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Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

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Bridging the gap.

Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore
Ayesha Mehmood Malik/ Memoona Rashid/
Mir Wali Shah/ Iftikhar Ali

Abstract

Walled cities of Peshawar and Lahore shares both architectural

characters and decaying patterns. This research is based on the
historical background of both cities, their architectural and spatial
evolution through various ruling regimes and the nature of
conservation efforts. The aim of this research is to understand the
similarities and relatable developments over the period of time as both
share a dramatic similarity in many disciplines. While British rulers
built their own cantonment outside of the cities, Post-independence
times saw massive commercialization of walled city and destruction of
historical buildings. In year 2006, Lahore launched a conservation
effort to restore the Royal Trail in assistance with the World Bank. The
success of this project led to the enactment of Walled City of Lahore
Authority (WCLA). In Peshawar the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Government
has launched a successful Heritage Trail in Walled city as a pilot
project. This paper will compare the strategies and institutional
frameworks present in both the cities along with the future direction for
the conservation of Peshawar walled city.

Keywords: Walled city, Peshawar, Lahore, architecture features,

institutional framework

1. Introduction

There are several cities in Pakistan which have walled

fortifications around their ancient boundaries to protect their
inhabitants from invading forces. Although while these walls have
lost their military importance, they still provide ample tourist
attractions and have been conserved for various benefits. Lahore,
Multan, Hyderabad and Peshawar cities have inner walled cities.
Both walled cities of Lahore and Peshawar with rich histories and
 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

cultural heritage and have various commonalities in their history,

architecture and governance structures (Table 1). Both have similar
progression through multiple eras and their spatial and architectural
features.

2. History and Architecture of Peshawar Walled City

The city of Peshawar is located in the valley of Peshawar about 40 km

east of Pakistan’s eastern border with Afghanistan. Throughout
history, Peshawar has remained a strategic town for invaders
entering South-Asia through the Khyber Pass. The city has seen
various changes in its control from Mughal era to post-independence
Pakistan. While Peshawar has consistently remained a battleground
for large armies and empires, its position in relation to the Khyber
Pass has also enabled it to cement its place as a hub of major trade
routes in and out of South Asia.(UNESCO Office Islamabad, 2004).
Definitely, the economic and strategic importance of
Peshawar’s location has brought several advantages to its inhabitants
but many times conditions have not been favorable for them. From
Sasanians, Huns, Turk Shahis, Hindu Shahis, Mughals and the British,
often local population came in the direct path of any group intending
a larger conquest into South Asia and the control of Peshawar city. In
past three decades, there has been an influx of Afghan refugees in the
city, especially during the Afghan War of 1980s. It led to a broadened
cultural base. Thus Peshawar’s history tells us that locals have
constantly realigned themselves in order to gain maximum benefits
from the city’s strategic location. This history can be seen in the
architecture, monuments, art, religious and cultural spaces of present-day
city. Peshawar walled city houses the oldest sections of the city and is
still rich in Buddhist and Gandhara cultural/religious monuments
which occupied it centuries ago.
Oldest accounts of Peshawar city were found in the memoirs of
Chinese pilgrims. Hiuen Tsang Xuanzang visited it in the 7th century
CE. He mentions the stupa of Emperor Kanishka, which is described as
the tallest structure of whole India, according to some estimates equal to
modern day 13-storey building. The stupa is not preserved. It was
excavated in 1908-1909 by the American archaeologist D. B.
Spooner in what is now Akhunabad, outside the Gunj Gate(The

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News, 2017). Chinese travelers also mentioned the presence of a fort

and a royal residence. Mughal Emperor Babur mentioned Qila Bala
Hisar in his memoir and Emperor Humayun rebuilt the fort after
defeating Sher Shah Suri. Later, when Sikhs invaded Peshawar under
the command of Hari Singh Nala, the walled city had to suffer
considerable losses. Numerous Mughal-era gardens like the Shalimar
Garden, Shahi Bagh and Bagh Ali Marden were mowed down by the
Khalsa regiments(Adil Zareef, 2013).
Paolo Avitabile, an Italian soldier working for the Sikh army
remained the governor of Peshawar from 1838-1842 and ruled the city
mercilessly. Got Khatri was converted into his residence and general
headquarters. During Sikh reign, a monk by the name of Goraknath came
to the walled city and built a Sikh temple here, which is still existent.
Afterwards, British Army defeated Sikhs and established an extensive
cantonment next to the walled city(Faheem Sikandar, 2016).
They also built their own schools, parks, clubs, churches and
markets which were highly segregated from the densely populated
walled city of Peshawar. However, British army also made use of Got
Khatree buildings for their official works and added some army
barracks as well. These barracks were later turned into a fire station.

Spatial layout and architectural features

The walled city of Peshawar has an area of more than 2 sqkm and
has trapezoidal form. It provides an organic urban form which enables
the formation of close-knit community. Narrow alleyways designed for
privacy open into public bazaar streets leading to a cohesive character.
There used to be 16 gateways to the walled city which provided its
connectivity with the outer world. Names of these gates are Lahori
Gate, Yakkatut Gate, Kabuli Gate, Hashtnagri Gate, SarAsiya Gate,
Sard Chah Gate, Saraki Gate, Bajauri Gate, Dabgari Gate, Ganj Gate,
Reti Gate, Kachehri Gate (Tangsali), Asamai Gate, Ramdas Gate,
Rampura Gate and Kohati Gate. Very few of these gates survive in
their original shape now. If closely examined, Walled city of
Peshawar houses several historical properties with deep historical
values. These properties include several bazaars, mosques, temples,
shrines, residential buildings, tombs, schools, churches, bridges,
gardens and inns (sarai). Multi-ethnic nature of this place is

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

commendable. Majority of the population is of Pakhtun origin and

speaks Pashto language, but Indian and Persian languages are also
widely spoken in the walled city. Resident families mostly hail from
Central Asia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (Bukhara), Tajiskistan, Bukhara
and South Asia. Overall, the multiplicity of creeds, beliefs, culture,
lifestyles and traditions is evident from the architecture and shape of
various buildings. Some of the most historic monuments include
Masjid Mahabat Khan, Got Khatree, QisaKhwani Bazar, Mughal era
Caravan Serai and last but not least the Sethi Havelis.
Spatial features of Peshawar walled city share several
commonalities with other historical cities of South Asian region.
Narrow streets and alleyways are often in the shape of cul-de-sacs and
have a single large aperture designed to protect the privacy of
residents. Multiple street openings are scarce but designed in a manner
to improve walkability(UNESCO Office Islamabad, 2004). However,
there are some unique features of this walled city like the elevated
walkways hanging two story above the street level. These walkways
connect the houses on the opposite side of the streets, which often times
belong to a single family. Mostly women use these walkways as a
private passage(UNESCO Office Islamabad, 2004). Houses situated
within the walled city have an introverted character. Courtyards and
basements have multiple benefits. They provide privacy, passive
cooling and natural lighting for the whole house. Seven Sethi Havelis
situated near Got Kutree are the best example of these architectural
features(Khan, 2010). These houses have beautiful display units on
their walls made by engraving arches known as the Chini-Khanas.
These units are used to place porcelain decoration pieces(Khan &
Imdad, 2011).
Some of the problems identified in the walled city Peshawar
that needs to be checked and catered at the first stance are the lack of
basic survey and documentation of the historic area. This should be the
first priority in taking any steps in the up gradation of the walled city
Peshawar if so then the other problems like the loss of the cultural
significance of bazaars, the loss of historical properties in the pursuit of
modernity and commercialization and the lack of training for crafts and
tourism will be addressed eventually that will be beneficial to the
already done degradation of the walled city that has reached to this
unacceptable level.

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3. History and Architecture of Lahore Walled City

Walled city of Lahore has an area of nearly 2.5 sqkm and is home to
a population of nearly 160,000 residents. It lies in the north-western
side of the Lahore city. Administratively, it is part of the Ravi Town,
Lahore. Existing walled city of Lahore largely maintains its form from
the Mughal-era and during Mughal reign this city saw massive
developments in the forms of mosques, public and private buildings,
gardens and bazaars(Ezdi, 2009). The city has organic street pattern,
with a total of twelve gates. A Mori was made in British era which was
later declared as the Mori Gate. Now only five of these thirteen gates
survive. River Ravi always had a special connection with the city due to
its proximity. Several neighborhoods are named after boatmen of the
Mughal era like ThattiMalahan inside Taxali Gate and
MohallahNaugaran inside the Yakki Gate(Rabia Nadir, 2013).
Population outside the walls of the city had a close and symbiotic
relationship with the city’s population as they provided all the edible
commodities while city markets acted as the hub of commercial
exchange. City witnessed massive destruction during the Sikh
invasion in late 18th century. During the Sikh rule, many Sikh palaces
and religious structures became part of the walled city.
These structures had many western architectural features due to
presence of European military advisors in Sikh Khalsa. When British
colonial order came to the walled city, things remained calm as
colonial administrators focused more on developing their
cantonments and offices outside its premises. However, modern era
utilities like water tanks, water pipes, fire hydrants and electrification
did reach the walled city. Due to growth in railway infrastructure and
whole- sale commodity markets, the city experienced steep growth in
its population density (Ezdi 2009).
After the partition of 1947, walled city of Lahore underwent
major transformation. Lahore Improvement Trust took down nearly
2000 houses inside Shahalami alone and a new spatial design was
conceived which reflected most of the developments taking place in
1950s(Janosik 2005). Azam Cloth Market and Pakistan Cloth Market
were developed along a wide vehicular road designed to bear five story
buildings on each side. Many properties belonging to Sikh Gurdawara
and Hindu temples were taken over by the newly-established Evacuee

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Trust Properties Board and were allotted to migrants coming in from

the Indian side of Punjab. Walled City’s population grew by nearly
300 percent from 1947 till 1979 (Qadeer 1983). But during seventies
commercial development picked up at staggering rates due to growth
in textile industry and remittances sent from Middle-Eastern
countries. Properties facing circular road were more prone to such
land-use changings. Neo-liberal policies and globalization also found its
way to the walled city of Lahore with markets expanding and
vehicular traffic increasing. Such transformations brought severe
detrimental effects to historical buildings and most of them were
either demolished for redevelopment or left in precarious conditions.

Architectural features and historical monuments

Architecture of Lahore wall city is predominantly inspired from

Mughal era, with strong impressions of Sikh and Hindu culture as
well. Buildings built during the colonial rule and afterwards till
present time have a western outlook. Streets or Guzars have narrow
organic form which developed without any planned government
interventions. Another important part of the urban architecture are the
koochas or squares. These open squares are designed to enhance the
outlook of attached buildings while acting as public ceremonial spaces.
They enhance the sense of place by connecting the residents all
together through socialization(Daniyal Ahmed 2014). Many such
Koochas are present inside the Lahore walled city like the Koocha
Haveli NauNehal Singh, Koocha Mehar Ghous, etc. Most of the
historical buildings are in a bad shape due to lack of maintenance work.
However, buildings located near the peripheral areas, especially along
the circular road have a clear post-independence modern outlook
(Menesez, Braz, 1983). Commercialization is rampant across the
walled city, with all major arteries having markets along them. Business
hour population counts are much higher than other times in a day due
to intensity of commercial activities.
There were total thirteen gates of walled city but only five have
survived till now. Names of these gates are Bhati Gate, Delhi Gate,
Roshnai Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Shairan wala Gate and Lohari Gate.
British demolished rest of the gates in an effort to de-fortify the city
to avoid possible siege situations. Names of other gates are Akbari,

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Masti, Mochi, Mori, Shah-Alami, Yakki and Taxali. Lahore Fort (a

UNESCO world heritage site) and Badshahi mosque are located on
the northern edge of walled city. There are several historical monuments
inside the city, which include Masjid Wazir Khan and Shahi Hamam
restored with the assistance of Norway and US governments. Shahi
Hamam is a Turkish-bath built during the Mughal era. Moreover,
Sunehri Masjid and numerous havelis of historical significance are also
located in the city. In the year 2012, an adaptive re-use project near
the Taxali Gate established a food street. This project gained
massive popularity as a decaying part of the walled city was
transformed into a scenic and walkable street of restaurants.
Building facades have been painted in colorful textures and rooftop
eateries offer spectacular views of Badshahi mosque and Lahore
fort(Faheem Sikandar, 2016). WCLA has also launched a rickshaw ride
service for the tourists looking to explore the Royal Trail.

4. Comparison of heritage conservation efforts

There have been successful efforts at the local and international levels
to restore the fading glory of the walled city Lahore, while many
such plans were made by the provincial Government of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa but they haven’t materialized yet. Both the cities are
provincial capitals and their walled cities face similar problems but
conservation efforts have remained more successful in Lahore. The
success in Lahore while failure in Peshawar demands us to make a
thorough analysis of policy frameworks and relevant administrative
authorities in both provinces.
In 2006, Government of Punjab in collaboration with the World
Bank launched a pilot project by the name of Sustainable
Development of Walled City Lahore (SDWCL) in order to
rehabilitate the cultural and historical heritage of the city. Initially,
SDWCL acted as a sub-unit of provincial Planning & Development
(P&D) department. Project’s area of focus was the ShahiGuzargah
(Royal Trail) from Delhi Gate till Akbari Gate. Plan included adaptive
re-use techniques, façade redevelopment, utility provisioning and
resettlement of affected population(Vincent Roquet, Luciano
Bornholdt, 2015). However this project took place under a larger project
funded by the World Bank for the improvement of municipal services,

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Punjab Municipal Services Improvement Project (PMSIP), aimed at

improving the capacities of Tehsil Municipal Administrations
(TMAs)(Bank, 2014). A robust resettlement plan was prepared for
this purpose in the year 2010. Data was collected from various
government departments like the Revenue Department, Auqaf
Department and the Local Government institutions like Lahore
Metropolitan Corporation(Malik Aslam, 2010). Then community
mobilization teams interacted with the local population and
educated them regarding the benefits of this project. Active
negotiation was performed regarding resettlement and entitlement
amounts which were timely disbursed and any grievances were
addressed through high-powered proper joint action committees. Agha
Khan Culural Services Pakistan (AKCSP) actively assisted SDWCL
during the whole process. A total of 879 properties were affected in the
entire 1.6 km length of the project, out of which 147 shops were
resettled(Malik Aslam, 2010). Most of the shops belonged to Auqaf
Department and LMC. Apart from the property owners, encroachers
and those occupying without any rights were also compensated.
Success of this project led to the enactment of The Walled City of
Lahore Act 2012, through which conflicts various laws were removed
and an autonomous body ‘Walled city of Lahore Authority’ (WCLA)
was formed. According to the Act, WCLA is responsible for all the
master planning, record-keeping, and development work inside the
walled city of Lahore. Before the formation of WCLA situation
was complicated due to multiplicity of institutional mandates at
various levels of the government and the legislative frameworks
governing conservation, restoration and maintenance of historic assets
in Punjab. But project implementation through a semi-autonomous
public sector company (with public/private board) streamlined
execution and reduced undue political interference(Malik Aslam, 2010).
Recently, there has been an urge to restore the architectural and
cultural heritage of Peshawar walled city. The Directorate of
Archaeology KPK has shown interest in the rehabilitation of a 600-
meter-long (SHAHID SHALMANI, n.d.)‘Heritage Trail’ from Got Khatree
till Clock Tower based on the assistance from experienced consultants.
It is a pilot project bearing similarities with the Royal Trail Project in
Lahore walled city(ftikhar Firdous, 2015). Secretary Archaeology has
also shown his intent to form an autonomous Peshawar Walled City

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Authority. Urban Planning Unit, a sub-unit of provincial P&D

department has also formulated a plan to document the prevailing
conditions of buildings in the walled city, to make strategies for their
restoration and to analyze the legal complexities of the process(Iftikhar
Firdous, n.d.). Majority of these efforts have remained unsuccessful in
producing substantial results. Security situation is a major factor in the
present scenario. In 2010, UNESCO assessed that around 255
monuments had been destroyed in Peshawar only (Campbell 2011).
Government and international community’s focus still remains
on terror prevention and security upgradation instead of urban
planning and heritage protection(Irina Mosel and Ashley Jackson,
2013). Multiplicity of legal/institutional frameworks and lack of
institutional capacities facing Peshawar walled city is quite similar to
the one faced by Lahore before an independent walled city authority
was established there, i.e WCLA. Similarly, land-mafias also oppose
any systematic efforts for preservation of heritage buildings as it is
against their commercial interests. Sustained political will is necessary
for pursuing heritage restoration projects and capacity building of
local governance institutions like the TMAs or Metropolitan
corporations.
The above-mentioned chart is the outline of the national policy
of heritage and culture policy for development of cultural tourism.
With the help of this a diversified action plan for the walled city
Peshawar can be established. With improving security situation, KPK
government can surely allocate more funds to urban rehabilitation
projects. This paper may lead to develop a through plan further.
Furthermore, this may be used to obtain a standard data of the used
material in accordance to the up gradation of walled city Peshawar in
the near future.

5 . Conclusions

Lahore and Peshawar have both valuable cultural assets in the form of
their walled cities. Both cities require continuous political will for the
conservation of these assets. Lahore with its comparably successful
attempts in conservation pilot projects is now able to set an example for
Peshawar to follow. Establishment of WCLA is a flagship step in the
right direction but it took nearly six years to happen even in a city like

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Lahore with the formidable backing of provincial government and

generous support of World Bank. A highly dedicated approach from the
KPK bureaucracy towards inner city renewal is required to achieve any
substantial success because security situation and lack of political
willingness is a major hurdle in Peshawar. A proposal for master
planning of Walled city Peshawar is the first step using GIS technique.
International community’s help must be welcomed as they can provide
the necessary funding and expertise for the resettlement of affected
population. Still, local authorities will always have the largest chunk of
responsibilities to perform and their capacity building should be the
highest priority of any government. Benefits of successful
conservation projects are enormous which range from tourism to
better revenue generation and citizen satisfaction.

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References

Adil Z. (2013) Oh, Peshawar! The Friday Times.

Bank, W. (2014) Implementation, Completion and Results Report

(IBRD-73800) on a Loan in the Amount of US$50 million to Pakistan
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Campbell, J.L. (2011) Architecture and Identity: The Occupation, Use,

and Reuse of Mughal Caravanserais by. 426.

Daniyal A. (2014) Analysis of Koocha Haveli Nau Nihal Singh, The

Walled City , Lahore. JRAP, 17, 39–46.

Ezdi, R. (2009) The dynamics of land use in Lahore inner city: The
case of Mochi Gate. Environment and Urbanization, 21(2), 477–500.
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Faheem S. (2016) Erasing Peshawar’s soul, one building at a time. The

Dawn. Retrieved from https://www.dawn.com/news/1274239

ftikhar F. (2015) Work to restore Peshawar walled city soon. Dawn

News. Retrieved from https://www.dawn.com/news/1197733

Iftikhar F. (n.d.) Walled City of Peshawar trampled by urbanisation.

January 19, 2016. Retrieved from https://tribune.com.pk.

Irina M. and A. Jackson (2013) Sanctuary in the city? Urban

displacement and vulnerability in Peshawar, Pakistan. 33(June), 1–36.
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Janosik, S. M. T. (2005). Divided Cities: Partition and Its Aftermath in

Lahore and Amritsar. NASPA Journal, 42(4), 815–816. https://doi.org.

Khan, S. M. (2010) Sethi Haveli, an Indigenous Model for 21St

Century ‘Green Architecture.’ Archnet-IJAR - International Journal of
Architectural Research, 4(1), 85–98. https://doi.org.

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Khan, S. M., and A. Imdad (2011) Analysis of typological evolution of

Chini-Khanas of the Sethi Havelis, Mohalla Sethian, Peshawar. South
Asian Studies, 27(1), 75–88. https://doi.org.

Malik A. (2010) Resettlement Action Plan. Lahore: SDWCL. Retrieved

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Menesez et. al. (1983) Upgrading and Conserving the walled city of
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Qadeer, M. A. (1983) Lahore: Urban Development in the third world.

In Vanguard Books (Vol. 10, pp. 417–418). https://doi.org.

Rabia N. (2013) Settlement of Pathan Migrants in The Walled City

Lahore (Lahore School of Economics). Retrieved from
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Shahid S. (n.d.). EOI: Heritage Trail". Daily Aaj, January 8, 2017.Arab

News. Retrieved from https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1293206/lifestyle

The News. (2017) Scholar urges Peshawarites to take pride in city’s

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UNESCO Office Islamabad, UNDP (2004) Cultural Tourism in Lahore

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Resettlement: Linking Innovation and Local Benefits. Retrieved from
http://documents1.worldbank.org.

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Peshawar Lahore Walled Remarks/

S. No Characters / Features
Walled City City Observation

500 Acre Very dense and

01 Area Trapezoidal 632 acre undefined form
form in Lahore
02 Urban Form Organic, Organic Clustered form
Very
Narrow/ Cul-
03 Streets narrow winding, narrow
de-sacs
clustered
Multistoried
Building Heights
04 (Mostly 2 Introverted City within itself
(No. of Stories)
stories)
Concept of
Planning
05 Introverted Present central
Characteristics
courtyards
Maximum cooling
Courtyards & achieved through
06 Present Passive cooling
Basements courtyard affects
and jharokas
Maximum cooling
Passive cooling/ achieved through
07 Ventilation/ Lighting Passive cooling
Natural courtyard affects
and jharokas
Availability of
Brick / wood/
08 Materials same the material of
brick tiles
the time.

Engraved Resemblance
Jharokas, blind
09 Decorative elements Arches (chini between the two
arches
khanas) walled cities

10 No. of Gateways 16 13 Same pattern

Mixed use
Pattern Mixed use
Language is
(Bazar/ Masjid/ Pattern
different
Building Temple/ Shrine/ Gurdawara/
otherwise there is
11 Typologies Houses/ Tomb/ Bazars, Masjids,
quite a similarity
patterns Schools/ Houses, havelis,
when you walk
Churches/ food
down the streets.
Gardens/ Inns/ street/gardens.
Army Barracks
Present for
Present in some
12 Elevated Walkways connection to Not present
parts of Peshawar.
streets

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Peshawar fort, Lahore fort,

Sethi House Badshahi Mosque,
13 Heritage sites
Complex, Masjid wazir khan,
GoRkatree, Abasin Begam shahi
Arts Council, mosque,
Food Samadhi
Street,
Regeneration Kapoor
Food Fmily
Street the Ranjeet singh,
adaptive reuse of
14 House, Islamaia Shahi hammam.
Projects new urban trail. many
college, Grant restaurants
Hosteim

Table 1 - Shared Characters of Walled city Peshawar and Walled City Lahore.

Area in
S. No Walled City Building original Function Present Function
Peshawar
01 Mochi Bazar Shops Shops

Mohalla Agha Husain

02 Houses Shops/ Commercial
Sharef, Bazar e Kalan

Shops/
03 Bazar e Kalan Shops
Commercial/ Rent
04 Kareem Pura Houses Commercial / Shops

Mohallah Mughliyan
05 House Houses
Bazar e kalan

06 Pipal Mandi Shops Shops/ Commercial

07 Qissa Khwani Bazar Shops Shops / Commercial
08 Sethi House House Tourist / Visitor space
Commercial
09 Heritage Trail House cum
Residential

Table 2 - Present-day use of the buildings.

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Fig. 1 - Map of Walled city Peshawar- (source UNESCO, Cultural Tourism in Lahore
and Peshawar. (Islamabad: UNESCO, UNDP & Government of Pakistan, 2004)

Fig. 2 - Map of Walled city Peshawar- in 1930’s.

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Fig. 3 - Old Map of Walled city Peshawar showing the gates with Pictures.

Fig. 4 - Entrance to Gor Khutree Peshawar.

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Fig. 5 - Kabuli Gate old city Peshawar.

Fig. 6 - Mohalla Sethian.

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Fig.7 - Qisa Khawani Baazar.

Fig. 8 - Gor Kathree complex facing the new trail walled city Peshawar
(Photo by Author).

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Fig. 9 - Walled city Lahore map-source.

Fig. 10 - View of Walled City Lahore source.

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 Bridging the gap. Walled cities: Peshawar and Lahore

Fig. 11 – Plan of Kocha Nau-Nihal Simgh, Lahore.

Fig. 12 - Kocha Nau Nehal Singh.

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 Journal of Asian Civilizations

Fig. 13 - Thematic Framework of Research (source: UNESCO, Cultural Tourism in

Lahore and Peshawar. (Islamabad: UNESCO, UNDP & Government of Pakistan,
2004)

Vol. 43, No.1, June 2020 157

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