INTRODUCTION

Is matter around us pure of Class 9

We come across and consume a lot of things daily like milk, butter, salt, water, juice
etc. How do we judge that all these things are pure?  

For a common man pure means having no adulteration. But, for a scientist, pure
means that it contains only one type of matter or particles.

All the matter around us can be pure or impure. The matter around us is of two types
: pure substances and mixtures.

All the matter around us is not pure, in fact, matter

around us is of two types: 

SUSPENSION
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
SUSPENSION
A heterogeneous mixture of insoluble particles of solute, spread throughout a
solvent, is called a suspension. The particle size (diameter) in a suspension is more
than 10-5 cm. The particles has a tendency to settle down at the bottom of the vessel
and can be filtered out, because their size is bigger than the size of the pores of the
filter paper.

Examples:
    Milk of magnesia is a suspension of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, in water. 
 Lime water (used for white wash) is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in water. 
 Paints are suspensions of coloured substances in water or some other liquid. 
 Bleaching powder in water is also a suspension since bleaching powder is insoluble
in water. 

 The particles of suspension are visible to the naked eye.

PROPERTIES OF SUSPENSION:

 A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

 The solid particles of a suspension are so large in size (more than 10-5 cm or 10-7 m
or 100 nm) that they are visible to the naked eye.
 The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and makes its
path visible (show tyndall effect).
 The solid particles of a suspension settle down when it is allowed to stand for
sometime. In other words, a suspension is unstable.
 The particles of a suspension cannot pass through a filter paper. Thus, when a
suspension is filtered, the solid particles remain as a residue on the filter paper.
 Suspensions are either opaque or translucent.

PURIFICATION OF WATER
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
River water is normally used to supply drinking water to big cities. This water is unfit
for drinking purposes as it contains a large amount of suspended impurities and
harmful micro-organisms, such as bacteria and germs. The river water is purified in
the following stages - 

 Sedimentation tank : The water from river or lake is first passed through the
sedimentation tank. During this time, many suspended solids settle down at the
bottom of the tank. 
  Loading tank: From sedimentation tank, water is sent to the loading tank. In the
loading tank, some alum (phitkari) is added to the water. The colloidal particles of
clay present in water are negatively charged. They do not settle down in the
sedimentation tank. However, when alum is added, these negatively charged
particles get neutralized by the positively charged aluminium ions present in alum. In
this way, suspended clay particles get loaded with aluminium ions, become heavy
and settle down at the bottom of the tank.
 Filtration tank: After the removal of insoluble solids and other suspended impurities,
the water is passed through a filtration tank. The filtration tank has three layers.
coarse gravel is placed at the bottom of the tank. Above it is placed fine gravel and
on the top of gravel is placed a thick layer of fine sand. These layers of sand and
gravel act as filters. The impure water is introduced at the bottom. As the water rises
above, all the impurities present in water are retained and the pure water leaves the
tank at the top.
 Chlorination tank: The water obtained from the filtration tank is introduced into the
chlorination tank where it is treated with bleaching powder or some other germicides
to kill bacteria.

The water obtained after the above treatments is free from all types of impurities and
bacteria and is supplied to our homes for drinking purposes.

Related Topics

 Pure Substance
 Seperation of Mixture
 Seperation of Gases from Air

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

All the changes taking place around us can be classified into the following two types: 

 Physical changes and

 Chemical changes

PHYSICAL CHANGES:
Definition: A change which alters some specific physical property of the matter, like its state,
texture, magnetic or electrical conditions or its colour, without causing any change in the
composition of its molecules, is called physical change, provided it get reversed, if the cause
producing the change is removed.

Following points need special consideration:

(i) Now new or different product is formed : The composition of molecules of the
substance remains unaltered.

e.g. Melting of ice and freezing of water to form ice: When ice is heated, it melts to form
liquid water, conversely, when water is cooled in a refrigerator, it freezes to form ice. Since
both ice and liquid water are made up of same water molecules (H2O), no new substance is
formed during melting of ice and freezing of water. Hence melting of ice and freezing of
water to form ice are physical changes.

(ii) The change is temporary and reversible : It means the change can be reversed by
altering the causes which produce the change.

e.g. The water formed from ice can be changed back to ice by placing it in a freezing mixture
(a mixture of ice and common salt).

On altering the experimental conditions, the change which gets reversed, is a physical
change.

(iii) There is no net gain or loss of energy : The amount of energy required to bring about a
physical change is generally equal to the amount of energy required to reverse the change.
Thus, there is not net energy change involved.

e.g. If 1 g of water of 100oC on changing into steam needs 2260 J of heat energy, then 1 g of
steam at 100oC on changing into water at 100oC, gives out 2260 J of h eat energy. Thus, the
net energy change is zero.

(iv) There is no change in the weight of substance: During a physical change it is only the
energy which is added or removed. No matter is added during a physical change. Similarly,
no matter is removed during a physical change. Therefore, mass of the substance remains
same.

Some Examples Involving Physical Changes:

Change in Physical
Physical Change Observation
Property
The physical
1. Switching on of The bulb glows and gives out heat and light
appearance of the bulb
an electric bulb energy.
changes.
The steel rod acquired
2. Rubbing a
The steel rod gets magnetized. If it is brought the property of
permanent magnet
near iron nails, they get attracted. attracting pieces of
on a steel rod.
iron.
The brownish grey crystals of iodine change to
3. Action of heat form violet vapours. On cooling the vapours Change in state and
on iodine condense on cooler parts on the test tube to form colour.
crystals.
 The white crystalline salt disappears in water.
4. Dissolving of
However, the water tested exactly like common
common salt in Change of state.
salt. Moreover, common salt can be recovered
water
by evaporation.
Some Common Examples of Physical Changes:

 Formation of dew.
 Evaporation of water.
  Crystallisation of sugar from its solution.
 Ringing of an electric bell.
 Breaking of a glass pane.
 Making of ice cream.
  A rock rolling down a hill.
 Bending of a glass tube by heating.
  Melting of wax.
 Sublimation of camphor.

CHEMICAL CHANGES:
Those changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes. In a
chemical change, the original substances loses their chemical identity and get converted into
new substances. The new substances thus formed cannot be converted into original
substances by any physical process. Thus, chemical changes are permanent and hence it is
irreversible.

Following points needs special consideration:

(i) A chemical change results in the formation of one or more new products : The
products formed have different properties than the original substance. Thus, the composition
of the molecules of products is different from the original substance.

e.g. Heating of sugar

When sugar is gently heated in a test tube, it melts. It gradually changes to brown colour,
giving a large amount of steamy fumes. In the end a black mass is left which consists of
carbon. Thus, new substances, viz. carbon and water (steam) are formed. In this change, the
arrangement between the molecules of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen breaks. The hydrogen
and oxygen atoms separate from carbon atoms and join together to form water. The carbon
atoms are set free and are left as black residue.

Sugar   carbon + Steam

(ii) The weight of the substance undergoing chemical change usually changes:

e.g. During the heating of sugar, the weight of the black residue is far less than the actual
weight of the sugar. However, this is an apparent change in weight. If we take the weight of
steam into account and add to it the weight of carbon, then total weight will be equal to the
weight of sugar crystals. Thus, total weight of substances taking part in a chemical change
remains constant.

(iii) The chemical change is permanent and irreversible : It means the change will not
reverse by altering the experimental conditions.
e.g. The sugar, which has decomposed on heating to form carbon and steam will not change
to sugar on cooling.

(iv) During chemical change energy is either absorbed or given out : The various atoms
in a chemical compound are joined by attractive forces commonly called bonds. The making
or breaking of the bonds always requires exchange of energy. Thus, some amount of heat is
either absorbed or given out during a chemical change.

Some Examples Involving Chemical Changes:

Chemical
Observation Equation
Change
When a magnesium ribbon is heated in a
1. Burning of
flame of Bunsen burner, it catches fire and Magnesium + Oxygen   
magnesium in
burns with a dazzling white flame to form Magnesium oxide
air
white ash.
When iron (silver grey) is left exposed to
2. Rusting of Iron + Oxygen (from air) +
moist air for a few days, reddish brown
iron Water vapour   Rust
powdery mass (rust) is found on its surface
When LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) is
3. Burning of burnt, it burns with a pale blue flame and Butane (LPG) + Oxygen   
LPG liberates colourless gas carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide + Water
along with steam.
Some Common Examples  of Chemical Changes:

 Burning of wood or charcoal

 Burning of candle
 Digestion of food
 Curdling of milk
 Formation of biogas (Gobar gas)
 Burning of petrol or diesel
 Smoking of cigarette
 Drying of paint
 Rusting of iron
 Ripening of fruit
 Clotting of blood
  Fading of the colour of a dyed cloth
 Baking of cake
  Photosynthesis
  Formation of wine
 Butter turning rancid
  Decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen

(c) Difference Between Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical change Chemical Change
1. The change takes place only in the state, 1. The change takes place in the state, texture,
texture, colour, electrical or magnetic colour, electrical or magnetic properties along
properties of solubility, etc. However, with the change in its molecular properties
molecular properties (composition) do not
(i.e. its molecular arrangement changes).
change.
2. The specific properties of the substance 2. The specific properties of the substance
remain unaltered after the physical change. change completely after the chemical change.
3. Now new substances are produced. 3. Always new substances are produced.
4. There is always a change in apparent
4. There is no change in weight, if a substance
weight, when a substance undergoes a
is undergoing a physical change.
chemical change.
5. There is no net absorption or release of
5. There is always a net absorption or release
energy (such as heat or light energy) during a
of energy during a chemical change.
physical change.
6. It is temporary change and is usually 6. It is a permanent change and cannot be
reversed by removing the cause of the change. reversed by removing the cause of the change.

PURE SUBSTANCE
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
A homogeneous material which contains particles of only one kind and has a definite
set of properties is called a pure substance.

e.g. Iron, silver, oxygen, sulphur, Carbon dioxide etc., are pure substances because
each of them has only one kind of particles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PURE SUBSTANCE:

 A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.
  A pure substance has a definite set of properties.  These properties are different
from the properties of other substances.
 The composition of a pure substance cannot be altered by any physical means.

ELEMENTS:
A pure substance, which cannot be subdivided into two or more simpler substances
by any chemical means is called an element.

 Example : Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, copper, zinc, tin, lead, mercury, etc. are all
elements as they cannot be subdivided into simpler parts by any chemical means. A
substance made up of the atoms with same atomic number is called an element.
Classification of elements :
(A) On the basis of physical states, all elements can be classified into three groups :-

(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases

It has been found that:

Two elements exist as liquids at room temperature. They are mercury and bromine.

Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature. They are hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.

Remaining 102 elements are solids at room temperature.

(B) Elements can be classified as metals and non - metals. There are 22 non -
metals and 93 metals.

 Amongst the metals, only mercury is liquid metal. All other metals are solids.
 Amongst the 22 non - metals: 10 non - metals are solids. They are boron, carbon,
silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, selenium, arsenic, tellurium, iodine and astatine. 1 non-
metal, bromine, is a liquid. Find non-metals, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and
chlorine are chemically active gases. Six non-metals, helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon and radon are chemically inactive gases. These are also called noble gases or
rare gases.

Compounds :
A pure substance, which is composed of two or more elements, combined
chemically in a definite ratio, such that it can be broken into elements only by
chemical means is called compound.

The two or more elements present in a compound are called constituents or

components of the compound. For example, water is a compound of hydrogen and
oxygen, combined together in the ratio of 1 : 8 by weight. The water can be broken
into its constituents only by electro-chemical method, i.e., by passing electric current
through it.

The compounds can be further classified as acids, bases and salts. Sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, formic acid, etc. are the compounds which can be
classified as acids.

Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and calcium hydroxide can
be classified as bases. Ammonium chloride, zinc sulphate, lead nitrate and calcium
carbonate can be classified as salts. It must be pointed out that salts are formed by
the chemical reaction between acids and bases.

Impure substances/ mixtures:

A mixture is an impure substance which contains two or more different kinds of
particles (atoms or molecules).

or
A mixture is an impure substance which consists of two or more pure substances
(elements or compounds) that are present in any ratio. The pure substances in the
mixture do not react chemically.

Examples:

 Air is a mixture of various gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, inert gases (mainly
argon), carbon dioxide, water vapours etc. 
 Milk is a mixture of water, fats and proteins. 
 Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon with small amounts of nickel and chromium. 
 Salt solution is a mixture of common salt in water.  
 Gun powder is a mixture of sulphur, potassium nitrate and carbon (in the form of
charcoal).

Other examples of mixtures are: sugar solution, petrol, coal, soil, paints, glass, wood,
dyes, soft drinks (coke, pepsi, limca etc), lemonade, face-cream, shaving cream,
smoke, fog, mist etc. 

 The various substances present in a mixture are known as “constituents or

components of a mixture”.
  Since the constituents of a mixture do not combine chemically, they can be
separated by physical methods.
 All the solutions are mixtures, but all mixtures are not solutions.

Types of mixtures:
Mixtures are of two types: 

Homogeneous Mixtures: A mixture is said to be Homogeneous if all the

components of the mixture are completely mixed together and are indistinguishable
from one another. 

In other words, a homogeneous mixture consists of only one phase. The single
phase of the Homogeneous mixture may be a liquid, gas or solid.

A mixture of two or more miscible liquids is also a Homogeneous mixture in

the liquid phase, for example, a solution of alcohol and water, is a
Homogeneous mixture. Similarly, petrol, kerosene oil and diesel are
homogeneous mixtures of a number of liquid hydrocarbons.
Examples:

 A solution of sugar in water is a Homogeneous mixture in the liquid phase. 

 Air is a Homogeneous mixture of a number of gases. 
 Alloys are Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals in the solid phase. For
example, brass is an alloy of Zn(30%) and Cu(70%).

Some more examples of Homogeneous mixtures are common salt solution, copper
sulphate solution, sea water, lemonade, German silver, bronze, vinegar etc. 

All the Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if all the components of the mixture are not
thoroughly mixed and are distinguishable from one another.

In other words, heterogeneous mixtures have two or more distinct phases. 

Examples:

  A mixture of sugar and sand is a heterogeneous mixture, because different parts of

the mixture will have different sugar-sand compositions. 
 Gun powder is a heterogeneous mixture of three solids i.e., sulphur, charcoal and
potassium nitrate. 
 Suspension of solids in liquids is a heterogeneous mixture, e.g. a suspension of
chalk particles or sand in water is a heterogeneous mixture. 
 A mixture of two immiscible liquids is also a heterogeneous mixture, e.g. a mixture of
petrol and water is a heterogeneous mixture because petrol and water do not mix
and hence form two separate layers. Some more examples of heterogeneous
mixtures are: polluted air, soap solution, milk, ink, paint, glass, soil, dyes, muddy river
water, flour in water, butter, milk of magnesia, cheese, face cream, shaving cream,
hair spray, fog and mist etc. 

Most of the mixtures are heterogeneous, only

solutions and alloys are Homogeneous mixtures.
Heterogeneous mixture consist of more than one
phase.

                      Mixtures                       Compounds
1. Nature 1. Nature

In a mixture, two or more elements or In a compound, two or more elements unit

compounds are mixed, such that they do chemically.
not combine chemically.
2. Structure
2. Structure
Compounds have a definite structure.
Mixture does not have a definite
structure.
3. Composition
3. Compositions
In case of mixture, their constituents
can be present in any ratio, i.e., they In case of a compound the constituents are present
have variable composition. in a fixed ratio by weight.

4. Properties 4. Properties

The constituents of a mixture retain The properties of a compound are entirely different
their individual physical and chemical from the properties of its constituents.
properties.
5. Separation of constituents
5. Separation of constituents
The constituents of a compound can not be
The constituents of a mixture can be separated by physical means.
separated by physical means.
6. Energy changes
6. Energy changes
During the formation of a compound energy is either
During the formation of mixtures, no absorbed or released, i.e., compound is the result of
energy changes take place, i.e., it is a a chemical change.
result of physical change.
Experiment to illustrate the concept of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures: 

  Let us divide the class into groups A, B, C, and D.

 Group A takes a beaker containing 50 mL of water and one spatula full of copper
sulphate powder. Group B takes 50 mL of water and two spatula full of copper
sulphate powder in a beaker.
 Groups C and D can take different amounts of copper sulphate and potassium
permanganate or common salt (sodium chloride) and mix the given components to
form a mixture.
 Report the observations on the uniformity in colour and texture.

Discussion :

 Both groups A and B have obtained homogeneous mixtures since the composition of
these mixtures or solutions is uniform throughout.
 Although both the groups have obtained copper sulphate solutions but the intensity of
colour of the two solutions is different. The intensity of blue colour in the solution
obtained by group B which contains two spatula full of copper sulphate is much
higher than the solution obtained by group A which contains one spatula full of
copper sulphate.
 Both groups C and D have obtained heterogeneous mixtures since they not only
have distinct boundaries but also their composition is not uniform.

Conclusion:

 Soluble substances such as copper sulphate, common salt or sugar when dissolved
in water form homogeneous mixtures whose composition depend upon the amount of
the substance dissolved.
  When two or more insoluble solids which do not react chemically are mixed, they
always form heterogeneous mixtures.

Differences between Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures 

Homogeneous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures
1. They have a uniform composition 1. They contain physically distinct parts and
throughout their mass. have non-uniform compositions.

2. They consist of only one phase. 2. They consist of more than one phase.

3. They have no visible boundaries of 3. They have visible boundaries of separation

separation between its constituents. between its different constituents.
Properties of mixtures:

 A mixture may be Homogeneous or heterogeneous. 

 The composition of a mixture is variable. 
 A mixture does not have a definite melting point or a boiling point.
 Energy is neither absorbed nor evolved during the formation of a mixture. 
 The properties of a mixture are the properties of its constituents.

REASONS OF AIR AS A MIXTURE

Is matter around us pure of Class 9
Reasons of air as a mixture
 Composition of air is not same at all places. The percentage of oxygen
decreases in the air at higher altitudes. Similarly, the air in industrial areas has
more amount of carbon dioxide gas and other polluting gases as compared to
air in the countryside.
 The main constituents of air can be separated by physical methods, such as
liquiykfaction and fractional distillation.
  No chemical action takes place when the constituents of air, i.e., oxygen,
nitrogen, water vapour and carbon dioxide are mixed. Thus, no heat or light
energy is evolved or absorbed, when its constituents are mixed.
 Each of the constituent of air retains its physical and chemical properties. For
example, oxygen helps in combustion, carbon dioxide lowly turns limewater
milky, etc.

REASONS OF WATER AS A COMPOUND

Is matter around us pure of Class 9
Reasons of water as a compound
  The composition of pure water is same throughout. It always contains one
part of hydrogen and eight parts of oxygen by weight.
  The constituents of water cannot be separated by physical means. However,
by electrochemical means water can be decomposed into hydrogen and
oxygen.
 Chemical reaction takes place with the liberation of heat and light energy
when one part of hydrogen combines with the eight parts of oxygen by weight.
 The properties of water are entirely different from the properties of its
constituents. For example, hydrogen is a combustible gas, oxygen in
supporter of combustion, but their compound water extinguishes fire.

REASONS OF ALLOYS AS MIXTURES

Is matter around us pure of Class 9
Reasons of alloys as mixtures
Though the alloys are homogeneous mixture of metals which cannot be separated
by any physical means, yet they are regarded mixtures on account of the following
reasons :

 The composition of constituent metals can be varied in an alloy. For example,

brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. If an alloy has 60% of copper and rest of
zinc or 58% of copper and rest of zinc, in either case it is brass.
 The individual metals in any alloy retain their chemical and physical
properties. For example, if brass is treated with dilute sulphuric acid, then zinc
in it reacts to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen, but copper does not react

Ex.1 Classify the following into homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures : Soda

water, Wood, Air, Soil, Vinegar, Filtered tea.

Solution:  Homogeneous mixture: Soda water, Air, Vinegar, Filtered tea.

Heterogeneous mixture: Wood, Soil

Ex.2 Paints often need to be stirred thoroughly before use. Why?

Solution: Paints are suspensions. On keeping for longer periods, they tend to settle
down. Therefore, to bring the settled particles in the colloidal state, paints are often
stirred thoroughly before use.

SOLUTIONS
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
SOLUTIONS
A homogeneous mixtures of two or more substance is called a solution. Usually, we think of
solution as a liquid that contains either a solid or a liquid dissolve in liquid. However, this is
not true. We can also have solid-solid solution, solid-liquid solution, liquid-liquid solution
and liquid-gas solution.

For example, lemonade is a solution of sugar, salt and lemon juice in water. These four
components of solution do not react with each other since each constituent has its own taste
in the lemonade. In other words, lemonade tastes the same throughout, which shows that,
there is homogeneity at the particle level in the solution so that, particles of sugar or salt are
evenly distributed in the solution. 

Components of a solution: A solution has solvent and solute as its constituents which are
defined below:

SOLVENT:
The component of solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually present in larger
quantity) is called the solvent. 

Ex. In the solution of copper sulphate in water, water is the solvent. Similarly, in paints,
turpentine oil is the solvent.

SOLUTE:
The component of the solution which is present in small proportion is called solute.

Ex. In the solution of common salt in water, the common salt is solute. Similarly, in
carbonated drinks (soda water), carbon dioxide gas in the solute.

 Examples of Solutions:

 Solid - Solid solutions : All alloys are solid solutions of metals. Brass is a solid solution of
approximately 30% of zinc and 70% of copper. In this solid solution, copper (larger
component) is solvent and zinc (smaller component) is solute. Similarly, Bell Metal is a solid
solution of 80% of copper and 20% of tin, in which copper is the solvent and tin is the solute.
 Solid - Liquid solutions: Sugar solution is an example, in which sugar is the solute and water
is the solvent. Similarly, common salt solution is an example, in which common salt is the
solute and water is the solvent. In case of tincture of iodine, iodine is the solute and ethyl
alcohol is the solvent.
  Liquid - Liquid solutions: In case of an alcoholic drink, ethyl alcohol is solute and water is
solvent. Similarly, in case of vinegar, acetic acid is solute and water is solvent.
 Liquid - Gas solutions: In case of aerated drinks (soda water), carbon dioxide is the solute
and water is the solvent.
 Gas - Gas solutions: Air is a homogeneous mixtures of two main gases, i.e., 78% of nitrogen
and 21% of oxygen. In this mixture, nitrogen is solvent and oxygen is solute. Similarly, the
petrol fed into the engines of automobiles is a mixture of petrol vapour and air.
SOLID SOLUTIONS:
In these solutions, solid acts as the solvent, while solute can be either a solid, liquid or gas.
Hence solid solutions are further classified into three categories:  

  Solution of solid in solid: Metal alloys are the solutions of solids in solids, e.g., brass is a
solution of zinc in copper. In this solution, copper (solid) acts as solvent and zinc (solid) acts
as a solute.    
 Solution of liquid in solid: Hydrated salts (salts containing water of crystallization) such as
hydrated copper sulphate (blue vitriol), hydrated ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) etc. are the
examples of liquid in solid solutions. 
 Solution of gas in solid: Gases adsorbed on the surface of metals like nickel, platinum etc. are
the examples of gas in solid solutions.  

LIQUID SOLUTIONS:
In these solutions, liquid acts as solvent, while solute can be either a solid, liquid or a gas.
Hence liquid solutions are further classified into three categories : 

 Solution of solid in liquid: A solution of sugar in water is an example of solid in liquid

solution. Here, sugar (solid) is the solute and water (liquid) is the solvent. Similarly, a
solution of iodine in alcohol known as tincture of iodine has iodine (solid) as the solute and
alcohol (liquid) as the solvent. Thus, it is an example of solid in liquid solution. 
  Solution of liquid in liquid : A solution of alcohol in water is an example of liquid in liquid
solution.  Here, alcohol (liquid) is the solute and water (liquid) is the solvent. 
 Solution of gas in liquid : Aerated drinks like soda water etc. are gas in liquid solutions.
These contain CO2 (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as solvent.

GASEOUS SOLUTIONS:
In these solutions, gas acts as the solvent while, solute may be a solid, liquid or gas. Hence,
gas solutions are further classified into three categories: 

 Solution of solid in gas: Iodine or camphor in air are the examples of solid in gas solutions.
Here, camphor or iodine (solid) is the solute while air (gas) is the solvent. 
 Solution of liquid in gas : Clouds, fog, mist etc. are the examples of liquid in gas solutions.
Here, water drops (liquid solute) are dispersed in air (gas solvent).
 Solution of gas in gas : Air is a solution of gas in gas. Air is a Homogeneous mixture of many
gases. Its two main gases are oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%). The other gases are present
in very small quantities. Thus, in air, nitrogen gas (with larger amount) acts as the solvent
while other gases (with smaller amount) act as the solute.
The nine types of solutions discussed above are summarized in the following table:

Name of the
Solute Solvent Examples
solution
Solid solutions:

1. Solid in solid Solid Solid Alloys like brass, bronze, German silver, etc.

 
2. Liquid in Liqui Hydrated crystals such as blue vitriol (hydrated copper
Solid
solid d sulphate).
Gases adsorbed over the surface of metals (such as nickel,
3. Gas in solid Gas Solid
palladium, platinum, etc.) under pressure.
Liquid
solutions:
Solid Liquid Sugar, common salt or other salts dissolved in water.
4. Solid in
liquid
5. Liquid in Liqui Mixture of two miscible liquids such as acetone and water,
Liquid
liquid d alcohol and water, etc.
Aerated drinks (here carbon dioxide is dissolved in water
6. Gas in liquid Gas Liquid
under pressure).
Gaseous
solutions:
Solid Gas Camphor in air or iodine in air.
7. Solid in gas
Liqui Clouds and fog [here, water drops (liquid) are dispersed in
8. Liquid in gas Gas
d gas (air)].
Air is a mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
9. Gas in gas Gas Gas
dioxide, inert gases, etc.
 

TRUE SOLUTION
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
A solution in which particles of the solute are broken down to such a fine state, that
they cannot be seen under a powerful microscope is called a true solution.

Characteristics of a True Solution :

 A true solution is always clear and transparent, i.e., light can easily pass through it
without scattering.
 The particles of a solute break down to almost molecular size and their diameter is of
the order of 1 nm (10-9 m) or less.
 A true solution can completely pass through a filter paper as particle size of solute is
far smaller than the size of pores of filter paper.
  A true solution is homogeneous in nature.
   In a true solution, the particles of solute do not settle down, provided temperature is
constant.
 From a true solution, the solute can easily be recovered by evaporation or
crystallisation.

Concentration of a Solution : 
It is defined as the amount of solute present in a given quantity of the solution. The
most common method for expressing the concentration of a solution is called
percentage method. The concentration of solution refers to the percentage of solute
present in solution. Furthermore, the percentage of solute can be expressed in terms
of :

 mass of the solute

 volume of the solute.
 Concentration of a solution in terms of mass percentage of solute : If a solution is
formed by dissolving a solid solute in a liquid solvent then the concentration of
solution is expressed in terms of mass percentage of solute and is defined as under :

The concentration of solution is the mass of the solute is grams, which is present in
100 g of a solution.

The percentage concentration of a solution refers to mass of solute in 100 g of

solution and not 100g of solvent, i.e., water.

The concentration of a solution in terms of mass percentage of solute is calculated

by the formula given below :

Concentration of solution 

(ii) Concentration of a solution in terms of volume percentage of solute : If a solution

is formed by dissolving a liquid solute in a liquid solvent, then the concentration of
the solution is expressed in terms of volume percentage of solute. The concentration
of a solution is the volume of the solute in milliners, which is present in 100 milliliters
of a solution.

It is very important to keep in mind that the percentage concentration of solution

refers to volume of solute in 100 ml of solution and not 100 ml of solvent, i.e., water.

The concentration of a solution in terms of volume percentage of the solute is

calculated by the formula given below :
Concentration of solution 

Saturated, Unsaturated and Supersaturated Solutions:

A solution, in which no more solute can be dissolved at that temperature, is called a
saturated solution.

A solution, in which more quantity of solute can be dissolved without raising its
temperature, is called an unsaturated solution. 

A solution which temporarily contains more solute than the saturation level (i.e.
maximum solute) at a particular temperature, is called a supersaturated solution. 

Test for saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions:

In order to test, whether a given solution is saturated or unsaturated, add some more
solute to this solution and try to dissolve by stirring with glass rod keeping
temperature constant. If more solute does not dissolve in the given solution, then it
must be a saturated solution and if more solute dissolves, it must be an unsaturated
solution. 

On the other hand, supersaturated solution can be easily distinguished from the
saturated solution simply by adding a few crystals of solute dissolved. If the
precipitation of some additional solute occurs, it is a supersaturated solution;
otherwise it is a saturated solution. 

Ex.1 What is the meaning of 15% solution of NaCl ?

Solution: 15% solution of NaCl is a solution 100 g of which contains 15 g of NaCl

and 85 g of water.

Ex.2 Calculate the amount of glucose required to prepare 250 g of 5% solution of

glucose by mass.

Solution:  % of solute 

  

Mass of solute =
Ex.3 A solution contains 50 mL of alcohol mixed with 150 mL of water. Calculate
concentration of this solution.

Solution: This solution contains a liquid solute (alcohol) mixed with a liquid solvent
(water), so we have to calculate the concentration of this solution in terms of volume
percentage of solute (alcohol). Now, we know that:

Concentration of solution 

Here, Volume of solute (alcohol) = 50  mL

And. Volume of solvent (water) = 150 mL

So, Volume of solution = Volume of solute + Volume of solvent

= 50 + 150 = 200 mL

Now, putting these values of ‘volume of solute’ and ‘volume of solution’ in the above
formula we get :

Concentration of solution   percent (by volume)

Thus, the concentration of this alcohol solution is 25 per cent or that it is a 25%.

Ex.4 How much water should be added to 16 ml acetone to make its concentration

48%?

Solution:  Concentration of solution 

x =   × 100 = 33.33 ml

Volume of solvent = 33.33 - 16 = 17.33 ml.

SOLUBILITY:
The maximum amount of solute which can be dissolved in 100 gms of a solvent at a
specified temperature is known as the solubility of that solute in that solvent (at that
temperature).
e.g. A maximum of 36 gms of common salt (NaCl) can be dissolved in 100 g. of
water at 20°C (or 293 K). Therefore, the solubility of common salt in water at 20°C is
36 g.

Different substances have different solubilities in the same solvent. Let us

understand with the help of an experiment :  

 Take approximately 50 mL of water each in two separate beakers.

 Add common salt in one beaker and sugar or barium chloride in the second beaker
with continuous stirring.
  When no more solute can be dissolved, heat the contents of the beaker.
 Start adding the solute again.
 Is the amount of common salt and sugar or barium chloride, that can be dissolved in
water at a given temperature, the same?
 What would happen if you were to take a saturated solution at a certain temperature
and cool it slowly?

Discussion:

 The amounts of common salt, sugar and barium chloride that can be dissolved in
water (50 mL) at room temperature are different.
 When a saturated solution at a certain temperature is cooled, the solubility decreases
and the amount of the solute which exceeds the solubility at lower temperature
crystallizes out of the solution.

Conclusion: Different substances have different solubilities in a given solvent at the

same temperature and, in general, the solubility decreases as the solution is cooled
and the extra amount of solute crystallizes out.

Ex. 2.5 g of a solute is dissolved in 25 g of water to form a saturated solution at 298

K. Find out the solubility of the solute at this temperature.

Solution:  Mass of the solute = 2.5 g

Mass of the solvent = 25 g

 ∴ Solubility of the solute =

COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
Solutions in which the size of the particles lie in between those of true solutions and
suspensions are called colloidal solutions or simply colloids. 
Though colloids appear to be homogeneous to us, but actually they are found to be
heterogeneous. So, colloid is not a true solution, therefore, to distinguish it from the
true solution, the term sol is used in place of solution (i.e. colloidal sol).

Examples of Colloidal Solutions:

Few examples of colloidal solutions are as follows:

➢ blood ➢ Milk ➢ Writing ink ➢ Jelly

➢ Starch solution ➢ Gum solution ➢ Tooth paste ➢ Soap solution

➢ Liquid detergents ➢ Mist and fog

DISPERSED PHASE AND DISPERSION MEDIUM:

Components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed phase and the dispersion
medium.

The solute like component which has been dispersed or distributed throughout a
solvent-like medium is called the dispersed phase or the discontinuous phase. 

The solvent like medium in which the dispersed phase has been distributed or
dispersed is called the dispersion medium or the continuous phase.

 In true solution, the solute and the solvent are present in one single phase but in
colloidal solutions, they are present in two separate phases.

TYPES OF COLLOIDS:
Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the dispersion
medium and the dispersed phase. A few examples are given in table as follows:

Common examples of colloids:

Dispersed phase Dispersion Medium Type Example

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream

Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud

Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass

PROPERTIES OF A COLLOID:

 Heterogeneous Nature: A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture. 

 Size of particles: Size (diameter) of particles in a colloid lies in the range 1–100

nm   i.e. in between those of true solutions and suspensions.    

 Stability: Colloidal sols are quite stable i.e., colloidal particles do not settle when left
undisturbed. 
 Visibility: Colloidal particles are not visible to the naked eye. 
 Filterability: Colloidal particles cannot be separated from the dispersion medium by
filtration. However, a special technique of separation known as centrifugation can be
used to separate the colloidal particles. 
 Tyndall effect : The colloidal particles are big enough to scatter light passing
through it. As a result, the path of light becomes visible. This scattering of beam of
light by colloidal particles is called the ‘Tyndall effect’. Lets understand -

When the beam of light from a torch is passed through a true solution of copper
sulphate, Tyndall effect is not observed, i.e., the path of light is not visible (Figure a)
However, when the same light is passed through a mixture of water and milk, Tyndall
effect is observed and the path of light becomes visible (Figure b). The reason for
this observation is that the particles of a true solution are so small that they do not
scatter light and hence the path of light is not visible, i.e., Tyndall effect is not
observed. In contrast, the particles of a colloidal solution are big enough to scatter
light and hence path of light becomes visible, i.e., the Tyndall effect is observed.
  (a) Solution of copper sulphate does not show Tyndall effect
 (b) Mixture of water and milk shows Tyndall effect.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRUE SOLUTIONS

AND COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRUE SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
True Solutions Colloidal Solutions
1. The particle size is less than 10  cm.
–9
1. The particle size is in between 10-7 cm to 10-
5
 cm
2. The particles are not visible under
powerful optical microscope.
2. The particles are visible under a microscope.
3. The particles of a true solution can be
3. The particles of a colloidal solution cannot be
recovered by evaporation and
recovered by evaporation and crystallization.
crystallization.
4. The particles of a colloidal solution scatter
4. The particles of a true solution do not
light.
scatter light.
5. Colloidal solutions are translucent.
5. True solutions are clear and transparent.
6. Colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in
6. True solutions are homogeneous in
nature.
nature.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLLOIDAL

SOLUTIONS AND SUSPENSIONS
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS AND SUSPENSIONS
Colloidal Solutions Suspensions
1. The size of particles of solute is in
between   10-7 cm to 10-5 cm. 1. The size of particles of suspension is more than
10-5 cm.
2. The particles of solute do not settle
down when  2. The particles of suspension settle down when a
suspension is allowed to stand.
 a colloidal solution is allowed to stand.
3. The particles of suspension can easily be
3. The particles of solute cannot be filtered out.
filtered out.
4. The particles of suspension are visible to
4. The particles of solute are not visible to unaided eye.
unaided eye.

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE
Is matter around us pure of Class 9
SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE
Different methods or techniques are used to separate the individual components of a
mixture, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous. There can be three cases :

 mixture of two solids

 mixture of a solid and a liquid
 mixture of two liquids

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS:

All the mixtures containing two solid substances can be separated by one of the
following methods:

 By using a suitable solvent

 By the process of sublimation
 By using a magnet

Separation by a Suitable Solvent:

In some cases, one constituent of a mixture is soluble in a particular liquid solvent
whereas the other constituent is insoluble in it. This difference in the solubilities of
the constituents of a mixture can be used to separate them. For example, sugar is
soluble in water whereas sand is insoluble in it, so a mixture of sugar and sand can
be separated by mixing them in water as solvent.

Separation by Sublimation
The change of a solid directly into vapours on heating, and of vapours into solid on
cooling is called sublimation. The process of sublimation is used to separate those
substances from a mixture which sublime on heating. The substances like
ammonium chloride, iodine, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene sublime on
heating and can be recovered in the form of a sublimate by cooling their vapours. Let
us perform an activity to separate a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride by
sublimation.

Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) undergoes sublimation whereas salt (NaCl) does not
undergo sublimation. Hence, on heating in a china dish, only ammonium chloride
changes directly from solid to gaseous state and thus its vapours are deposited on
the stem of the inverted funnel due to cooling as shown in figure. Pure NH 4Cl is, thus
separated by sublimation whereas, the salt (NaCl) is left behind in the China dish.

Separation of Ammonium chloride by sublimation

Separation by a Magnet:
Iron is attracted by a magnet. This property of iron is used to separate it from a
mixture. So, if a mixture contains iron as one of the constituents, it can be separated
by using a magnet. For example, a mixture of iron filings and sulphur powder can be
separated by using a magnet. This is because iron filings are attracted by a magnet
(and stick to it), but sulphur is not attracted by a magnet.

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE OF A SOLID AND A LIQUID:

All the mixtures containing a solid and a liquid are separated by one of the following
processes:

 By filtration
 By centrifugation 
 By evaporation
 By crystallization
 By chromatography

Separation by Filtration:
The process of removing insoluble solids from a liquid by using a filter paper is
known as filtration. Filtration is used for separating insoluble substances from a
liquid. A mixture of chalk and water is separated by filtration. A mixture of sand and
water can also be separated by filtration. The tea-leaves are separated from
prepared tea by the method of filtration.

Separation by Centrifugation:
The method of separating finely suspended particles in a liquid, by whirling the liquid
at a very high speed is called centrifugation.

 Separation of cream from milk : The process of centrifuging in employed in

separating cream from milk. This process is generally employed in separating
colloidal solutions which easily pass through the filter paper.
 Principle of centrifugation : It is based on the principle that when a very fine
suspension or a colloidal solution is whirled rapidly, then the heavier particles are
forced towards the bottom of liquid and the lighter stay at the top.

Method :

  Pour full cream milk in the test tube with a pivot in your laboratory centrifuge.
 Shut the lid of the centrifuge and switch on the current. When the centrifuge starts
working, the tub containing milk swings out in the horizontal position and whirls
around its axis at a high speed.
  The centrifuge pull (the outward pull) pushes the heavier particles outward, i.e.,
towards the bottom of the mixture. Thus, the heavier particles of the proteins,
carbohydrates, etc. are pushed towards the bottom of the tube, but the lighter
particles of the fat stay near the top of the tube and hence separate.

Applications of centrifugation:

  It is employed in milk dairies to separate cream from the milk.

  It is employed in diagnostic laboratories in testing urine samples.
  It is employed in blood banks to separate different constituents of blood.
  It is used in drying machines to squeeze out water from the wet clothes.

Separation by Evaporation:
By Evaporation :

  Separation of coloured components (dye) from blue black ink : The process of
evaporation is suitable for the separation of non-volatile soluble solid (dye) from its
liquid solvent (water).

Method :

 Heat sand in an iron vessel by placing it over a tripod stand. This arrangement is
called sand bath.
 Place a china dish on the sand bath. Pour about 5 cc of the ink into the china dish.
  Heat gently evaporates water from the ink such that it does not boil. In a few minutes
the water evaporates leaving behind dry blue black ink. Method of evaporation is
suitable for the following solid-liquid mixtures.

Solid liquid Mixture Non-volatile Solid Liquid

Common salt and water Common salt Water
Sodium nitrate and water Sodium nitrate Water
Copper sulphate and
Copper sulphate Water
water

Purification by Crystallisation:
The process of cooling hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain crystals
(purest form of a substance having definite geometrical shapes) is called
crystallization. Let us perform an activity to obtain pure copper sulphate from an
impure sample by crystallization method.

Procedure: Take about 5g of impure sample of copper sulphate and dissolve it in

minimum amount of water in a china dish to make copper sulphate solution. Filter the
impurities out. Heat the copper sulphate solution gently on water bath to evaporate
water and obtain a saturated solution. Then stop heating. Allow the hot, saturated
solution of copper sulphate to cool slowly, for a day. 

Observation and Discussion: Crystals of pure copper sulphate are formed by

leaving the impurities behind in the solution. This is because, when a saturated
solution of copper sulphate is allowed to cool, crystals of copper sulphate separate
out. All these crystals have a definite shape and hence look alike. We can separate
these crystals from the liquid by the process of filtration and then dry.

Conclusion: When a saturated solution of a substance is allowed to cool, crystals of

the substance having definite geometrical shapes separate out. 

Application of crystallization: Crystallization can be used to purify : 

 Salt that we get from sea water. 

 Alum (Phitkari), copper sulphate, nitre (potassium nitrate) etc., from impure samples. 

Advantages of crystallization over evaporation:

Crystallization is a better technique than ‘evaporation to dryness’ because of the
following reasons:
  Some solids (like sugar) decompose or get charred on heating to dryness during
evaporation.
 The soluble impurities do not get removed in the process of evaporation. But such
impurities get removed in crystallization.

Separation by Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique of separating two (or more) dissolved solids which
are present in a solution in very small quantities. Let us perform an activity to obtain
different dyes from black ink by chromatography.

The dye in the black ink is not a single colour, but it is a mixture of 2 or 3 colours. In
other words, black ink is a mixture of different colour dyes (solute) in water (solvent),
which can be easily identified with the help of paper chromatography. 

Paper chromatography is the technique used for separation of those solutes that
dissolve in same solvent. The separation by this technique is based upon the
principle that though, two (or more) solutes are soluble in the same solvent, but their
solubilities may be different.

Procedure : Take a thin strip of filter paper. Draw a line on it with a pencil nearly 3cm
above the lower edge. Put a small drop of black ink with the help of pen at the centre
of line and let it dry. Suspend the filter paper into a glass containing water so that
spot of ink on the paper is just above the water level (figure). Leave it undisturbed for
some time. 

Observation : The water gradually rises up the filter paper by capillary action and
different coloured dyes present in the ink get separated as shown in figure. 

Separation of different coloured dyes by chromatography

Discussion : As water rises up the filter paper, it takes along with it dye particles
present in ink. Since, ink is a mixture of two or more coloured dyes, the dye which is
more soluble in water, rises faster and produces a coloured spot on the paper at a
higher position. 
The less soluble dyes present dissolve a little later, rise slower and form coloured
spots at lower heights. In this way all the dyes present in black ink get separated (by
forming separate coloured spots).

Conclusion : Separation of different coloured dyes present in black ink occurs on a

chromatographic paper due to their different solubilities in water. 

Hence, from above experiment we conclude that, the dye in black ink is not a single
colour, but a mixture of 2 or 3 colours. 

 The paper with different coloured spots at different heights is called chromatogram.

Application of chromatography:

 Separation of coloured substances present in dyes. 

 Separation of pigments from natural colours. 
 Separation of drugs from blood. 
 Monitoring the progress of a reaction. 
 Separation of amino acids obtained by hydrolysis of proteins. 

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE OF TWO (OR MORE) LIQUIDS:

All the mixtures containing two (or more) liquids can be separated by one of the
following two methods :

 By the process of distillation.

 By using a separating funnel.

Separation by Distillation

Distillation is the process of heating a liquid to form vapour, and then cooling the
vapour to get back liquid. Distillation can be represented as :

The distillation method is of two types:

 Simple distillation method 

 Fractional distillation method

Separation of a mixture of miscible liquids is done either by simple distillation method

or by fractional distillation method.
 Those liquids which mix together in all proportions and form a single layer
(when put in a container), are called miscible liquids. Alcohol and water are
miscible liquids because they mix together in all proportions and form a single
layer on mixing (The scientific name of common alcohol is ethanol). Water
and acetone are also miscible liquids (The scientific name of acetone is
propanone).

Those liquids which do not mix with each other and form separate layers
(when put in a container), are called immiscible liquids. Oil and water are
immiscible liquids because they do not mix with each other, and form separate
layers on mixing (oil can be mustard oil, groundnut oil, kerosene oil, etc).
Petrol and water are also immiscible liquids.
(a) Separation of a mixture of two miscible liquids by simple distillation method

Simple distillation method is used for the separation of components of a mixture

containing two or more miscible liquids which boil without decomposition and have
sufficient difference (30–50K) in their boiling points. Let us perform an activity to
separate a mixture of two miscible liquids like acetone (B.P. 329 K) and water (B.P.
273K) by simple distillation method.

Procedure : Take the miscible mixture of acetone and water in a distillation flask. Fit
it with a thermometer. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure. Heat the mixture
gently noticing the temperature in the thermometer.

Separation by simple distillation method

Observation : Acetone vaporizes, condenses in the condenser and can be collected

from the condenser outlet. Water is left behind in the distillation flask. 
Discussion :  When the mixture is heated, the vapours of substance having the low
boiling point i.e. vapours of acetone are first formed. These travel upwards. On
passing through the condenser, they get condensed to form liquid acetone (called
distillate) which is collected in the beaker.

 The liquid obtained by condensing the vapour is called ‘distillate’

Conclusion : Separation of the components of a mixture containing two miscible

liquids which boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference (30-50 K) in
their boiling points can be separated out by simple distillation. This is because at the
boiling point of each liquid, the vapours almost entirely consist of that liquid.

Application of simple distillation

The technique of distillation can be used to separate:

 a mixture of ether (b.p. 308 K) and toluene (b.p. 384 K).

 a mixture of hexane (b.p. 342 K) and toluene (b.p. 384 K).
 a mixture of benzene (b.p. 353 K) and aniline (b.p. 457 K) or nitrobenzene (b.p. 483
K)

(b) Separation of mixture of two or more miscible liquids by fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is the process of separating two (or more) miscible liquids by
distillation, the distillate being collected in fractions, boiling at different temperatures.
The separation of two liquids by fractional distillation depends on the difference in
their boiling points. Fractional distillation is carried out by using a fractionating
column.

Similarly, different gases from air and different fractions (like kerosene, petrol and
diesel etc.) from petroleum products, are also separated by fractional distillation. 

Fractional distillation is carried out using a fractionating column which is fitted in

between the distillation flask and the condenser as shown in figure. Fractionating
column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for the
vapours to cool and condense repeatedly.

The actual purpose of the fractionating column is to increase the cooling

surface area and to provide hurdles or obstructions to the ascending vapours
and descending liquids.

(i) Let us perform an activity to separate a mixture of two miscible liquids alcohol and
water by Fractional distillation.
Separation by fractional distillation method

Alcohol (or ethanol), and water are miscible liquids. The boiling point of alcohol is
780C and the boiling point of water is 1000C. Since the boiling points of alcohol and
water are different, therefore, a mixture of alcohol and water can be separated by
fractional distillation. The apparatus used for fractional distillation of alcohol and
water mixture is shown in figure.

The mixture of alcohol and water is heated in a distillation flask fitted with a
fractionating column. When the mixture is heated, both alcohol and water form
vapours as their boiling points approach. The alcohol vapour and water vapour rise
up in the fractionating column. The upper part of the fractionating column is cooler,
so as the hot vapours rise up in the column, they get cooled, condense and trickle
back into the distillation flask. As the experiment goes on, the fractionating column
warms up due to the heat released by the condensed vapours. After some time, a
temperature gradient is created in the fractionating column, the temperature at the
top of the column being much less than at its bottom.

When the temperature at the top of the fractionating column reaches 78 0C (which is
the boiling point of alcohol), then alcohol vapour passes into the condenser, gets
cooled and collects in a beaker kept at the other end of the condenser. In this way,
all the alcohol distils over and gets separated. It is collected as the first fraction.

Having collected the alcohol fraction, the flask is heated more strongly so that the
thermometer shows a temperature of 1000C, which is the boiling point of water.
When the temperature at the top of the fractionating column becomes 100 0C, water
vapour passes into the condenser, gets cooled and condenses. This pure water is
collected in another beaker as the second fraction. Heating is continued till all the
water distils over. In this way, the alcohol-water mixture has been separated into two
fractions boiling at 780C and 1000C, respectively.

Fractional distillation separates the various liquids according to their boiling

points : the more volatile liquid (having lower boiling point) distils over first,
and the less volatile liquid (having higher boiling point) distils over later.

(ii) We can obtain different gases from air by fractional distillation.  

Air is a Homogeneous mixture of a number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen,

argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon, krypton and xenon. The major components of
air are : nitrogen (78.03%), oxygen (20.09%) and argon (0.93%). All the remaining
gases of air constitute only 0.05%.

The various gases of air are separated from one another by the fractional distillation
of liquid air. For this purpose, air is first compressed by increasing the pressure and
then cooled by decreasing the temperature to get liquid air (liquid air is an extremely
cold liquid which contains all the component gases in liquid form). The liquid air is
then subjected to fractional distillation (or allowed to warm up slowly in a fractional
distillation column). As a result, the various liquified gases present in it, boil off at
different temperatures (according to their boiling points) and collected separately at
different heights in the fractional distillation column. 

Since the boiling point of nitrogen is lowest, i.e., –196°C or 77 K, therefore, it gets
distilled first of all, followed by argon with boiling point –186°C or 87 K, while oxygen
has the highest boiling point i.e. –183°C or 90 K, therefore, it gets distilled last of all. 

The flow chart for the separation of gases of air is shown:

The actual apparatus used for separation of gases is shown in figure. 

Separation of different gases from air by fractional distillation method

By Separating Funnel:
Separation of mixture of two immiscible liquids: The separation of two
immiscible liquid is based on the difference in their densities. The apparatus used for
separation is separating funnel. It is a long glass tube provided with a tap at its
bottom. The tale bellow shows different immiscible liquids which can be separated by
separating funnel.

Immiscible 
Heavier Liquid Lighter Liquid
Liquid-liquid Mixture
Benzene and water Water Benzene
Kerosene oil and water Water Kerosene oil
Turpentine oil and
Water Turpentine oil
water
Chloroform and water Chloroform Water
Mustard oil and water Water Mustard oil
Method :

 Close the tap of separating funnel and clamp it in a vertical position in an iron stand.
 Pour the immiscible liquid mixture (say benzene-water mixture) in the separating
funnel. Allow the mixture to stand for half an hour or more.
  The immiscible components of the mixture, i.e., benzene and water separate out into
two distinct layers. The benzene forms the lighter layer on the top and the water
forms the heavier layer at the bottom.
 Place a conical flask or a beaker under the nozzle of the separating funnel. Turn the
tap gently so that the water trickles in the flask or the beaker drop by drop. Once the
water is drained out, close the tap.
 Now place another conical flask or a beaker under the nozzle of separating funnel.
Open the to drain out benzene.

Separation by separating funnel

Applications :

 This method is used for separating any two immiscible liquids.

 This method is used in separation of stag (a waste material) form the molten metals
during their extraction. For example, during the extraction of iron from its ore, the
molten iron and slag collect at the base of blast furnace. The slag being less dense
floats up the surface of molten iron. They are topped out from two different outlets.

SEPARATION OF GASES FROM AIR

Is matter around us pure of Class 9
SEPARATION OF GASES FROM AIR
In order to separate the major components of air, it is first purified, then liquified and
finally fractionally distilled. The steps involved in the process are as follows -

Purification of Air:

 Air generally contains carbon dioxide gas, hydrogen sulphide gas and sulphur
dioxide gas as impurities. In addition to it there are dust particles also.
 First of all air is washed by passing it through water, where the dust particles are
removed.
 The washed air is passed through dilute caustic soda solution, where the gases like
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are removed.
 The purified air, however, contains moisture. The moist air is passed through pipes,
maintained at a temperature below – 20o C, where vapour present in it freezes and
hence, air becomes dry.
 The air leaving the cooling pipes is free from all impurities.

Liquification of Air:

 The cool air, free from all impurities is compressed to a pressure 200 times more
than the atmospheric pressure. The compression raises the temperature of the air.
 The hot compressed air is then passed through cooling tank in which cold water
enters from one end and warm water leaves from the other end.
 The compressed and cooled air is passed through a spiral pipe, placed in a vacuum
flask. The end of spiral pipe is provided with a fine jet.
  When compressed air suddenly escapes from the jet, its pressure suddenly falls.
Thus, its molecules move wide apart. When the molecules move wide apart, they
need energy. This energy is taken by the molecules from themselves and hence their
temperature drops.
 The air so cooled, is now at a pressure equal to that of atmosphere. This cooled air
rises up and in the process further cools the incoming compressed air in spiral tube.
The air is then sucked again by the compression pump and the cycle is repeated.
With every cycle, the temperature of air drops, till it liquefies.

Fractional Distillation of Air :

  The liquid air mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, and is at a temperature of – 200oC.
  The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is – 195oC and that of liquid oxygen is – 183oC.
  The liquid is gradually warmed to -1950 C, when nitrogen starts boiling off from the
liquid air. The nitrogen gas so formed, is compressed and filled is steel cylinders.
 The liquified oxygen left behind, is also changed to gas and then filled in compressed
state in steel cylinders.