B.Sc.

, I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

Syllabus – PLANETARY & SATELLITE MOTION : Motion along a curve - radial and transverse
components of acceleration(derivation); Newton’s law of gravitation (vector form only), Kepler’s laws
(statements only);Gravitational Field and Potential – relation between them; Field and Potential due to a solid
sphere (derivation); Orbital and Escape Velocity (derivation), Satellite in circular orbit and applications;
Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbits.

Introduction
The planetary motion is the study of motion of various celestial bodies like the earth,
the moon etc, Aryabhatta (5th century A.D.), the Indian astronomer and mathematician
studied these motions in great detail. In his treatise, Aryabatta had mentioned about the
Heliocentric model – Sun was the centre around which planets moved. A thousand
years later Copernicus proposed a model in which planets moved in definite circles
around a fixed central sun. It was around the same time Galileo made observations of
planets with naked eye. His compiled data were analysed later by Kepler who gave the
three laws of planetary motion. Later Newton proposed the universal law of gravitation
that led to explanation of terrestrial gravitation and Kepler’s laws. Earth satellites are
the objects whose motions are similar to planets and Kepler’s laws are equally
applicable to them.
In order to study the dynamics of planetary and satellite motion, it is necessary to
understand the concept of motion along a plane or curved path.

Motion along a curve

The position of a particle moving along a curve can be determined with two coordinates
(coordinate system can cartesian or polar).
The position vector of the particle P in the Cartesian
P (x,y)
coordinate system is 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 ⏞𝑖 + 𝑦 ⏞𝑗
In polar coordinates the position P is specified by two y r
coordinates r and  which define the radial and transverse  
𝜃 r sin
components respectively.  x
r cos
Also, from the figure x = r cos and y = r sin 
The magnitude of position vector is r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

The motion along a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two separate

simultaneous one dimensional motions with constant accelerations along two
perpendicular directions.

Radial and transverse components of velocity and acceleration

Consider a particle P moving in the X – Y Y
plane along a curved path as shown in the 
Q P (x,y)
figure. Let 𝑟⃗ represent the position vector of 
the particle P at an instant of time t. r┴ r
r cos
In the Cartesian coordinate system 
𝜃
r sin

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 ⏞𝑖 + 𝑦 ⏞𝑗 = 𝑟 ⏞
𝑟 ………..(1) where r is X’  X
r sin O r cos 
the magnitude and ⏞
𝑟 is the unit vector.
As r is the function of time t, differentiating equation (1), we get Velocity of the particle
𝑑 𝑑𝑟 ⏞
𝑑𝑟
as 𝑣⃗ = (𝑟 ⏞
𝑟) = ⏞
𝑟+ 𝑟 …..(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In polar coordinates the position P is specified by two coordinates r and .
where x = r cos and y = r sin, Substituting for x and y in eqn. (1)
𝑟 = r cos ⏞𝑖 + r sin ⏞𝑗
𝑟⃗ = 𝑟 ⏞ 𝑟 = cos ⏞𝑖 + sin ⏞𝑗 ….(3)
or ⏞
A vector 𝑟⃗┴ is drawn perpendicular to 𝑟⃗ having same magnitude.
𝑟⃗┴ = 𝑟┴ 𝑟⏞ ┴ = - 𝑥′ ⏞𝑖 + 𝑦′ ⏞𝑗 . As x’ = 𝑟┴ sin and y = 𝑟┴ cos
𝑟⏞ ┴ = - 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⏞𝑖 + cos ⏞𝑗 ….(4)
⏞
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑
Differentiating eqn. (3) w.r.t. time = . 𝑑𝑡 = (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⏞𝑖 + cos ⏞𝑗 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
⏞
𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑𝑟⏞ ┴ 𝑑
Or = 𝑟⏞ ┴ ……(5) Similarly we can write = −⏞
𝑟 …..(6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⏞
𝑑𝑟
Substituting for in equation (2), the velocity of the particle is
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒓 𝒅
⃗⃗ =
𝒗 ⏞
𝒓+ 𝒓 𝒓⏞ ┴ or 𝒗
⃗⃗ = 𝒗𝒓 ⏞
𝒓 + 𝒗𝒕 𝒓⏞ ┴ …..(7)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑟 𝑑
𝑣𝑟 = is called the radial component of velocity and 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑟 is called the transverse
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
component of velocity. The two components are mutually perpendicular to each other.
The acceleration of the particle 𝑎⃗ is obtained by differentiating eqn. (7)
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑟 𝑑
𝑎⃗ = = (𝑣𝑟 ⏞
𝑟 + 𝑣𝑡 𝑟⏞ ┴ ) = ( 𝑑𝑡 ⏞
𝑟+ 𝑟 𝑟⏞ ┴ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟 ⏞
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑2  𝑑 𝑑𝑟⏞ ┴
𝑎⃗ = ⏞
𝑟+ + 𝑟⏞ + 𝑟 𝑟⏞ ┴ + 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ┴ 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

⏞
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟⏞ ┴
Substituting for and from equations (5) and (6) in the above equation,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑑 𝑑
𝑎⃗ = 2
⏞
𝑟 + ⏞
𝑟 ┴ + ⏞
𝑟 ┴ + 𝑟 2
𝑟⏞ ┴ + 𝑟 (− ⏞
𝑟 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑑 d
𝑎⃗ = ⏞
𝑟 + 2 ⏞
𝑟 ┴ + 𝑟 ⏞
𝑟 ┴ − 𝑟 ⏞
𝑟
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑟 𝑑 2 𝑑2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑
𝑎⃗ = ( 2 − 𝑟 ( ) ) ⏞ 𝑟 + (𝑟 2
+ 2 ) 𝑟⏞ ┴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑 2 1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑟 + (𝑟 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 ) ) 𝑟⏞ ┴
or 𝑎⃗ = (𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑟 (𝑑𝑡 ) ) ⏞

Thus 𝒂 𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕 𝒓⏞ ┴ …..(8)
⃗⃗ = 𝒂𝒓 ⏞
𝒅𝟐 𝒓 𝒅 𝟐
where 𝒂𝒓 = − 𝒓 ( ) called the radial component of acceleration
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝒅 𝟐 𝒅
and 𝒂𝒕 = (𝒓 ) is called the transverse component of acceleration.
𝒓 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Special cases
1. When a particle is constrained to move in a circle with a constant speed (uniform
𝑑𝑟 𝒅𝟐 𝒓 𝑑
circular motion) = 0 and = 0. The angular velocity of the particle  = =
𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 
constant and = 0. The expression for transverse component of acceleration is 𝒂𝒕 =
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝒅 𝒅 𝑑2  𝑑𝑟 𝑑
(𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒕 ) = 𝑟 + 2 =0 The radial component of acceleration simplifies to 𝒂𝒓 =
𝒓 𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝒓 𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝟐
− 𝒓 (𝒅𝒕 ) = −𝒓 (𝒅𝒕 ) = −𝒓𝟐 called the centripetal acceleration. The negative sign
𝒅𝒕𝟐
indicates the direction of acceleration which is towards the centre of the circle.

2. Consider a planet (P) moving in an elliptical orbit round P 𝑟𝑑𝜃

the sun (S) which is at one of the foci as shown. Let the planet P’
𝑑𝜃 𝑟
𝜃
traverse the distance PP’. The area of the triangle SPP’ is 𝑑𝐴 = S
1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝜃
× 𝑟 × 𝑟𝑑𝜃. The areal velocity is = 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 .
2 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝒓 𝒅 𝟐
The radial component of acceleration is 𝒂𝒓 = − 𝒓 ( 𝒅𝒕 ) . The transverse component of
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝒅 𝒅
acceleration is zero. i.e. 𝒂𝒕 = (𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒕 ) = 0.
𝒓 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 1 𝒅 𝟏
Thus 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = constant. The areal velocity of a planet is 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟐 × constant = constant.
2
This is the kepler’s second law of planetary motion.

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

Newton’s universal law of gravitation

The English physicist Isaac Newton introduced the term "gravity" after he saw an apple
falling onto the ground. "Gravity" is the force of attraction exerted by the earth on an
object. The moon orbits around the earth because of gravity. Newton later proposed
that gravity was just a particular case of gravitation. Every mass in the universe attracts
every other mass is the main idea of Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.
Statement
Every particle in the universe exerts a force of attraction 𝐹 on every other particle along
the line joining their centers. The magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the two particles (𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 ) and inversely proportional to
the square of the distances between them (𝑟 2 ).
𝑚1 𝑚2
Explanation: Mathematically, the law can be expressed as 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
Or 𝐹=𝐺 where G is the universal gravitational constant given by 𝐺 =
𝑟2
6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2. If 𝑚1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1 𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 𝐺.
Numerically G is equal to the force of attraction between two unit masses with their
centres separated by unit distance.
In the vector form, the gravitational force, both in magnitude and direction, on 𝑚2 due
to 𝑚1 is given by
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝐹⃗21 = − 𝑟⃗ 1 2 𝑟̂12 where 𝑟⃗12 = 𝑟12 𝑟̂12 with 𝑟12 as the 𝐹⃗21 𝐹⃗12
12 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑟⃗12
magnitude of the distance between the two masses and
𝑟̂12 is the unit vector.
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
Similarly the force on 𝑚1 due to 𝑚2 is given by 𝐹⃗12 = − 𝑟⃗ 1 2 𝑟̂21
21

Note : 1. Gravitational force is a conservative force. The force is attractive in nature.

Thus force is independent of the intervening medium. The force does not depend on the
presence of other bodies.
2. Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation has successfully explained the observation on
planetary motions made by the German astronomer Kepler. It shows shortcomings
when explaining the unusual orbit of Mercury around the Sun. It breaks down when
the gravitational forces get very strong or involving bodies moving at speeds near that
of light. Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, which has overcome this limitation of
Newton's Law, was able to demonstrate a better theory of gravitation.

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Gravitational field: A region around a mass in which other masses experience

gravitational force of attraction is called the gravitational field. The gravitational field
strength at a point in the field is the force per unit mass experienced by a test mass
placed at that point.
If a test mass 𝑚 is placed at a distance 𝑟 from a mass 𝑀 𝐹⃗⬚
𝑀⬚ P 𝑚⬚
𝑟⃗⬚
producing the field, then the test mass experiences a 𝐹⃗
𝐹⃗
force 𝐹. The gravitational field strength at point P due to mass 𝑀 is 𝐸⃗⃗ = …(1)
𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑚
From Newton’s law of gravitation, force between 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝐹⃗ = − 𝑟⃗2 𝑟̂ ….(2)
𝐺𝑀
Substituting for 𝐹⃗ from (2) in (1), 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑟⃗2 𝑟̂ . The negative sign indicates that the field
is acting towards the centre of gravity of the mass M.

Gravitational potential
The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the amount of work done
in moving a unit mass from infinity to that point. It is also the gravitational potential
energy per unit mass placed at that point in the gravitational field.

Relation between gravitational field and potential

Consider an object of mass 𝑚 producing a
gravitational field of strength 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point P at 𝐹⃗ 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑃 𝐴 𝐵
𝑚
𝑑𝑟
distance 𝑟 from the mass. (diagram shown) The 𝑟
amount of work done in moving a unit mass from point B to point A is given by 𝑑𝑊 =
−𝐹⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 …..…(1) where 𝐹⃗ is the force acting on unit mass by the object.
As gravitational force per unit mass is equal to gravitational field, i.e. 𝐹⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ and the
work done is equal to the gravitational potential difference between A and B,
i.e. 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑑𝑉 Thus equation (1) can be expresses as 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
𝒅𝑽
or ⃗⃗⃗ = −
𝑬 𝒓̂ ….(2) . Thus gravitational field strength is equal to the negative
𝒅𝒓
gravitational potential.
Expression for gravitational potential at a point
Consider an object of mass 𝑚 producing a
𝐹⃗ 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑃 𝐴
gravitational field of strength 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point P at 𝑚
𝑑𝑟
𝑟

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

distance 𝑟 from the mass. The gravitational potential difference between point A and P
is given by 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 …..…(1)
where 𝐹⃗ is the force between object of mass 𝑚 and unit mass moved to P from A. This is
equal to the gravitational field of strength 𝐸⃗⃗ at the point P. This is given by
𝐺𝑚
𝐹⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑟⃗2 𝑟̂ ……..(2)
𝐺𝑚
Putting (2) in (1) we have, 𝑑𝑉 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
𝑟⃗ 2
Thus the gravitational potential at the point P is the amount of work done in moving
unit mass from infinity to the point P which is at distance 𝑟 from the object. i.e.
𝑟 𝑟 1 1 𝑟
∫∞ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐺𝑚 ∫∞ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 or 𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉∞ = 𝐺𝑚 [− 𝑟 ]
∞
𝐺𝑚 𝑮𝒎
As 𝑉∞ = 0, we have 𝑉𝑟 = − or in general 𝑽=−
𝑟 𝒓

Gravitational potential energy at a point in a gravitational field due to a body of mass

𝑚1 is the amount of work done in moving a body of mass 𝑚2 from infinity to that point.
It is denoted by 𝑈 and is given by
𝑟 𝑟 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟 1 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑈 = 𝑊 = − ∫∞ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫∞ −𝐺 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 ∫∞ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = −
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
or 𝑼 =
𝒓
Expression for gravitational potential and field due to a solid sphere
Considera solid sphere of mass 𝑀, radius 𝑅 and
𝑑𝑥
density 𝜌. It is imagined that the sphere is made 𝑅

of large number of spherical shells whose 𝑥

O 𝑃
radius varies from zero to 𝑅. Consider one such
shell of radius 𝑥 and thickness 𝑑𝑥. 𝑎
The mass of thid shell is
𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (since density = msaa/volume and volume = surface area ×
thickness) or 𝑚 = 4𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 × 𝜌
(a) Point P outside the sphere : Consider a point P at a distance 𝑎 from the centre of the
𝐺𝑚
sphere The gravitational potential at the point P due to the shell is 𝑑𝑉 = − .
𝑎
𝐺4𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥𝜌 𝐺4𝜋𝜌
Thus 𝑑𝑉 = − = − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝐺4𝜋𝜌 𝑅 𝐺4𝜋𝜌 𝑥3 𝑅
The potential at P due to entire sphere is 𝑉 = − ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = − [3]
𝑎 𝑎 0

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

𝐺4𝜋𝜌 𝑅3 𝐺 4 𝐺𝑀
or 𝑉 = − [ 3 ] = − 𝑎 (3 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌) = −
𝑎 𝑎
𝑮𝑴 4
Thus 𝑽 = − where M = 3 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌 is the mass of the whole sphere and volume
𝒂
4
of the sphere = 3 𝜋𝑅 3
𝑑𝑉
Gravitational field : The value of field at point P is found by the equation 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑎̂
𝑑𝑎
𝑑 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝑮𝑴
Thus 𝐸⃗⃗ = − (− ) 𝑎̂ = − 𝑎̂ Thus ⃗⃗⃗ = −
𝑬 ̂
𝒂
𝑑𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2 𝒂𝟐
(b) Point P on the surface of the sphere : When the point P lies on the surface of the
sphere, then 𝑎 = 𝑅 , Thus the above expressions for potential and field becomes
𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴
𝑽= − and ⃗⃗⃗ = −
𝑬 ̂
𝑹
𝑹 𝑹𝟐
(c) Point P inside the sphere : Consider a point P inside the sphere on 𝑅
𝑏
an imaginary sphere of radius 𝑏 as shown in the diagram. 𝑂
The gravitational potential 𝑉1 at the point P due to all the spherical 𝑃

shells of radius ranging from 𝑏 to 𝑅 (i.e. rest of the sphere outside sphere of radius b
𝑅 𝐺4𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥𝜌 𝑅
and insider R) is given by 𝑉1 = − ∫𝑏 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 ∫𝑏 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑅 𝑥2 𝑅 𝐺4𝜋𝜌
or 𝑉1 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 ∫𝑏 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 [ 2 ] = − 2 (𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 )
0
𝐺4𝜋𝜌
or 𝑉1 = − (𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 )
2
The gravitational potential P due to the solid sphere of radius 𝑏 is given by
𝐺 4 4
𝑉2 = − 𝑏 (3 𝜋𝑏 3 𝜌) where 𝜋𝑏 3 is the mass of the sphere of radius b.
3

4
Thus 𝑉2 = − 𝐺𝜋𝜌𝑏 2
3

Thus the potential at P inside the sphere due to entire sphere is 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

𝐺4𝜋𝜌 4 𝑅 2 − 𝑏2 𝑏2
i.e. 𝑉= − (𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 ) − 𝐺𝜋𝜌𝑏 2 or 𝑉 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 [( )+ ]
2 3 2 3

𝑅2 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑅2 𝑏2 3𝑅 2 −𝑏2
𝑉 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 [ 2 − + ] or 𝑉 = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 [ 2 − ] = −𝐺4𝜋𝜌 [ ]
2 3 6 6

𝐺4𝜋𝜌
𝑉= − [3𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 ] Multiplying and dividing this equation by 𝑅 3 and rearranging,
6
𝐺 4 4
we get 𝑉 = − 2𝑅3 (3 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌) [3𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 ] But 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌 = 𝑀 is the mass of the sphere.
3

𝑮𝑴 𝟑𝑮𝑴
Thus 𝑽 = − 𝟑
[𝟑𝑹𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 ] At the centre of the sphere b = 0, thus 𝑽 = −
𝟐𝑹 𝟐𝑹

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

𝑑𝑉
The gravitational field at the point P inside the sphere is given by 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑏̂
𝑑𝑏

𝑑 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝑑
i.e. 𝐸⃗⃗ = − [− 2𝑅3 (3𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 )] 𝑏̂ or 𝐸⃗⃗ = (3𝑅 2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑏̂
𝑑𝑏 2𝑅 3 𝑑𝑏

𝑮𝑴𝒃
𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝐺𝑀
(−2𝑏)𝑏̂ Thus ⃗⃗⃗ = −
𝑬 ̂
𝒃
2𝑅 3 𝑹𝟑

The variation of gravitational potential and field with distance in case of a solid sphere
are as shown.

E=

Kepler’s laws of Planetary motion

Johannes Kepler proposed three laws of planetary motion. The three statements
describe the motion of planets in a sun-centered solar system. These laws are
considered an accurate description of the motion of any planet and any satellite.
Kepler's three laws of planetary motion can be described as follows:
• The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the center of the sun
being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses)
• An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will
sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law of Equal Areas)
• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the
cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)

Explanation : 1. The law of Ellipses

Kepler's first law explains that planets are orbiting the sun in a path described as an
ellipse. An ellipse is a special curve in which the sum of the distances from every point
on the curve to two other points is a constant. The two other points are known as the
foci of the ellipse. Kepler's first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the sun in a path

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

that resembles an ellipse, with the sun being located at one of the foci of that ellipse.

2. The Law of Equal Areas

Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to as the law of
equal areas - describes the speed at which any given
planet will move while orbiting the sun. The speed at
which any planet moves through space is constantly changing. A planet moves fastest
when it is closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an
imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, that
line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.
3. The Law of Harmonies
Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies - compares the
orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler's
first and second laws that describe the motion characteristics of a single planet, the third
law makes a comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets. The
comparison being made is that the ratio of the squares of the periods to the cubes of
their average distances from the sun is the same for every one of the planets. As an
illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from sun (orbital radius)
for Earth and Mars as given in the table below.
Planet Period (s) Average distance T2/R3 (s2/m3)
Earth 3.156 x 107 s 1.4957 x 1011m 2.977 x 10-19
Mars 5.93 x 107 s 2.278 x 1011m 2.975 x 10-19
It is observed that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for Mars. In fact, if the
same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is
nearly the same value for all the planets
Kepler's third law provides an accurate description of the period and distance for a
planet's orbits about the sun. Additionally, the same law accurately describes the T2/R3
ratio for any satellite (whether a moon or a man-made satellite) about any planet.

Satellite motion:
Objects that move around a planet is called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of
earth. Man made satellite that revolve around the planets are called artificial satellites.

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

Orbital velocity of the satellite 𝑣0

It is the velocity with which a satellite orbits the earth. ℎ
𝑟
Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚 revoving around earth of 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐸
mass 𝑀. Let the radius of the orbit be 𝑟 and 𝑣0 be the 𝑅

orbital velocity of the satellite. Let 𝑅 be the radius of the

earth and the distance of the satellite from the surface of
earth be ℎ such that = 𝑅 + ℎ .
For the satellite to remain in orbit the necessary centripetal force is provided by the
gravitational force of attraction between the earth and the satellite. Thus the centripetal
𝑚𝑣02 𝐺𝑀𝑚
force is given by 𝐹𝑐 = and gravitational force is 𝐹𝑔 = .
𝑟 𝑟2
The condition for the satellite to remain in orbit is 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔 .

𝑚𝑣02 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴
or = or 𝑣02 = or 𝒗𝟎 = √ = √
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 𝒓 𝑹+𝒉
𝐺𝑀𝑚
If 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth, then 𝑚𝑔 = or
𝑅2
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= . Thus 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 . Now the expression for orbital velocity becomes
𝑅2

𝒈𝑹𝟐
𝒗𝟎 = √ . If the satellite is very close to the earth, then 𝑅 + ℎ ≈ 𝑅.
𝑹+𝒉

Thus 𝒗𝟎 = √𝒈𝑹 As = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 6400 𝑘𝑚 , we have the orbital velocity

of the satellite close to surface of earth as approximately 8 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 .

Time period of the satellite

𝐺𝑀
The orbital velocity of a satellite is 𝑣0 = √ , But 𝑣0 = 𝑟𝜔 where 𝜔 is the angular
𝑟
2𝜋
velocity of the satellite and 𝜔 = where 𝑇 is the time period of the satellite.
𝑇

2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝑟3
Thus 𝑣0 = 𝑟 or 𝑇= = 2𝜋𝑟 √𝐺𝑀 = 2𝜋√𝐺𝑀
𝑇 𝑣0

As 𝑟 = 𝑅 + ℎ and 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2, the time period of the satellite , which is the time taken
(𝑹+𝒉)𝟑
for the satellite to once round its orbit is 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈𝑹𝟐

𝑹
If the satellite is very close to earth, then +ℎ ≈ 𝑅 . Thus 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ . Substituting the
𝒈

values of R and g in this equation we get 𝑇 = 5075 𝑠 = 84 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒.

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

Escape velocity 𝑣𝑓 = 0

It is defined as the minimum velocity with which an obje

h 𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
t has to be projected from the surface of the earth so that
it escapes the earth’s gravitational force of attraction. It is 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒 m

denoted by 𝑣𝑒 . R
Earth
Consider an object of mass 𝑚 projected with n initial
velocity 𝑣𝑖 upwards against gravitational pull of the earth of mass M and radius R.
1
The initial kinetic energy of the object at the surface of earth is 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
The potential energy of the object is 𝑈 = − 𝑅
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Thus the initial total energy of the object is 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − ….(1)
2 𝑅
When the object reaches its maximum height when there is no influence of the
gravitational pull, its velocity gradually decreases to zero and thus kinetic energy is
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
zero and the potential energy is − 𝑟 . Thus total energy is 𝐾′ + 𝑈′ = 0 − 𝑟 …(2)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥

The total energy of the system remains constant. Thus equating (1) and (2), we get
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − = −𝑟
2 𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 1
Solving for 𝑣𝑖 , we get 𝑣𝑖2 = 2𝐺𝑀 (𝑅 − )
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥

As the escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which the object is projected such
that 𝑣𝑓 = 0 when 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∞. Thus 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒 , the above equation becomes

1 1 1 𝟐𝑮𝑴
𝑣𝑒2 = 2𝐺𝑀 (𝑅 − ) or 𝑣𝑒2 = 2𝐺𝑀 (𝑅) or 𝒗𝒆 = √ .
∞ 𝑹

2𝑔𝑅 2
As 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2, thus 𝑣𝑒 = √ or 𝒗𝒆 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹
𝑅

It is independent of the mass of the object and it depends on the acceleration due to
gravity. Its value is found to be 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 .

Principle of launching a satellite

Let us suppose a very high tower on the surface of the earth.
Consider a body is projected horizontally from the top of the
tower with some velocity. The body will follow a parabolic
path under the effect of gravity and strikes the earth’s surface
at point A1 as shown in the figure. If the body is projected

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

with the velocity greater than the initial velocity, then the body will strike the surface at
point A2 which is farther from A1. If the velocity is gradually increased, the horizontal
range will also increase and finally a stage will come when the body will not strike the
earth’s surface, but will always be in a state of free fall under gravity in an attempt to
fall to the earth. Then the body will describe a stable circular path around the earth and
becomes a satellite of the earth. The minimum velocity required to put the satellite into
its orbit around the earth is called orbital velocity of the satellite.

Condition for launching artificial satellites

The path of a satellite around earth depends on the following
conditions 𝐸 circle
1. For a satellite to be in circular orbit, the condition is 𝑣 =
ellipse
𝐺𝑀 parabola
𝑣0 = √ 𝑟 hyperbola
2. For the planet to be in elliptical orbit, 𝑣 > 𝑣0 < 𝑣𝑒 i.e. the velocity of the satellite
must be greater than the orbital velocity but less than the escape velocity.
2𝐺𝑀
3. The path becomes parabola if 𝑣𝑒 = √ and the satellite escapes to infinity
𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
4. The path will be a hyperbola if, 𝑣𝑒 > √ and the satellite escapes to infinity.
𝑅

Geosynchronous and geostationary orbits

Geosynchronous orbit is an orbit of a satellite around the earth with an orbital period of
one sidereal day, and geostationary orbit is a special case of geosynchronous orbit
where they are placed right above the equator. One sidereal day is the time during
which earth completes on rotation about its own axis. This time is approximately equal
to 23 hr, 56 min, 4.09 sec.
The basic difference between geosynchronous and geostationary satellites is that in case
of geosynchronous orbit, a person at a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this orbit in
the same place in the sky at the same time of the day, everyday.
In case of geostationary orbit, a person at any point on Earth, will see a satellite in this
orbit stationary with respect to his position, just like a star in the sky. Thus a
geostationary orbit is a geosynchronous orbit around Earth at 35,786 km above the
equator, so that it remains stationary as seen from Earth. Usually geosynchronous orbit

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

can be elliptical or circular in nature and the satellite may have any inclination about
the equator but the geostationary orbit is circular in nature. Most of the communication
satellites are geostationary satellites.
The height of the geostationary satellite from the surface of the earth can be determined
as follows.
2𝜋
The angular velocity of the satellite is 𝜔 = where T is the time period of the satellite.
𝑇
2𝜋
As 𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 86.400 𝑠, 𝜔 = = 7.3 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1
86.400

𝐺𝑀
The orbital velocity of the satellite is 𝑣0 = √ ,
𝑟

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
As 𝑣0 = 𝑟𝜔, we have 𝑟𝜔 = √ or 𝜔 = √ 𝑟3
𝑟

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 1/3
or 𝜔2 = or 𝑟3 = Thus 𝑟 = [ 𝜔2 ]
𝑟3 𝜔2
With 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 , 𝜔 = 7.3 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 and 𝑀 = 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
We get 𝑟 = 42 × 106 𝑚
The height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is given by ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑅
As radius of the earth is = 6.37 × 106 𝑚 , we get 𝒉 = 𝟑𝟓, 𝟔𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝒎

Applications of satellites
Satellites are launched into space to do a specific job. Here are examples of nine
different types of satellites and their uses
1 Astronomy satellite - e.g. Hubble Space Telescope - A telescope orbiting the Earth. An
astronomy satellite's vision is not clouded by the gases that make up the Earth's
atmosphere, so it gives clearer pictures than telescopes on Earth. Astronomy satellites
study stellar phenomenona like black holes, quasars, and distant galaxies.
2 Atmospheric Studies satellites : e.g. Polar - A type of scientific satellite that studies
the Earth's atmosphere. They were some of the very first satellites launched into space.
3 Communications satellites : e.g. Anik E - A type of satellite used for communications
on Earth by allowing radio, television, and telephone transmissions to be sent live
anywhere in the world. Because communications satellites are in orbit, the signals can
be sent instantaneously into space and then redirected to another satellite or directly to
their destination.

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

4 Navigation satellites: e.g. Navstar - A type of satellite that gives ships and aircraft
their coordinate positions on the Earth. Navigation satellites were developed in the
1950s, and they rely on the doppler effect to calculate the position of vessels emitting a
radio signal. Navigation satellites are also widely used by the military.
5 Remote Sensing satellites : e.g. Radarsat - Remote sensing is observing and
measuring our environment from a distance. For example, remote sensing satellites
might track animal migration, locate mineral deposits, watch agricultural crops for
weather damage, or see how fast the forests are being cut down.
6 Search and Rescue satellites : e.g. Cospas-Sarsat - Search and rescue satellites are
designed to provide a way for vessels at sea and in the air to communicate from remote
areas. These satellites can detect and locate emergency beacons carried by ships,
aircrafts, or individuals in remote or dangerous places.
7 Space Exploration satellites : e.g. Galileo - Space exploration satellites are not really
satellites at all; they are actually space probes. They travel deep into the solar system.
However, they are similar to orbiting satellites in design and function.
On their journeys, space probes send back detailed pictures and other data of faraway
planets and other stellar phenomena. Space exploration satellites are responsible for
many of astronomy's most important achievements. Jupiter's rings, for example, were
discovered by a space exploration satellite.
8 Weather satellites : e.g. Meteosat - Weather satellite technology monitors the Earth's
temperature and cloud formations
PART-A

1 Obtain expressions for radial and transverse velocity and acceleration of a particle
moving in a plane.
2 Assuming the expressions for the radial and transverse components of acceleration
a) Obtain an expression for centripetal force.
b) Show that the areal velocity of a planet is a constant.
3 (a). State and explain Newton's law of gravitation.
(b). State Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
4 (a) Explain (i) Gravitational field (ii) Gravitational potential energy.
(b) Arrive at an expression for the time period of a satellite orbiting close to the
surface of earth in terms of radius of earth and acceleration due to gravity.
5 (a) Distinguish between gravitational field and potential.
(b) Arrive at the relation between them.

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

6 Arrive at an expression for the gravitational field and gravitational potential at a point
due to a solid sphere.
7 (a) Explain is orbital velocity and escape velocity.
(b) Derive an expression for orbital velocity of a satellite orbiting with a radius r
centered on the planet.
8 (a) Derive an expression for escape velocity of a body from the surface of a planet.
(b) Write a note on uses of artificial satellites and communication satellites.
9 (a) What are artificial satellites? Explain the principle of launching satellite.
(b) What are geostationary satellites? Calculate the height at which a
geosynchronous satellite has to be placed.
PART-B
1 A satellite of earth revolves in a circular orbit at a height of 250 km above the earth’s
surface. What is the orbital velocity of the satellite? Given radius of earth is 6400
km and acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth is 9.8 ms −2 .
𝑔𝑅2
Hint: 𝑣0 = √ 𝑣0 = 7.769 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑅+ℎ

2 The earth is revolving round the sun in a circular orbit of radius 1.5  1011 m with a
time period of 3.15  107 s . Calculate the mass of the sun given G = 6.67  10−11
𝑟3 4𝜋2 𝑟 3
𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 . Hint: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐺𝑀 or 𝑀 = 𝐺𝑇 2
𝑀 = 2 × 1030 𝑘𝑔
3 Assuming that a satellite is revolving round the earth in a circular orbit of height 900
km from the surface of earth. Calculate the time period and orbital velocity of
satellite. Given that radius of earth is 6400 km, acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 ms −2
and mass of earth is 6  10 24 kg . 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
Hint: = 2𝜋√𝐺𝑀 , 𝑣0 = √𝑅+ℎ 𝑇 = 6191.45 𝑠, 𝑣𝑜 = 7.4 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1
4 Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Jupiter if the mass of
Jupiter is 317 times of the earth and the radius of Jupiter is 10.95 times that of the
earth. Given g=9.8 ms-2 on earth. 𝑔𝐽 = 25.91 m s−2
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑀𝐽
Hint : 𝑔𝐸 = 2 … (1)
𝑅𝐸
𝑔𝐽 = 𝑅𝐽2
… (2) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝐽 = 317𝑀𝐸 , 𝑅𝐽 = 10.95𝑅𝐸 ,

5 The force of attraction between two sphere of masses 40 kg and 10 kg equal to the
weight of a body of mass 10.94 × 10−9 kg . If the distance between the centres of the
spheres is 0.5 m, calculate the value G. Given g=9.8 ms-2. 𝐺 = 6.7 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
Hint : 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑟2
where 𝑚1 = 40 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 = 10.94 × 10−9 kg, r = 0.5 m
6 Calculate the mass of the earth from the following data : g=9.8 ms-2 ; 𝐺 =
6.67 × 10−11 SI unit and 𝑅 = 6.38 × 106 m. 𝑀𝐸 =
24
5.98 × 10 kg

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 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

2
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑔𝐸 𝑅𝐸
Hint : 𝑔𝐸 = 2 ,
𝑅𝐸
𝑀𝐸 = 𝐺
7 What will be the value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon if its
radius is (1/4) of the Earth and Mass is (1/80) of that of Earth? 𝑔𝑀 = 1.96 m s −2
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑀𝑀 1 1
Hint : 𝑔𝐸 = 2 … (1)
𝑅𝐸
𝑔𝑀 = 2 … (2) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑅𝑀
𝑀𝑀 = 80 𝑀𝐸 , 𝑅𝑀 = 4 𝑅𝐸
8 At what height from the surface of earth the gravitation force will be reduced by 10%
if the radius of earth is 6370 km? ℎ = 707.78 km
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝐹𝑠 10 9
Hint : 𝐹𝑠 = 2
𝑅𝐸
and 𝐹ℎ = (𝑅+ℎ)2
find 𝐹ℎ
= 9
since 𝐹ℎ = 𝐹
10 𝑠
as 𝐹ℎ is 90% of 𝐹𝑠
9 Find the acceleration due to gravity of the moon at a point 1000 km above the moon's
surface. The mass of the Moon 7.4 × 1022 kg and its radius is 1740 km. 𝐺 =
6.7 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 𝑔=
−2
0.657 m s
𝐺𝑀𝑀
Hint : 𝑔𝑀 = (𝑅𝑀 +ℎ)2
10 Jupiter has a mass 318 times that of the earth, and its radius is 11.2 times the earth's
radius. Estimate the escape velocity of a body from Jupiter surface, given that the
escape velocity from earth's surface is 11.2 km s-1. 𝑣𝑒 = 59.68 m s −1
2𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀
Hint : [𝑣𝑒 = √ 𝑅
] and [𝑣𝑒 = √ 𝑅
] 𝑀𝐽 = 318𝑀𝐸 , 𝑅𝐽 = 11.2𝑅𝐸
𝐸 𝐽
11 The international space station makes 15.65 revolutions per day in its orbit around
the Earth. Assuming a circular orbit, how high is the satellite above the surface of
Earth. R = 6400km ℎ = 372.4 km
(𝑅+ℎ)3 1
Hint : 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ , T = time for one revolution in seconds, 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 15.65/day, find h
𝑔𝑅 2 𝑓

12 Calculate the time period of geostationary satellite, given G = 6.67  10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2,
𝑀𝐸 = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅𝐸 = 6400 𝑘𝑚. ℎ = 3.563 × 103 𝑘𝑚
13 A projectile is fired vertically from the earth’s surface with a velocity of 10 kms -1.
How far it would go above the earth’s surface? Air resistance is assumed to be
negligible. G = 6.67  10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2, 𝑀𝐸 = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅𝐸 = 6400 𝑘𝑚 .
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Hint: Total energy on earth’s surface = total energy at height h, thus 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − =0−
2 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸 +ℎ

ℎ = 2.55 × 107 𝑚
Simplify to find h,
14 Calculate the escape velocity for a body projected from a point on the earth’s surface
using the following data, G = 6.67  10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2, 𝑀𝐸 = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅𝐸 = 6400 𝑘𝑚
If the radius of earth is four times that of moon and mass of earth 80 times that of
moon, what will escape velocity on moon be? 𝑣𝑒 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣𝑒 = 3.54 𝑘𝑚−1
Hint: 𝑣𝑒 = √2𝐺𝑀
𝑅

PART-C

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 16

 B.Sc., I Semester - Planetary and Satellite motion

1 Is it possible to shield a body from gravitational effect?

No. Gravitational force between two bodies does not depend on the medium between them. Thus it is not possible
to shield the body from gravitational effect.
2 Can the value of gravitational potential inside a spherical shell be equal to its value
on its surface? Justify
Yes, The net gravitational force on a point mass inside spherical shell of mass is identically zero. Thus the value
of potential inside a spherical shell is equal to its value on its surface.
3 Suppose the earth suddenly looses its attraction power, what would happen?
The bodies above the earth’s surface looses weight. Satellites will no longer revolve round the earth as there will
be no centripetal force.
4 Why does moon have no atmosphere?
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon is very less. The molecules of the gas that have thermal
velocities greater than the escape velocity of the moon, will not be attracted towards the moon. Thus moon has no
atmosphere.
5 Can kinetic energy of a satellite be negative?
No, The velocity of the satellite cannot be negative. The potential energy can be negative. Thus ghe total energy is
negative.
6 Is there any meaning of "weight of the earth"?
Earth has mass, so it has weight. It is in the gravitational field of sun. But it is meaningless to say that earth can
be pulled away from sun. Mass of the earth is mor meaningful.
7 Is the speed of a planet same at all points in is orbit? Explain.
The path of the planet is elliptical. As from kepler’s second law, the planets cover equal areas in equal intervals of
time, thus the speed is different at different points.
8 Does the gravitational force depend upon the presence of other bodies or intervening
medium? Explain.
No, The gravitational force between two bodies is independent of presence of other bodies or the intervening
medium. Newton’s law of gravitation is a universal law. The forces is a action reaction pair.
9 What is the maximum value of gravitational potential and where is it maximum?
The maximum value of gravitational potential is zero and this value is at infinity.
10 A satellite does not need fuel to circle around the earth. Why?
The gravitational force provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the satellite in a circular orbit.
11 Why Newton’s law of gravitation is called universal law?
The gravitational force exists between all the bodies in the universe irrespective of their shape, size and distances.

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 17