
along the longer span is severer. Hence the moment for tracked load will be taken along shorter
direction and moment along longer direction will be considered from wheel load in the design
of d SHEAR FORCE CALCULATION FOR INTERIOR SLAB PANEL:
3.6.4.1 Wheel Load Shear:
Following IRC-112:2011 (B-3.3, Annex- B-3), the dispersion of load through wearing coat & slab
will be at 45°.
Hence dispersion of load is given by 0.85+2(0.08+0.25) =1.51m.
For maximum shear to occur , the load dispersion should be within face of girder.
So wheel load will be kept at least 1.51/2=0.755m from the longitudinal girder face; as shown in
the figure.
notes4free.in
Fig-12 (Load dispersion through deck slab)
Referring IRC-112:2011,clause-B 3.2(page-278),

bef =αa( l0)+b1
b/l0 = = 2.003 > 2.00
α =2.6
l0=2.1
a=0.755m
b1=3.6+2 0.08=3.76m
be=2.6 0.755( )+3.76
=5.017m
Load per meter width is
= = 69.763
Maximum shear force =

=44.681 kN/m
Shear force with impact due to tracked vehicle = 49.15 kN/m
3.6.4.2 Dead load shear:

Design of bridges
Total dead weight= 8.46 KN/m2

Total dead load shear= = 8.883 kN/m
3.6.5 DESIGN BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE:
Toal MB = 3.81+28.58=32.39 KN-m

Ml = 1.824+19.76=21.584 KN-m
Total shear force=(8.883+49.15) KN/m
=58.03 KN/m
Since we have considered limit state method the above load values will be 1.5 times that of
calculated as per Anex A2 of IRC: 112-2011
So MB = 48.585  50 kN-m
Ml = 32.376  33 kN-m
Vu = 87.045 kN/m
Minimum effective depth as per maximum bending moment is given by

d =√
= 101.635 mm
As per table – 14.2, clause –14.3.2.1 (page 142) of IRC–112: 2011,
Clear cover =40+8=48 mm
So, d = 250 48 =202 mm > 101.63 mm (ok) notes4free.in
Using 16 mm- bars,cover for short span = 210 8 =202mm and cover for long span
=202 16=186 mm.
REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR INTEROIR SLAB PANEL:
(i)Area of steel along short direction
(Ast)B = ⌊ √ ⌋
As per clause -16.6.1.1 of IRC:112-2011
(Ast)min = 0.26 btd
From table -6.5 (Page-38)of IRC :112-2011
Fctm=2.8 N/mm2
Fyk= 415 N/mm2
Bt=1000 mm
D = 202 mm
(Ast)min=354.351 mm2
Also same clause specified
(Ast)min=0.0013btd
= 262.6mm2

Design of bridges
(Ast)max=0.025Ac
=0.025 mm2
Spacing of bars as per clause-16.6.1.1(4) of IRC-2011 is,
smax< 2h = 2 250 = 500 mm
In our case,spacing of 16 mm bars is
S
=280.811mm> 250 mm
Also as per clause-15.2.1 (2) of IRC:112-2011,
The clear distance between the parallel main reinforcing bars should not be less than
dg+10=20+10=30 mm and 20 mm , whichever is greater
Dg= aggregate size = assumed 20mm for slabs, providing 16 mm- bars @ 225mm c/c
((Ast)B)provided =
=893.61 mm2
Also as per clause -12.2.2, page – 120 of IRC:112-2011, under rare combination of loads,the
maximum tensile stress limits to 0.8 fy is to avoid inelastic strain, undesirable
cracking/deformation of structure and also to account for long term creep.
We have calculated the steel area taking fyd=0.87fyk ( as per cl-15.2.3.3 IRC:112-2011)
notes4free.in
Considering the worst case i.e rare combination of loads, additional steel area required =1
= 0.080 = 8% of required steel area.
So 8% of (Ast)required = 716.005 = 57.28 mm2
Ast to be provided=716.005+57.28=773.28 mm2< 893.61 mm2 (ok)

(Ast)Bprov. =893.61 mm2
(ii) Area of steel along long direction
Providing 12mm- bars,
(Ast)L = [ √ ] = 480.53 mm2
(Ast)min=0.26 ( cl-16.6.1,IRC:112-2011)
Fctm= 2.8 N/m2 (table-6.5 of IRC:112-2011)
(Ast)min =0.26 =333.301 mm2

Design of bridges
Also as per same clause ,
(Ast)min =0.0013btd=247 mm2
(Ast)max= 0.025Ac=0.025 =6250 mm2
Spacing of bars as per clause-16.6.1.1(4 of IRC:112-2011 is,
Smax 2h=2 500 mm or 250mm ( smaller value is taken)
S= =235.36mm
Hence providing spacing of bars @175 mm c/c & using 12mm bars
((Ast)l)provided = =646.30 mm2
Also as per clause-15.2.1(2) of IRC:112-2011, the clear distance between the parallel main
reinforcing bars should not be less than dg+10=20+10=30 mm or 20 mm (larger value is taken).
Also asper clause-12.2.2,P-120 of loads ,the max tensile stress in steel is limited to 0.8fyk to
avoid inelastic stain ,undesirable cracking/deformation of structure & also to account for long
term creep.
notes4free.in
Hence more area required is = (1 )(Ast)required
=0.08 480.53=38.44 mm2
(Astl)required for creep cracking =480.53 38.44 =518.97 mm2< 646.30 mm2
(Ast)L.prov=646.30 mm2
deck slab
DESIGN OF CROSS GIRDER
DESIGN OF CROSS GIRDER:
Self-weight=0.3×1.4×25=10.5 kN/m
Slab load will be distributed as shown below

Design of bridges
45° 45°
1.25m
2.5 m
Fig-4 (Dead load distribution from slab on Cross Girder)

Dead load from slab =2×0.5×2.5×1.25×8.46=26.4375
So udl load =
Total load (dead weight) =21.075kN/m
Assuming rigid cross girder,
Reaction on longitudinal girder is =
For max. Bending moment, the loads should be kept at equal distance from intermediate
longitudinal girder of both sides of cross girder.
notes4free.in
4.5075 m
1.8 m
1.8 m
2.05m 4.5075 m
2.5 m 2.5 m

Design of bridges
4.5075 m
0.9
0.9
Fig-4(Wheel load arrangement for maximum bending moment on Cross Girder)

Now for calculating load, following diagram may be provided at beneficial
Load on cross girder from one wheel
=
Reaction on each longitudinal girder
=
Max. Bending moment on cross girder under load =186.75×1.475=275.456 kN-m
In checking impact, Mc =303kN-m
notes4free.in
Dead load moment under wheel load ,
=
Total design moment=332kN-m
Ultimate moment = Mu =498kN-m
Since the cross girder fixed at intermediate girder,(-)ve moment will exist.
As per D.J victor, Essential Bridges Engineering, referring to Morrice-Little method, distribution
coefficient=0.416
So negative moment =0.146× 498≈73 kN-m
Since its flange d beam,assuming neutral axis in side flange,
Mu =21241.143kN-m>>>>>498kN-m
(Ast )+ve=
Providing 4-20mm ф bars

(Ast )provided=1256.64mm2
Provision of 4-16-mm ф bars at top will give
(Ast )-ve=804.25mm2>(Ast )required =135.152mm2
Provide 4-12mm ф bars each face uniformly as side reinforcement.

Design of bridges
SHEAR CHECK FOR CROSS GIRDERS:
Cl-10.3.2 of IRC:112-2011
K=1.33
vmin=0.281
σcp=0
=2.618×10-3
VRdc=[0.12×1.33×(80×2.618×10-3×35)0.33×300×1600=147.831 kN
VRdc.min=0.281×300×1600=134.880 kN
Design shear VEd =1.5[186.75+35.125]=332.8125 kN
Extra shear to be resisted by stirrups is =184.98
Providing 8mm dia -4 legged stirrups
Asw =201mm2
Spacing(s)= 519.43mm,8mm ф 4-legged @300mm c/c
Again shear reinforcement ratio
= (cl-16.5.2 of IRC 112:2000)
=1.2899×10-3
√
=
notes4free.in
Assuming )min ,
s=
4-16 mmf bans
4-16 mmf
12mm f
side face reinforcement
4-20 mmf
4-20mmf 4 logged 8mm f

8mm f 4-legged @ 300 mm C/C
bars
stirrups @
300 mm C/C
Fig 5 (Reinforcement detailing of Cross Girder)
Clause -16.5.2 of IRC:112-2011(6, 7, 8,9,) specifies that

smin=dg+10=30mm

Design of bridges
40mm
2øs=2×8=16mm
Smax=0.75d(1+cotα)=0.75×(1+0)=1245mm
As per the Clause -16.5.3 of IRC:112-2011,
The links will not to be of greater spacing of following
1/8 (perimeter of member)=487.5mm
or 350mm
Our provision of 300m (okay)
MODIFIED ANCHORAGE FOR BARS AT THE ENDS OF GIRDERS:
At the ends of girders,bearing available is only 450mm.hence standard 90 bend as per fig 15.2
of irc:112-2011 will be provided.
So modified lb.net will be
lb.net =0.7×lb×1=0.7lb
lb =903mm(for 30mm ф bars)
lb =843mm(for 28mm ф bars)
(lb.net)O.G =632mm
(lb.net)I.G =590mm
notes4free.in
3.4 Course outcomes
1. Design of longitudinal girder
2. Design of cross girder
3.5 Further study
1.https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105165/18
2.https://www.in.gov/dot/div/contracts/design/lrfd/05_Section%204_Deck(E).PDF

Design of Bridges
Module 4
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Design of Box culverts
4.3 Design of Pipe Culverts
4.4 Course Outcomes
4.5 Further Reading
4.1 Introduction
Box culverts are the ideal solution to a wide range of construction applications. Their traditional
use is for diverting watercourses. Available in a wide range of sizes, the versatility of these
structures has seen them used for many other applications. These include attenuation tanks,
pedestrian subways, access shafts, service tunnels, sea outfalls, road crossings and a variety of
other applications. In all cases where strength, durability and economy are of paramount
importance.
notes4free.in
4.2 DESIGN OF BOX CULVERTS
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, or similar obstruction. Typically
embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or
any other material. Box Culverts are cross-drainage structures built beneath roadways which are box
shaped as the name suggests. They are less than or equal to 6m in span along the longitudinal direction
of the road
Details Of The Structure
The basic design data required for analysis of the structure is as follows:
1. Clear span
2. Clear height
3. Dimension of Box Culvert
4. Depth of fill and wearing coat
5. Width of carriage way
6. Soil Properties
Dept of Civil, ATMECE Page 37

Design of Bridges
notes4free.in
Plan and sectional elevation of a Box Culvert
DESIGN OF BOX SECTION
The critical case is taken for maximum shear force and maximum bending moment condition at the
critical sections
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
The effective depth for the top slab, bottom slab and side wall are calculated by deducting
the clear cover and depth of stirrup and diameter of the reinforcement bar.
The effective depth required is calculated as per the following procedure and the depth is
checked if safe or not. If not section dimensions need to be revised.

Design of Bridges
Effective depth required, dreq = (M/Qb)1/2

M – Bending Moment
at the section required
Moment at the section

Q = (1/2) x j x k σcbc
j = 1 – (k/3)
k = (280/(3 σcbc)) / (280/(3 σcbc) + σst)
σcbc & σst are the permissible flexural strength in steel and concrete respectively
The area of steel required is calculated as per the following formula and adequate steel is
provided and spacing of bars are computed. The steel provided has to be greater than the
minimum steel required that is 0.12% of the gross area of section.
Area of steel required, Ast req = M/(σst jd)

notes4free.in
DESIGN FOR SHEAR
The critical cases for shear force in the maximum bending moment and maximum shear
force conditions are considered at the critical sections 2, 5, 8 & 9.
The design shear stress is computed as follows (Cl. 304.7 IRC 21-2000):
Design Shear Stress, τv = V / (b x d)
b – breadth of the member
d – effective depth of the member
V – Design Shear across the section
The value of design shear stress must be less than the maximum shear stress allowed in the
section as per IRC 21-2000 table 12A. The permissible shear stress, τc is determined based
on the percentage of steel provided as given in table 12B IRC 21-2000, and the shear
reinforcement is computed for the unbalanced shear force.

Design of Bridges
Vertical Shear Reinforcement, Asw = Vs x S / (σs x d)
Asw – Total Cross-sectional area of stirrup legs
Vs = V - τc x b x d
S – Spacing of the stirrups
σs – Permissible tensile stress in shear reinforcement

d – effective depth
4.3 Pipe Culvert

Pipe culverts are the most common types of culverts due to competitive price and easy
installation. They are found in different shapes such as circular, elliptical and pipe arch.
Generally, their shapes depend on site conditions and constraints. Pipe culverts on a small scale
represent normal pipes like concrete pipes.
Pipe-arch culverts provide low clearance, openings suitable for large waterways, and are more
aesthetic. They may also provide a greater hydraulic advantage to fishes at low flows and require
less road fill.
notes4free.in
Advantages of Pipe Culvert

The main features of pipe culverts are:
It can be constructed of any desired strength by proper mix design, thickness, and reinforcement.
They are economical.
These pipes can withhold any tensile stresses and compressive stresses.
The crossing of water is under the structure.
Disadvantages of Pipe Culvert
The main disadvantage of pipe culvert is that it can be easily corroded at the crown because of
bacteria‘s organic matter and release of harmful gas, which is known as Crown corrosion.

Design of Bridges
4.4 ASSIGINIMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between box culvert and pipe culvert?
2 Design a reinforced concrete box culvert having a clear way vent way of 3m by 3m.the super
imposed load dead load on culvert is 12.5kn/m2. The live load on the culvert is 50kn/m3.Density of soil
at the site is 18kn/m3 angle of repose =30° adopt M 20 grade concrete and Fe415 steel for steel
4.5 Further reading
1. https://precast.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Box_Culvert_Presentation.pdf
2. https://fpmccann.co.uk/box-culverts
notes4free.in

Design of Bridges
MODULE 5
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bearings
5.3 Piers
5.5 Further Reading
5.1 Introduction
Bearings can be termed as the mechanical part of a bridge structure. The earliest bridges were
built of high mass of stones, bricks or timber material. Temperature difference accounts for
expansion and reduction in these bridges, but with small temperature gradients because of the
high mass of the bridge material. Bridges made of timbers reacts more to moisture content and
weather conditions than thermal actions from temperature difference, but timber bridges are
constructed with several joints which enables sectionalized movement in the bridges. With
sophistication in the design and construction of bridges coupled with demands of bridges for
heavy loads, large volume of traffic, longer life span, high durability, difficult barriers etc. lead
notes4free.in
to bridges being constructed with steel, reinforced and prestressed concrete or composite
material. To aid the movement in the present type of bridge structures bearings have been
adopted. The earliest types of bridge bearings are made of steel, but with problems of durability,
degradations, flexibility and maintenance different types of bridge bearings have been developed
to suite different designs and requirements. Current studies are aimed towards further
development of bridge bearings to support and transfer larger forces with higher level of
durability for lifespan that matches the bridge lifespan whilst enabling bridge flexibility at a cost
effective means.
5.2 Bearings
Role of bridge bearings
Bridge bearings are connections that transfer forces between the bridge superstructure (deck) and the
substructures (pier, viaduct or abutment). Temperature difference such as increase in temperature
causes the bridge structure to expand/elongate along its length, thereby causing movements in the
bridge structure and vice versa, decrease in temperature causes the bridge to reduce in length. During
seismic occurrence the bridge foundations take up forces and transfer to the entire bridge structure
causing rigorous vibration and movements of the bridge. The bridge structure also vibrates and moves in
reaction to forces from heavy traffic (trains, vehicles etc.). Creep, shrinkage and elastic deformation all
result in movement of the bridge structure.
Causes of movement in bridges
Dept of CIVIL,ATMECE Page 48

Design of Bridges
 In general, movements in bridges can be summarized to the following sources:

 Movements due to shrinkage and creep
 Movements due to traffic loads
 Movements due to dead load of the bridge structure itself
 Movements due to lateral forces acting on the bridge structure such as wind loads
 Movements due to temperature changes
 Movements as a result of settlements in supports (uniform and differential settlements) –
 Movements as a result of soil pressure on abutments
 Movements due to horizontal loads such as accelerating, braking, skidding and traction force
 Movements as a result of impact forces such as vehicles colliding with bridge structures (railings,
kerbs, edge beams etc.), vehicles colliding with other vehicles, boats and ships colliding with
piers
5.2.1Functions of bridge bearings
 Connects the bridge superstructure to the substructure.

 notes4free.in
Accommodates and transfers dynamic forces and vibrations without causing wear or
destruction to the substructure.
 Enables movement (translational, vertical or rotational) of the bridge structure in
reactions to loads.
 Controls the movement in bridge structure; direction and degree wise.
 Ensures that deformations, which occur in the superstructure of the bridge, donot lead to
large forces and moments in the substructure.
 Can be used to adjust the dynamic properties of the bridge.
 Bearings reduce shear on the head of the piers, viaducts or abutments.
 Recent bridge bearings are designed to act as seismic protectors that arrestand dissipate
energy during earthquakes and other seismic activities.
5.2.3 Classification of bridge bearings

Design of Bridges
According to support principle - Fixed or clamped bearing; permits rotation but no transverse or
longitudinal movement –
Hinge or pin; permits rotational movement while at the same time preventing longitudinal
movement –
Movable bearing; permits both rotational and translational movements - Guided bearing; permits
only translational movements
According to material –
Steel bearing - Rocker/Linear bearing
Roller bearing
Sliding plate bearing
o Combined roller and rocker bearing
o Rubber and combined bearing
o Laminated elastomeric bearing
o Plain elastomeric bearing
o Lead rubber bearing
notes4free.in
3. According to design
Pot bearings
Spherical bearings
Elastomeric bearings
Disc bearings
ILM (incremental launch) bearings
Lifting and measuring bearings
Deformation bearings
Special bearings
4 Seismic isolation bearings
Friction pendulum bearings
Lead rubber bearings
High damping rubber bearings

Design of Bridges
5.2.4 Expansion joint
An expansion joint or movement joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb

the temperature-induced expansion and contraction of construction materials, to absorb vibration,
to hold parts together, or to allow movement due to ground settlement or earthquakes. They are
commonly found between sections of buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway tracks, piping
systems, ships, and other structures.
Building faces, concrete slabs, and pipelines expand and contract due to warming and cooling
from seasonal variation, or due to other heat sources. Before expansion joint gaps were built into
these structures, they would crack under the stress induced
Modular expansion joints are used when the movements of a bridge exceed the capacity of a
single gap joint or a finger type joint. A watertight system, invented by the Swiss company
Mageba, is designed on a modular basis and can be tailored to satisfy the specific requirements
of almost any structure. Modular multiple-gap expansion joints can accommodate movements in
every direction and rotations about every axis. They can be used for longitudinal movements of
as little as 160 mm, or for very large movements of well over 3000 mm. The total movement of
the bridge deck is divided among a number of individual gaps which are created by horizontal
surface beams. The individual gaps are sealed by watertight elastomeric profiles, and surface
beam movements are regulated by an elastic control system. The drainage of the joint is via the
drainage system of the bridge deck. Certain joints feature so-called “sinus plates” on their
surface, which reduce noise from over-passing traffic by up to 80%
notes4free.in
5.3 Piers
Any bridge structure is a combination of two components: substructure and super structure. For
bridges with bearings, all the components which transfer the loads from bearing to the ground is
called substructure. Substructure consists of bridge pier, abutments, wing walls, piles etc. while
the superstructure consists of deck, girders or any part on which the traffic moves safely such as
road way, girders, arches, etc. In this article we try to discuss about the piers, its function and its
types.
Bridge Pier support the spans of the bridge and transfer the loads from superstructure to the
foundation. Piers should be strong enough to take the both vertical and horizontal load. Its main
function is to transfer the load from the bridge superstructure foundation below it. They are
subjected to huge axial loads and bi-axial moments and shear forces in transverse and
longitudinal direction. Said that, pier are usually compression elements of a bridge. Piers are
referred as Bents as well.
Bridge piers are designed for following design limit states; Service Limit state – Crack
width, Stresses in concrete and steel; Ultimate limit state – Ultimate flexure capacity, shear;
Extreme Events – Earthquake, Vessel and vehicle impact, fatigue

Design of Bridges
Bridge Pier support the spans of the bridge and transfer the loads from superstructure to the
foundation. Piers should be strong enough to take the both vertical and horizontal load. Its main
function is to transfer the load from the bridge superstructure foundation below it. They are
subjected to huge axial loads and bi-axial moments and shear forces in transverse and
longitudinal direction. Said that, pier are usually compression elements of a bridge. Piers are
referred as Bents aswell.
Bridge piers are designed for following design limit states; Service Limit state – Crack width,
Stresses in concrete and steel; Ultimate limit state – Ultimate flexure capacity, shear; Extreme
Events – Earthquake, Vessel and vehicle impact, fatigue
5.3.1 Types of Piers

Type of piers to be used in the bridge depends upon the type of bridge, sub-soil conditions as
well as the procedure adopted for the construction of bridge. The bridge can be broadly divided
into two parts:
1. Solid piers
2. Open piers
notes4free.in
1. Solid piers:
These piers have solid and impermeable structure. The generally used materials used for the
construction of these type of piers are bricks, stone Masonry, mass concrete or RCC, etc. They
may be further classified as:
Solid masonry piles

Solid RCC piles
Solid Masonry piers:
The piers which are constructed with brick masonry, stone masonry, concrete etc. are known as
solid masonry piers. Sometimes it is seen that in solid masonry piles the outer portion is
constructed with the stone masonry and the inner part is filled with the help of mass concrete. In
this way it can save the cost of construction.
Solid RCC Piers:

Design of Bridges
The solid piers which are constructed with the reinforcement are called RCC piers. These piers
are generally rectangular in cross-section and are generally used where the height of the piers are
more and the solid masonry piers will not be strong enough to bear the load and can be
uneconomical.
2. Open piers
The piers which are open i.e which allows the water to pass through the structure are called as
open piers. Open piers can be classified into the following types:
Cylindrical piers
Column bents
Trestle piers or Trestle bent
Pile bents
Special or typical framed piers
Cylindrical piers:
The piers which are constructed with the mild steels or cast iron cylinder in which the concrete
are filled are known as cylindrical piers. These are used for bridges having moderate height.
notes4free.in
Sometimes horizontal and diagonal steel bracing are also provided for additional stability.
These are generally used for the bridges of large height. These are generally constructed over
barge services.
Trestle piers or Trestle bent:

It consist of column with bent cap at the top. As per the latest recommendation the hinges may
also be provided. It is generally used for flyovers and elevated roads. These are suitable for
bridges where water current is slow and river bed is sufficiently firm.
Pile piers or Pile bents:

These are used where the ground is unstable and the low piers are required. In these type of piers
number of steel or RCC piles are driven into the ground provided with the cap at their top to
support the main girder. It is the common variation of multicolumn bent. It is generally used for
the type of bent on low height and short span structure.

Design of Bridges
Typical Framed Piers:

These are the latest type of piers used in the bridges. In these piers the effective span length for
girders get reduced. Hence the construction will be economical. The disadvantage of these type
of piers is the accumulations of debris e.g falling trees large floating materials, etc. Column piers
or column bent:
5.3.3Classification of Bridge Piers based on Force Transfer Mechanisms

Based on the type of forces the pier is subjected to, bridge piers are classified as Fixed and Free
piers. In a most simple explanation, the piers supporting a fixed bearing are called fixed piers and
those supporting free bearings are called free piers. Fixed piers are subject to transverse and
longitudinal forces whereas free piers transfer only axial forces from the bearing to the
foundations. For multispan bridges, the number of fixed and free piers depend on the the length
of bridge, size of pier and magnitude of long & trans forces superstructure can be subjected to.
For regular multi span continuous bridges under 200-300m one fixed pier is provided.
notes4free.in
1. Explain different types of bearing?
2. Explain different types of piers?
5.5 Further Reading

1. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/lrfd/fc_9.cfm
2. https://www.scribd.com/document/185645517/Design-Example-Pier

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Design Of Bridges

1.2 Types of bridges

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 1

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 2

3. Spill channels should be properly located, marked and catered for.

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 3

8. Details of various levels is explained as below.

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 4

h = {V2/17.88 + 0.01524} x {(A/a) 2– 1}

h*1 = afflux = (Du-Dd).

1.5 Scour depth

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 5

Ygs = Ymax [(0.0685 Vm^0.8) / (Yh^0.4 Se ^0.3)-1]

1.6 Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures

Various design loads to be considered in the design of bridges are:

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 6

 IRC class AA loading

 Tracked type notes4free.in

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 7

IRC Class A Loading

IRC Class B Loading

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 8

For IRC Class AA Loading and 70R Loading

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 9

Span Vehicle type Impact factor

25% up to 5m and linearly reducing to 10% from 5

Tracked vehicle (RCC

Wheeled vehicle (RCC

Wheeled vehicle (steel

For IRC class A and class B loadings

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 10

RCC 4.5 6.0

Steel 9.0 13.50

Impact factor If = A/(B+L)

Where L = span in meters

A and B are constants

 For bed blocks, If = 0.5

Where P = pressure (kN/m2)

K = constant (value depending upon shape of pier)

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 12

To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main reinforcement should be

10. Seismic Loads

12. Erection Stresses

1.7 Assigininment Questions?

1. Explain different types of bridges

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 13

3. Explain IRC loading on Bridges?

1.8 Further study

DEPT Of CIVIL ATMECE MYSORE Page 14

2.1 Skew Bridge

2.2 Slab Bridge

2.3 Assiginiment Questions

2.4 Further Reading

Dept of Civil ,ATMECCE Page 15

Figure showing plan of skew bridge

2.2 Slab bridge

A short-span bridge consisting of a reinforced-concrete slab resting on

Dept of Civil ,ATMECCE Page 16