I

9.4 Flow from horizontal pipes

9.4.1 Description

Flow from a horizontal pipe can be estimated by using either the California pipe
method* developed by Van Leer (1922) or the trajectory method developed at Purdue
University by Greeve (1 928). The California pipe method applies only to pipes flowing
less than half full, whereas the more general trajectory method applies equally well
to both partially and completely filled pipes. The California pipe method consists of
measuring the end depth at the pipe outlet and is valid if ye = D, - Y < 0.56 D,
(see Figure 9.9).
The Purdue trajectory method consists of measuring two coordinates of the upper
surface of the jet as shown in Figure 9.10. If the pipe is flowing with a depth of less

PARTIALLY FILLED P I E
( ~ ~ $ 0 Dpfcr
5 6 XzO)

Figure 9.9 Dimension sketch partially filled pipe

SCALE ADJUSTED AND X

-
I
I

-
FIXED TO DESIRED X-VALUE
c I
>

-
SET SCREW

PIPE FLOWING FULL

Figure 9.10 Purdue coordinate method

\ \
\

* The California pipe method is identical to the brink depth method for circular canals.

32 1
and taking the average value.
The error in the discharge value as derived from Figure 9.1 1 for partially filled pipes
may be expected to be less than 3 per cent. The method by which the various errors
have to be combined with other sources of error is shown in Annex 2.

Purdue trajectory method

The shape of the jet from a horizontal pipe can be interpreted by the principle of
a projectile (Figure 9.12). According to this principle, it is assumed that the horizontal
velocity component of the flow is constant and that the only force acting on the jet
is gravity. In time t, a particle on the upper surface of the jet will travel a horizontal
distance X from the outlet of the pipe equal to
x = v,t (9-9)
where v, is the velocity at the point where X = O. In the same time t, the particle
will fall a vertical distance Y equal to
Y = gt2 (9- 1O)

R A T I O YelDp
0.8

0.7

O .6

0.5

O .4

o .3

o .2

o .1

O
O 1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .e

Figure 9. I 1 Flow from horizontal pipes by California pipe method or brink depth method

323
 \
\
\
\
\
Y
\
b
Figure 9.12 Derivation ofjet profile by the principle of projectile

Eliminating t from the above two equations and multiplying each term by the inside
pipe area ‘I4
?T D: and a discharge coefficient ( c d N 1.10) leads to

X2
Q = Cd ‘14 nD,2 J g 2y (9-1 1)

Discharge values in m3/s x IO” (I/s) for 2- to 6-inch diameter (0.05 to O. 15 m) standard
pipes are shown in graphs in Figure 9.13B to D.
Due to the difficulty of making the vertical measurement Y in the Purdue trajectory
method (ye > 0.56 D, or pipe flowing full), the error in flow measurement found
COORDINATE Y
In metres

1 .2 .3 .4 .5 6 .7 .e 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 78910 20 30

MSCHARGE I” m3/. lö3 o/5)

Figure 9.13A Flow from horizontal pipes by either Purdue trajectory method or by California pipe method

324
by using Figure 9.13 may be expected to be about 10 to 15 per cent. If this error
is not to be exceeded, the pipe should be truly horizontal and straight for at least
6 times D, from the outlet. If it slopes downward, the discharge taken from Figure
9.13 will be too low. If it slopes upward, the discharge will be too high.

COORDINATE Y
in metres

.om .O04 .O06 D10 ,015 .O2 .O3 .O4 05 .O7 .lo0
DISCHARGE in m3/5

Figure 9.13B (cont.)

COORDINATE Y
in metres

.o02 .o04 .o07 .O1 .O15 .O2 .O3 .O4 .O6 .O8 .10
DISCHARGE in 177315
Figure 9.13C (cont.)

325
 E in metres
C O ~ R D ~ N A TY

.O02 .O04 .O07 .a .O2 .O3 .O4 .O6 .O8 10

DISCHARGE in m3/s
Figure 9.13D(cont.)

9.4.3 Limits of application

The limits of application that enable a reasonably accurate estimate of the discharge
from a horizontal pipe are:
a. Pipes should have clear cut edges and a constant diameter over at least a length
of 6 D, from the outlet;
b. Pipes should be straight and truly horizontal over at least a length of 6 D, from
the outlet;
c. Pipes must discharge freely into the air.

9.5 Brink depth method for rectangular canals

9.5.1 Description

When the bottom of a low gradient canal drops suddenly, a free overfall is formed
which, since flow changes to supercritical, may be used as a discharge measurement
device. In principle, any canal cross section can be used for flow measurement provided
that the free overfall is calibrated.
Sufficiently accurate experimental data, however, are only available for rectangular
and circular cross sections. Since the circular section was treated in Section 9.4, we
will confine our remarks here to the brink depth method for rectangular canals.

The simplest case of a free overfall is that of a rectangular canal with sidewalls continu-
ing downstream on either side of the free nappe over a distance of at least 0.3 H,,,,,
so that at the brink the atmosphere has access only to the upper and lower side of
the nappe. This is a two-dimensional case with a ‘confined nappe’, and is the only
form of the problem for which serious attempts have been made to find a solution.

326
Some experiments, however, have been made on a free overfall with ‘unconfined
nappe’, i.e. where the side walls end at the sudden drop.
In the situation shown in Figure 9.14, flow takes place over a confined drop which
is sharp enough (usually 90 degrees) to guarantee complete separation of the nappe.
The bottom of the tailwater channel should be sufficiently remote so as not to influence
the streamline curvature at the brink section. To ensure that this does not happen,
the drop distance should be greater than 0.6 yc.
The user will experience difficulty in making the measurement ye exactly at the brink.
Since the upper nappe surface is curved, any small error in the location of the gauge
will cause large errors in ye. Actually, the only method by which ye can be measured
accurately is by installing a point gauge in the middle of the canal exactly above the
brink. Since a point gauge is vulnerable to damage, however, a staff gauge, with its
face flush with the side wall, will be found more practical. The location of the brink
should be marked on the gauge face to enable ye readings to be made. The brink depth
as measured at the side wall will be higher than that in the middle of the canal, because
of side wall effects. To limit the effect of roughness on the brink depth as measured
with a staff gauge, the side walls as well as the bottom of the canal should be smooth.
If the brink depth is measured with a point gauge, no significant influence of roughness
is found, as is illustrated for three values of the equivalent sand roughness, k, in Figure
9.15.

9.5.2 Evaluation of discharge

If we assume that the streamlines in the rectangular canal are straight and parallel,
we may, according to Equation 1-26, write the specific energy in the canal as

(9-12)

Differentiation of Ho to y, while q remains constant leads to

(9- 13)

.l

M -.

MINIMUM DROP DISTANCE -- - -+q

Figure 9.14 Flow profile at the free overfall

327
 y, in m.

.O7

smooth channel
o so=o
.O6 A so~o.oo(
+ s0~0.002
x S0=00025

.O5
kZ0.08m x109
a so=o
.O4
* so~o.ool
o so=oocQ
4 S0:Q0025

k:0.30m x10-3
o so=o
o so~o.ool
.o2
+ s0=aoo2
e S0z0.0Q25

.o1

O
.o1 02 .O4 .05
-
t .07 .O8 .(
yein m

Figure 9. I5 Relation between ye and yc (after Kraijenhoff van de Leur and Dommerholt 1972)
9

If the depth of flow is critical (y = yc), dH,/dy equals zero, and we may write

(9- 14)

Assuming CL = 1 and substituting Q = bcq leads to

Q = bc& Ycy2 (9- 15)

The experiments of Rouse (1936), and further experiments by various authors, showed
that for a confined nappe the brink section has a flow depth equal to

328
 ye = 0.715 yc (9- 16)
resulting in the discharge equation

= 5.18bcye3’2 (9- 17)

Q = ( A 5y
b c & 0.71
As shown in Figure 9.15, slight variations in the roughness of the canal boundaries
and in the canal bottom slope are of little significance on the ratio ye/yc. If the free
overfall has an unconfined nappe, however, the ratio ye/yc is somewhat less than in
the two-dimensional case, being equal to 0.705.
For a free overfall which is constructed and maintained with reasonable care and
skill, the coefficients 0.715 and 0.705 can be expected to have an error of the order
of 2% and 3% respectively, provided ye is measured in the middle of the channel. If
ye is measured at the side walls an additional error in ye occurs due to boundary rough-
ness (see Section 9.4.2 for other possible errors). The method by which these errors
are to be combined with other sources of error is shown in Annex 2.

9.5.3 Limits of application

The limits of application of the brink depth method for rectangular canals are:
a. Perpendicular to the flow, the brink should be truly horizontal and the side walls
of the rectangular approach canal should be parallel from end to end;
b. To obtain a uniform velocity distribution, the length of the approach channel
should not be less than 12 ye;
c. The longitudinal slope of this approach channel should preferably be zero but not
more than s = 0.0025;
d. The practical lower limit of ye is related to the magnit.ude of the influence of fluid
properties and the accuracy with. which ye can be measured. The recommended
lower limit is 0.03 m;
e. The y,-value should be measured in the middle of the canal, preferably by means
of a point gauge;
f. The width of the canal should not be less than 3 yemaxnor less than 0.30 m;
g. To obtain free flow, the drop height should not be less than 0.6 yc,,,.

9.6 Dethridge meter

9.6.1 Description

The Dethridge meter is a rather commonly used device for measuring the volume
of irrigation water supplied to farms from main and lateral canals in Australia. The
meter was designed by J.S. Dethridge of the State Rivers and Water Supply Com-
mission, Victoria, in 1910. This Commission provided the present information on the
standard device, of which today about 40000 are in operation in irrigation areas
throughout Australia. The meter consists of an undershot water wheel turned by the
discharging water passing through its emplacement, which is a short concrete outlet
specially formed to provide only the minimum practicable clearance of the lower half
of the wheel at its sides and round the lowest 70 degrees of its circumference. Two

329