Chapter 2: Ballast properties 11

Chapter 2: Ballast properties

2.1 BALLAST PROPERTIES

2.1.1 Properties
The functions of ballast have been discussed in Chapter 1 and it is therefore
necessary to consider the properties of the rock that are needed to fulfil those
functions.
The primary functions of ballast and the corresponding properties of the rock
required to perform adequately are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Properties of rock required to perform the primary functions of ballast

Function Property

Uniform elastic support Resistance to crushing

Strength
Resistance to abrasion and attrition
Resilient shape
Durable material
Resistance to weathering/chemical breakdown

Stable matrix to provide lateral stability Interlocking

High frictional properties
Dense material

Facilitate correction to line and level Loose coarse grained uncemented material
Strong particles
Particles able to be re-arranged
Large particles with adequate strength

The secondary functions of ballast as described in Chapter 1 cover a variety of

areas; the properties ballast needs to perform those functions would be covered
by the following:
• High permeability of the aggregate mass.
• Sufficiently large pore space in the aggregate mass.
• High electrical resistance.

2.1.2 Discussion of properties

Resistance to crushing
The forces delivered to the rock will be high and dynamic due to the nature of
the loads transmitted from the rail to the sleeper and to the ballast. Because
the support for the sleeper consists of an aggregate bedding, the load transfer
will not be uniform but will be transferred from sleeper to ballast at numerous
points of contact. There will be many more points of contact for smaller
aggregate than for larger sized aggregate.
For ballast to withstand the crushing forces from the high contact pressures
from the loads transferred through the sleeper, the rock needs to have a high
compressive strength.
 12 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

This depends on the rock type/mineralogy, structure and also on obvious

fractures in the rock such as bedding, cleavage and schistosity, which will
break the rock up into smaller particles under load.
Notwithstanding that a rock has a high result from a strength test the
long-term strength of the ballast will also be governed by any planes of
weakness in the rock that might not be visible to the naked eye, and for these
to be found it will require examination under microscope.
The structure and mineralogy of the rock are therefore important properties to
be assessed when evaluating the strength of the rock.

Resistance to abrasion
Due to the cyclic and dynamic action of the train loading, the ballast material
will be subjected to a very aggressive, abrasive environment. During the high
vibration imposed on the ballast the ‘particle-to-particle interaction’ and the
‘sleeper-to-particle interface’ will cause the rough particle faces to be worn
smooth (see Figure 2.1). If the rock contains a significant proportion of soft
minerals such as clays or mica, the rock will abrade readily. Conversely, if the
rock contains a significant proportion of hard minerals such as quartz or
anorthite, the rock will abrade less. The rock needs to have a hard matrix with
hard crystals and strong crystal interlocking.

Figure 2.1: Attrition of ballast producing rounded particles

Rock with coarse-grained crystals can become rounded easily as the crystals
are plucked from the matrix, and fine-grained strong rocks of weaker crystals
degrade. In general, sedimentary rock is not satisfactory for use as ballast.
When the rock loses its roughness or its frictional properties, the stability of the
track is dramatically reduced.
In addition to the loss of frictional properties, the fines produced by the
abrasion or attrition can have an adverse effect on the drainage properties of
the ballast. Raymond (1976, p. 26) discusses the issue of breakdown of ballast
due to abrasion producing fines in the ballast that are impermeable and cause
fouling problems in the track.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 13

Tests on the fines produced showed that some ballasts, while producing mores
fines due to abrasion, produced fines that were permeable and therefore were of
less concern regarding the fouling of the ballast.

Resilient shape
The shape of the particle is extremely important to ensure good interlocking
and strength. Particles that are long or thin and flaky (flat) can break very
easily and do not pack together to form a dense structure. The best shape is a
cubical shape.
The shape of an aggregate can be controlled by the crushing procedures; poor
crushing methods will produce poor results. A limit is placed on the percentage
of poorly shaped rock in aggregate supplied for use as ballast.

Durable rock
When used as ballast the rock is always exposed to the environment and needs
to be able to maintain its properties throughout its life as ballast. Shale rocks
can weather rapidly within months, and even some basalts (such as green
basalts in Victoria) have been found to have a similar behaviour and will
breakdown rapidly into clays due to exposure to the atmosphere and wetting
and drying cycles. Fine-grained basic igneous rocks such as basalt generally
perform well as ballast; however, some basalts do have a high loss rate due to
attrition or abrasion.
Coarse-grained rocks such as granites have a lower durability, as the larger
crystals are more quickly degraded in the atmosphere. Some metamorphic
rocks such as quartzite perform well because the original quartz grains are
recrystallised into an interlocked texture.
The strength of the rock may reduce when the rock is saturated and this loss in
strength is a measure of the durability of the rock, and is thus incorporated in
several of the indicative tests.
The ballast rock is going to be subject to chemical alteration due to the
exposure to oxygen and water and mild acidic rains, which will attack
susceptible minerals such as clays or crystals in micro fractures.
Planes of weakness detected by microscopic examination could consist of
micro-fractures, or alignment of minerals along a plane. They may cause the
ballast to break into smaller particles under repeated load, or break apart due
to the action of the expansion of infiltrated water during freezing and thawing
in cold climates. If these fractures or planes contain minerals that can degrade
when exposed to the atmosphere, the particles will disintegrate over time,
without any load applied.
Some basalts have been found to contain micro-fractures filled with calcite that
have dissolved in the mild acidic rain water, causing breakdown into small
particles. These fractures are only visible under a microscope. Undesirable
combination of minerals within a rock can also cause breakdown, for example
micro-fractures filled with calcite, in combination with pyrite elsewhere in the
rock—for example, Nattery Hill Quarry, Marulan, in New South Wales. In this
case, the pyrite can form dilute sulphuric acid on exposure to weather, which
will dissolve the calcite (see Figure 2.2).
 14 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Figure 2.2: Breakdown of basalt particle containing micro-fractures filled with calcite

A source of ballast that was used by QR in North Queensland contained a

secondary mineral (zeolite) that caused the ballast to breakdown upon exposure
to the atmosphere. QR no longer uses this ballast.

Interlocking
The ballast particles need to be able to pack into a dense stable matrix and
interlock. This is governed by the particle shape (as discussed above) and the
variation in particle size. Much better interlocking and stability is achieved
where there are a range of particle sizes present in the ballast. This, however,
needs to be considered with the requirement for other properties such as
drainage and void spaces.
The grading of ballast in in New South Wales has traditionally had coefficient of
uniformity (Cu) of 1.5 to 1.7, where, Cu=d60/d10 (particle size greater than
60%/particle size greater than 10%).
Studies by the University of Wollongong (see Figure 2.3) have shown that there
is considerable benefit to reduced particle breakage, reduced ballast settlement,
and increased stability when the grading coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is
increased from 2.3 to 2.6. The grading of the ballast supplied to RailCorp in
New South Wales has been varied to make this change (see Figure 2.4; also see
Indraratna et al. 2004).
4
Breakage (%)

3 Very Uniform

2 Uniform
Gap
Moderately
graded
1 graded

0
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Cu

Figure 2.3: Results of research by UoW showing reduced particle breakage for an increased
coefficient of uniformity
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 15

Figure 2.4: Comparison between ballast of Cu about 1.5 (left) and Cu about 2.4 (right)

High frictional properties

The frictional characteristic of the ballast is a function of both particle shape
and interlocking, and is also governed by the rock type and particle surfaces.
Particles that have smooth surfaces will reduce the friction of the ballast
material as a whole. If the ballast is derived from crushed river gravels there
will be some faces that retain the rounded nature of the river rounded rock.
Where the rock is crushed from relatively small stones, there is a high
likelihood that many smooth faces will exist in the ballast product. Rock of this
type is avoided where the track is in hot climates and welded track stability is a
critical issue.

Dense material
A rock that has a high density will provide a more stable ballast bed by virtue of
its higher mass. The ballast source together with the grading of the mix will
determine this density. Blast furnace slag, for example, has been found to have
a much lower density than igneous rocks. This can be used as ballast where
the impact of the lighter material is considered as low (such as in sidings).

Loose material
This property refers to the need to be able to rearrange the ballast when
adjusting the track level and is met by the other properties discussed.

High permeability
While the ballast needs to have good interlocking, it also needs to drain rapidly.
The track is not shielded from the weather and the ballast must not hold water
or its ability to fulfil its primary function will reduce. This property is easily
achieved by ensuring that the percentage of small-sized particles is kept to a
minimum. The ballast grading is therefore close to a uniform sized material.
The traditional uniformly graded ballast with a Cu of 1.5 to 1.7 is very
permeable and has a void ratio of 0.77. Ballast with a Cu of between 2.3 to 2.6
will improve interlocking, which will reduce the void ratio by a very small
amount to 0.71.
 16 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Large pore spaces

Ballast is subject to infiltration by foreign material from adjacent earthworks
(such as sediments from the faces of cuttings) or from spillage from freight
trains (such as coal, wheat or limestone). This infiltration inhibits drainage and
destroys the ballast ability to perform its primary functions. There needs to be
sufficient pore spaces in the ballast for this material to accumulate over time
without impeding its drainage properties until maintenance and cleaning can
be arranged to restore the drainage property.
This requirement requires a compromise between better interlocking and high
void space. Each track maintainer will have different requirements depending
on the geography and type of freight carried.

Electrical resistance
Where the track signalling relies on the rails to act as conductors for the signal
current, it is necessary that the ballast material does not complete the circuit if
it becomes wet. There have been problems of signal failures during wet weather
where the ballast and the track has been fouled with coal fines or when the
ballast has consisted of blast furnace slag or steelmaking slag. When the
ballast is allowed to build up around the rails there is a higher likelihood of
signal failures in poor track that has ballast with lower resistivity.

2.1.3 Testing for the properties

To determine whether the material proposed for use as ballast would have
these properties listed above, it is necessary to have methods of measuring the
properties. However, it is not possible to measure these properties efficiently for
the masses of aggregate that make the ballast. Therefore, indicative tests in
samples of the source rock or the aggregate have been devised empirically over
the years and values have been set down in specifications for the supply of
material to be used as ballast.
The material is evaluated in two separate forms. The source of the rock from
which the ballast is to be quarried is tested differently to that of the product
after quarrying, crushing and processing. The source rock is evaluated for its
strength and durability for consideration as ballast material. There are ‘Source
standards’ that cover the acceptability of new sources. After quarrying and
processing there are numerous tests derived to evaluate the aggregate for all of
the properties required including, again, the strength and durability, but in the
aggregate form the criteria is called ‘Product standard’.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 17

2.2 SOURCES OF BALLAST MATERIAL

2.2.1 Background
A history of the materials used as ballast in New South Wales has been written
by Don Hagarty and presented in an article in the Bulletin of Australian Railway
Historical Society in December 2004. This article is recommended reading for
this chapter.
In the early construction of railways in New South Wales the ballast was
sourced from the most available material within close proximity to the line. The
actual functions of the ballast were not all recognised at this time and any
gravelly material was considered satisfactory. Sand from adjacent sand hills
was used, as was crushed sandstone and other rock. Broken up building
materials (such as brick) were also used when such materials were available as
a result of demolitions for the construction of the line or as a waste product. In
pioneer lines the ballast often consisted of earth mounded in the centre of the
track to shed water, and as the railways grew, boiler ash from the steam
locomotives became an abundant waste product and was used on tracks as
ballast in many locations.
Train speeds were low and the traffic relatively light and the geometry of the
track was not so critical.
These early ballast materials satisfied one of the primary functions of ballast, in
that it was possible to correct the track line and level as these materials were
easy to move, rearrange and compact. However, these materials did not have
the strength or resilience to withstand the higher cyclic loads from the trains,
and therefore maintenance requirements increased rapidly as train speeds and
loads increased. These materials also suffered dramatically from the presence
of water and rapidly lost their ability to support the track, or were washed away
in storms.

Ash ballast layer at

the base of newer
stone ballast

Figure 2.5: Original ash ballast at the base of newer rock ballast
 18 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

2.2.2 Ballast sources

The operational requirements of modern track—where track speeds and loads
are increasing—are met by a limited number of ballast sources. Table 2.2
shows a list of materials used successfully as ballast.

Table 2.2: Sources of rock used as ballast

Source of material Type

Crushed igneous rock Acid igneous rock such as: granite, rhyolite,
dacite, quartz porphyry, etc.
Intermediate igneous rock such as: andesite,
diorite, trachyte latite, etc.
Basic igneous rock such as: basalt, dolerite

Crushed metamorphic rock quartzite, hornfels, meta greywacke, greenstone,

slate, amphibolite

Crushed sedimentary rock limestone, dolomite, mudstone, arenite, chert,

silcrete

Crushed gravel river gravel

Waste products crushed slag

crushed coal chitter

These ballast sources may not satisfy all of the requirements for ballast, thus
testing is required to discover the deficiencies and what impact those
deficiencies would have on the performance of the track. For example, crushed
river gravel produces very durable, hard ballast; however, if the source of gravel
includes smaller sized gravels, the resulting product will include numerous
uncrushed or only partially crushed particles, which will result in ballast that
has very reduced frictional properties and low lateral stability.
In addition, crushed slag can be a relatively low-cost product where the track is
in the vicinity of a blast furnace. However, blast furnace slag is relatively low in
density and this may compromise the stability of the track, plus its low
abrasion resistance may result in rapid settlement. Steelmaking slag, on the
other hand, is stronger and heavier but contains a relatively high percentage of
iron and sulphur, and therefore has some conductivity and may create
problems with signal currents where the signalling system uses the rails, as
well as problems with corrosion.

Source rock testing

When investigating a potential source of rock for ballast, unless the quarry has
been in production for other uses of aggregate (such as concrete) and the
history of the rock is known, it is necessary to evaluate the quality of the rock
for durability and strength properties. In this situation there may only exist
drill core or rock chips from the exploration process or large cobbles from
surface sampling.
One of the most useful test methods to evaluate source rock is petrographic
analysis (see Section 2.3.3 in this Text Resource). This involves examination of
hand samples and thin sections of the rock under magnification using a
polarising microscope, which assists with the identification of the mineralogy
and texture of the samples.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 19

The petrographic properties of the rock will assist in the assessment of the
durability of the rock. A summary of the petrographic properties showing the
deleterious effect of various minerals and properties is presented in a table in
Selig and Waters (1994, p. 7.28).
The strength of the rock must also be assessed by unconfined compression
tests on cores or point load tests on hand samples.

2.2.3 Examples of ballast sources

Figures 2.6 to 2.10 are examples of rock types that have been satisfactory
sources of ballast.

Figure 2.6: Olivine gabbro ballast from the North Coast of New South Wales
 20 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Figure 2.7: Latite ballast from Bombo, New South Wales

Figure 2.8: Quartzite ballast from Marrangaroo, New South Wales

 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 21

Figure 2.9: Quartz porphyry ballast from Marulan, New South Wales

Figure 2.10: Ballast from North Queensland

 22 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

2.3 BALLAST TESTING METHODS

2.3.1 Indicative testing

The properties required of ballast have been related to a variety of aggregate
tests. These are mostly set down in Australia in the Australian Standards series
AS 1141, ‘Methods of sampling and testing aggregates’. Some rail authorities or
network maintainers have adopted other test methods to more appropriately
evaluate rock for use as ballast in their systems. As such, there are a number
of different methods to evaluate the required properties and rarely do these
methods directly measure the property.
The following discussion presents the required properties of interest and the
tests adopted as indicators of these properties. The tests result in values that
need to be compared to acceptable limits that have been adopted by the
specifying authority to represent acceptable material for use as ballast. These
limits are regularly reviewed based on feedback on the performance of the
ballast and/or new research that indicates a more appropriate test or limit.

2.3.2 Test methods for ballast functions

The test methods outlined below have been arranged according to the basic
properties required of ballast.

Table 2.3: Test methods used to indicate properties of ballast

Property Test method

Strength and resilience Unconfined compression tests on cores for source rock
Wet/dry strength variation
Aggregate crushing value
Los Angeles abrasion
Wet strength
Particle shape

Durability Petrographic analysis

Wet/dry strength variation
Sodium sulfate soundness
Degradation factor
Mill abrasion
Wet attrition test
Abrasion number, an

Interlocking and friction and stability Particle size distribution

Shape
Density
Fractured faces on crushed river gravel
Clay content

Density Particle density

Bulk density

Abrasion resistance Los Angeles abrasion

Wet attrition test
Mill abrasion

Drainage and void space Particle size distribution

Void space analysis
Clay content
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 23

Property Test method

Electrical resistance No test at present

Handling Particle size distribution

2.3.3 Test method mechanisms

Most test methods used for the measurement of ballast properties have been
described and standardised in the Australian Standard AS 1141:1999. This
standard covers all recognised Australian methods for the testing of aggregate
for engineering purposes. The tests have been adopted from Australian and
overseas aggregate tests and are described in a consistent format for the
standard. There are still some tests that are used by railway authorities that
are not described in AS 1141 (Methods of sampling and testing aggregates),
although it is possible that they will also be included in the future.
Following is a short description of the principal mechanism of each test. The
test procedure is not described here, as it can be found in the relevant test
method in the standard.

Sampling, AS 1141.3
The purpose of ballast sampling is to recover a representative sample of the
material produced to conduct the relevant laboratory tests. Ballast is a very
difficult material to sample and ensure that it is representative due to the size
and weight of the sample and the fact that the material is easily segregated.
In a stockpile where the material is delivered by an overhead conveyor, the
larger material will separate to the edges of the stockpile and it can be difficult
(when sampling from a stockpile) to ensure full representation of all sizes.
Sampling in this situation—from the stockpile—requires the use of an
excavator to recover a large sample from the edges and within the stockpile,
which is then remixed and sampled by hand. Sampling for the quality control of
ballast production is usually taken from the conveyor before it is delivered to
the stockpile. Coarse aggregate can become segregated by improper handling
and transport activities and so sampling and testing of test ballast needs to
consider where the material for testing was obtained.
The standard AS 1141.3 describes several methods to ensure that sample is
representative.

Petrographic analysis
As discussed in the previous section, petrographic analysis is used to
determine the minerals and texture of the rock to be used for ballast. The
analysis is conducted by an experienced petrographer using a polarising
microscope on thin sections of the rock. There is no standard test method for
the analysis, although there is a standard method for the measure of secondary
minerals in the rock: AS 1141.26, ‘Secondary mineral content in igneous rock’.
The analysis also can provide information on the texture of the rock and the
presence of micro-fractures. This analysis is used to determine the potential of
a rock source to degrade when exposed to the atmosphere; the analysis
requires the advice of an experienced geologist/petrographer.
 24 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

The petrographic report should give a description of the hand specimen:

identify the rock type, fabric, texture, grain size, mineral composition of the
sample, secondary minerals and the proportion of each mineral. If the
petrographer has knowledge of ballast requirements and conditions ballast is
subjected to, the report can also make comments on the rock’s likely
performance as ballast, based on the petrographic analysis.

Wet strength, wet/dry strength variation, AS 1141.22

The wet strength and wet/dry strength variation is a crushing test of material of
less than 19mm, confined in a steel cylinder under controlled loading and
deformation. The measure is the degree of crushing of the material that occurs
and the load required to cause that degree of crushing. The difference between
the wet and dry strengths (that is, the difference between the results for
saturated surface dry and oven dried) is a measure of the durability of the rock.
As there are usually very few particles less than 19mm in the ballast grading,
the test requires that the ballast be crushed down to the size fraction specified
by the test. Some rail organisations are concerned that this crushing process
may selectively remove weaker large particles.

Degradation factor, AS 1141.25

The degradation factor involves subjecting each ballast fraction from 13.5mm
and smaller and a crushed portion of the rock to vibration/shaking in a wet
environment to measure the amount of clay sized particles that are produced.
This measure is useful to evaluate the durability of the rock and the potential
for the degradation products to cause additional problems to the drainage
characteristics of the ballast.

Aggregate crushing value, AS 1141.21

The aggregate crushing value is similar in procedure to the wet/dry strength
variation, with a sample crushed within a steel cylinder, except that it is a dry
test. The measure is the amount of material crushed that passes a certain sieve
size after the test is complete.
The basic test requires material smaller than the 19.5mm and the there are
options to conduct the test using aggregate of larger size than the 19mm, where
a much larger cylinder is required. This larger cylinder requires additional
manual handling equipment.

Los Angeles abrasion, AS 1141.23

The Los Angeles abrasion test is more a crushing test than an abrasion test, as
the ballast is tumbled in a drum with a charge of steel balls. The sample is put
through a set number of cycles of rotation with the steel balls and the measure
is the amount of material crushed or abraded off the particles, passing a set
sieve size after the completion of the test. Figure 2.11 is a sketch from
AS 1141.23 showing the configuration of the test machine.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 25

Figure 2.11: Los Angeles test machine, from AS 1141.23

Wet attrition, AS 1141.27

The wet attrition test is a measure of the loss of roughness of the rock caused
by particles rubbing against each other. The test is done by placing aggregate in
an inclined cylinder with a measure of water and rotating for 10,000 cycles at
33rpm, causing the particles to tumble end to end. The particles become worn
like river gravel and indicate the potential for loss of frictional properties over
time and traffic. The measure is the percentage loss of material worn off the
particles measured by washing the tested sample over a set sieve size.
Figure 2.12 is a diagram of the wet attrition (or Deval) test machine.

Figure 2.12: Wet attrition test machine, motor outside box to the land; sketch from
AS 1141.27

Mill abrasion—not an Australian standard test

In Australia the Mill abrasion test is only conducted by the Department of Main
Roads in Queensland, and is used by QR in conjunction with the Los Angeles
test to determine the abrasion number, LA value + 5 x Mill abrasion value to
measure the durability of rock for ballast. The test is similar, in principle, to the
wet attrition test, except the container is a porcelain container and is rotated
about its axis for 10,000 revolutions at 33rpm. The measure is the material lost
from the large particles due to the particle-to-particle attrition in the tumbling
action. Figure 2.13 is a photograph of the test machine for the Mill abrasion
test.
 26 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Figure 2.13: Mill abrasion test machine (QDMR)

Sodium sulfate soundness, AS 1141.24

The sodium sulfate test measures the potential for a rock to break up due to
weathering, where there may be voids or micro-fractures that will accelerate
weathering due to wetting and drying actions. The test involves saturating the
rock in a solution of sodium sulfate and drying the rock to allow the crystals to
grow. If there are voids or fractures and the growing crystals cause the rock to
break it is an indication of premature breakdown due to weathering in service.

Particle density and water absorption, AS 1141.6

Particle density is important for track stability; the density measured is for the
individual particles. There is another test method for ‘Bulk density’ (AS 1141.4),
which is a measure of the density of the ballast in situ and will be a function of
the particle density and the grading of the material. There are limits set for
each of these.
Water absorption is a measure of how porous the rock is and can indicate the
potential for breakdown due to rapid weathering and loss of strength.

Particle size distribution, AS 1141.11

The grading of the ballast is the critical property of the ballast—for stability,
drainage, elasticity, and storage of fines. This is determined by passing the
sample through a set of different size sieves and reporting the percentage
passing each sieve.
Ballast is traditionally a very uniform sized aggregate to ensure that the
drainage characteristics are sufficient. However, where there is predominantly
one size of aggregate there is a reduction in stability of the material, and the
ballast dilates more under a cyclic loading.
The grading of the ballast influences the volume of voids within the bulk
material, which will be filled by sediment and other contaminants over time.
The larger the volume of voids the longer the ballast can be left before drainage
is impeded and cleaning is required.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 27

Ballast fouling is the measure used to determine when ballast requires

cleaning; it is determined in two ways. The traditional method of measuring
fouling is to determine the percentage of fines within the ballast by mass. An
alternative, which is important to use where the fouling is by coal fines (which
are lighter than rock) is to determine the percentage of voids filled. These
maintenance issues will be discussed in Chapter 4.

Crushed particles, AS 1141.18

Where the source of rock being quarried is from river gravel, it is important that
the ballast particles are crushed rock and not rounded rock. The test is a
measure of the number of particles with less than two crushed faces. Rail
specifiers set limits for minimum percentage of crushed particles.

Particle shape, AS 1141.14, .15 and .16

There are several measures of particle shape:
• Misshapen particles by proportional calliper—AS 1141.14
• Flakiness index—AS 1141.15
• Angularity number—AS 1141.16.
AS 1141.14 describes the determination of the proportion of particles in ballast
that are either:
• flat
• elongated, or
• flat and elongated
… using a proportional calliper measuring the ratio of the length to width, and
the width to thickness. The specifier has a choice of two ratios: 2:1 or 3:1.
AS 1141.15 sets out a method for determining the flakiness index of an
aggregate; a flaky particle is defined as a particle with a least dimension
(thickness) less than 0.6 of its mean dimension. The mean dimension is the
mean of the smallest sieve aperture through which the particle passes and the
largest sieve on which the particle is retained. The test uses thickness gauges
through which each particle is passed.
AS 1141.16 sets out a method for the determination of the angularity number
(a measure based on the percentage of voids in an aggregate compared to the
voids in the least angular aggregates (rounded), which have about 33 per cent
voids) of an aggregate. The angularity number is defined as the amount by
which the percentage of voids exceeds 33 per cent.

Suggested reading
Properties of ballast material are discussed in Selig and Waters (1994,
pp. 7.1–7.47).
 28 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

2.4 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRODUCTION, SUPPLY AND

DELIVERY OF BALLAST
Specifications for ballast are prepared by each rail maintainer to define the
properties of the ballast required for the use on the various lines of the
organisation. These specifications will include limits for the tests described
earlier and may include additional controls on the supply, delivery and
handling of the ballast.

2.4.1 Standards and specifications

There is an Australian Standard for ballast, AS 2758.7:1996, Aggregates and
Rock for Engineering Purposes—Railway Ballast. This standard sets out broad
requirements for the supply of aggregate for use as ballast. It gives some degree
of choice over such properties as grading and tests for durability, but it is also
a guide and states that it is the responsibility for each authority to define its
own specification for its local conditions and application.
There is no mandatory requirement for the railway owners and maintainers to
adopt the Australian Standard for the production of ballast; the
owner/maintainer can prepare its own specification using the values provided
in the Australian Standard or from other information sources.
However, if the Australian Standard is used for the specification of the quality
and properties of ballast it is necessary for the specifier to also prepare a works
specification. The works specification would specify all the tests appropriate to
the source rock or to tender samples and the selection of test procedures and
test limits where alternatives are provided in the Australian Standard.
Different owners/maintainers have, over time (prior to the introduction of the
Australian Standard), developed test procedures and established test limits that
have been found to deliver satisfactory ballast for their business. The following
sections will present a comparison of the various properties of ballast as
required by several of the major railway owner/maintainers in Australia.
The following Table 2.4 presents a comparison of the variation in test methods
adopted by the major rail owners/maintainers in Australia.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 29

Table 2.4: Summary of ballast tests adopted by the rail industry in Australia

Test method AS ARTC QR WestNet RailCorp

2758.7 Rail
AS 1141.4:2000 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates—bulk density of aggregate Y Y N Y Y

AS 1141.6.1:2000 Methods for sampling and testing

aggregates—particle density and water absorption of Y Y Y N Y
coarse aggregate—weighing-in-water method
AS 1141.11:1996/Amdt 1:1999 Methods for sampling
and testing aggregates—particle size distribution by Y Y Y N Y
sieving
AS 1141.12:1996 Methods for sampling and testing of
aggregates—materials finer than 75 micrometre in Y Y Y Y Y
aggregates (by washing)
AS 1141.14:1995/Amdt 1:1998 Methods for sampling
and testing aggregates—particle shape, by proportional Y Y Y Y Y
caliper
AS 1141.18:1996/Amdt 1:1998 Methods for sampling
and testing aggregates—crushed particles in coarse Y Y N N Y
aggregate derived from river gravel
AS 1141.15:1999 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates—flakiness index N Y N Y Y

AS 1141.21:1997 Methods for sampling and testing

aggregates—aggregate crushing value
Y Y N Y Y
* to be in conjunction with wet attrition value
(AS 1141.27)
AS 1141.22:1996 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates—wet strength and wet/dry strength Y N N Y N
variation
AS 1141.23:1995/Amdt 1:1997 Methods for sampling
and testing aggregates—Los Angeles value
Y Y Y Y N
* to be in conjunction with wet/dry strength variation
(AS 1141.22)
AS 1141.24:1997 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates—aggregate soundness—evaluation by N N Y N N
exposure to sodium sulfate solution
AS 1141.27:1995/Amdt 1:1999 Methods for sampling
and testing aggregates—resistance to wear by attrition Y Y N N Y
wet/dry (WAV)—also called the Deval attrition test
AS 1141.32:1995 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates—weak particles (including clay lumps, soft N Y N N Y
and friable particles) in coarse aggregates
Internal QR methods Mill abrasion STM 028/99
Crushed particles Q215 N N Y N N
Also use AS 1141.25 Degradation factor
Internal WestNet methods Clay lumps ASTM C142
Soft and friable pieces AS 1141.52
Also have in-house particle size distribution, specify N N N Y N
3
particle density of 2600kg/m , employ ISRM method for
determining point load strength
 30 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

2.4.2 Source material standards

When establishing the durability of a rock, the Australian Standard AS 2758.7
advises that for a new source of rock where there are no records of experience,
assessment procedures appropriate for that source be used, assisted by
microscopic examination. QR has developed a set of test limits for the various
source material group.

Table 2.5: Source material standards from QR Specification no. CT.147

Property Ballast Source material group

type
Acid Intermediate Basic Metamorphic Sedimentary,
igneous igneous igneous (Note 1) duricrust

Particle 1 2.50 t/m3 2.55 t/m3 2.70 t/m3 2.60 t/m3 2.50 t/m3
density (SSD) 2 2.50 t/m3 2.50 t/m3 2.65 t/m3 2.55 t/m3 2.50 t/m3
Minimum 3 3 3 3
3 2.50 t/m 2.50 t/m 2.60 t/m 2.50 t/m 2.50 t/m3
Water absorption
1, 2, 3 2% 2% 2% 2% 2%
Maximum

Wet strength 1 150 kN 160 kN 175 kN 160 kN 150 kN

(13.2–9.5mm) 2 130 kN 140 kN 150 kN 140 kN 130 kN
Minimum
3 110 kN 120 kN 130 kN 120 kN 110 kN

Wet strength 1 90 kN 96 kN 105 kN 96 kN 90 kN

(26.5–19.0mm) 2 78 kN 84 kN 90 kN 84 kN 78 kN
Minimum
3 66 kN 72 kN 78 kN 72 kN 66 kN
Wet/dry strength
variation (both
1, 2, 3 40% 35% 30% 35% 40%
particle sizes)
Maximum

Degradation 1 40 45 50 45
factor 2 35 40 45 40
Minimum
3 30 35 40 35
Sodium sulfate
soundness 1, 2, 3 6 6 6 6
Maximum
Los Angeles
abrasion 1, 2, 3 25 25 25 25
Maximum
Mill abrasion
Maximum 1, 2, 3 5 5 5 5
(Note 2)
Abrasion number
1, 2, 3 40 40 40 40
Maximum

Note 1: For greenstone source material only (metamorphic group); if the greenstone does not comply
with the specified maximum wet/dry strength variation limits, it may be used provided that its
wet strength is at least 40 kN greater than the specified minimum value for the relevant ballast
type in Table 3.
Note 2: Ballast with Mill abrasion test results of up to 6 may be accepted by the Engineer’s
Representative for Technical Issues, provided that the corresponding abrasion number is less
than or equal to 40.
The abrasion number = LA value + 5xMill abrasion value.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 31

No differentiation has been made between rock types for the specification of
durability properties by any other owner/maintainer. The durability of any rock
type is therefore indicated by the test limits set for the various test procedures
adopted by each organisation. Table 2.6 summarises the tests and limits for the
rail organisations other than QR.
AS 2758.7 introduced a range traffic intensities that could be used to define the
difference between lines that require a higher ballast quality due to heavier
loads. The classification is as follows:
• Class H—track carrying more than 6 MGT (Million Gross Tonnes) per year
• Class N—track carrying between 1 MGT and 6 MGT per year
• Class L—track carrying less than 1 MGT per year.
This classification has not been universally adopted by all rail organisations as
yet, and appears in the Australian Standard with different test limits for
durable rock for each classification.

Table 2.6: Test limits for durability of ballast

Test procedure * Track Tests limits

classification
AS 2758.7 RailCorp ARTC
AS 1141.21, H 25 25 25
Aggregate crushing N 30 30
value, % L 40 40
AS 1141.22, H 175, 25
Wet strength, (KN), N 150, 30
wet/dry strength L 110, 40
variation, %
AS 1141.23, H 25
Los Angeles value N 30
L 40
AS 1141.27, H 6 6 6
Wet attrition value N 8 8
L 12 12

AS 2758.7 allows a choice of either the aggregate crushing value and the wet
attrition value, or the wet strength and the Los Angeles value as the pairs of
tests to define durability. ARTC have not adopted the track classifications listed
here and have one value for all ballast.

2.4.3 Ballast grading

The particle size distribution of ballast varies considerably between rail
organisations. Table 2.7 shows a comparison of ballast grading and indicates
the variation between Australian rail organisations.
 32 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

Table 2.7: Ballast grading comparison between rail organisations

AS 2758.7 AS 2758.7 AS 2758.7 RailCorp ARTC QR QR

NSW

Nominal 60mm, 50mm 60 (graded Nominal Type A Type B

size: steel ballast) size: (63mm) (53mm)
Sieve size
60mm sleepers 60mm
mm
% Passing (by mass)

63.0 100 100 100 100 100

53.0 85–100 95–100 100 85–100 85–100 95–100 100
37.5 25–65 35–70 90–100 50–70 25–65 35–70 95–100
26.5 0–20 15–30 20–55 20–35 0–20 0–15 20–55
19.0 0–5 5–15 0–15 10–20 0–5 – 0–15
13.2 0–2 0–10 – 2–10 0–2 – –
9.5 0–0 0–1 0–5 0–5 0–0 0–5 0–5
4.75 0–1 0–2 0–1 – –
2.36 – 0–0 – –
0.075 0–1 0–1 0–1 0–1 0–0.7 0–0.7

Traditionally, the ballast grading has been a uniform sized material to assist in
drainage, maintenance and elastic support. The maximum size has increased
since the beginning of mechanised track maintenance from the former
maximum size of ballast when fettling involved mostly manual activity. It is
believed that larger aggregate will not breakdown too quickly under the action
of tamping machines and liners, and during the stockpile management and
handling activities of graders, excavators and bull dozers.
However, when steel sleepers are used in the track it is necessary to ensure
that the pod beneath the sleeper is completely filled with ballast so that the
load is transferred uniformly to the ballast. The grading of ballast more
appropriate for steel sleepers is therefore a smaller particle with a well-graded
particle distribution, as defined by AS 2758.7, ‘60mm steel sleepers’ grading
and the QR type B, 53mm ballast.
The grading chosen by RailCorp follows the recommendation from the research
by Rail CRC at the University of Wollongong, where the grading has a Cu
(coefficient of uniformity) between 2.3 and 2.6.

2.4.4 Particle shape and other particle properties

The shape of the particle is important, both for interlocking and strength. As
stated earlier, the cubical shape forms a denser structure and does not break
easily. AS 2758.7 suggests that the best way to measure this is using the
proportional calliper set at a 2:1 ratio, and offers the alternative measure using
a 3:1 ratio. However, due to the traditional use of the flakiness index this test
continues to be used. The following table summarises the limits adopted.
 Chapter 2: Ballast properties 33

Table 2.8: Summary of particle shape limits

Test AS 2758.7 RailCorp ARTC QR

AS 1141.14, Max. 30% of Max. 30% of Max. 30% of
Particle shape by material retained material retained material retained
proportional on 9.5mm on 9.5mm on 9.5mm
calliper, 2:1
AS 1141.14, Max. 10% of
Particle shape by material retained
proportional on 19mm
calliper, 3:1
AS 1141.15, Max. 30% of Max. 30% of
Flakiness index material retained material retained
on 6.7mm on 6.7mm

There are several other limits that are set for ballast that relate to particles and
contaminants. The ‘Weak particles’ (including clay lumps and soft and friable
particles) ballast limit is measured using the test method AS 1141.32, and the
‘Soft and friable particles’ limit is determined by AS 1141.52.
These limits are common with all Australian rail organisations and are included
to check on contamination of the ballast by overburden material in the quarry
or by inclusion of the weathered rock that may exist in zones of the quarry.
They are also a check on the quality of the ballast production of the quarry.

2.4.5 Segregation, handling and stockpile management

Ballast is a material that is prone to segregation because of the very uniform
nature of its grading with a small percentage of smaller sized particles. This
should be avoided (if possible) for the ballast to achieve its designed function.
Segregation occurs when the coarse particles separate from the finer particles
and sections of the ballast supplied may consist of rock all one size, large or
small. Most of the rail specifications require that ballast is stored, stockpiled
and handled in conditions that prevent material being contaminated,
segregated and degraded, but do not indicate which methods are effective.
Segregation can occur at any of the many handling stages of the production,
supply and delivery of the ballast:
• Discharging ballast from an overhead conveyor belt to a stockpile will
cause the larger particles to roll down the outside of the stockpile.
Remixing may take place when the ballast is taken from a discharge chute
under the base of the stockpile onto a conveyor belt because the ballast
will fall through the stockpile in a virtual inverted cone. Ballast taken
from the sides of the stockpile by earth moving equipment will need to be
remixed with material deeper in the stockpile to obtain the correct
grading.
• Discharging ballast from a conveyor belt into bins or wagons can
segregate the material if the material is not directed correctly.
• Stockpiling material at a stockpile site from tipping vehicles: stockpiles
need to be constructed in horizontal layers, with additional layers being
fully contained on the underlying layer.
 34 UDN500: Ballast, Sleepers and Fasteners

• Moving ballast around by earth moving equipment: pushing a stockpile

into a cone is not recommended and, for some organisations, is
prohibited.
• Vibration of the material during transport in road or rail vehicles.
It is necessary to ensure that the handling of ballast at the production plant is
managed so that the specified grading of ballast is correctly produced. Quality
control on the grading will require regular and frequent sampling and testing of
the ballast at critical points in the production to check on the grading.
The QR ballast specification has an option of ‘secondary compliance testing’ to
test the grading of ballast if it is believed that segregation may have occurred
during handling or transport, even if the ballast has been accepted previously.
There are patent methods for the prevention of aggregate separation that
include a number of vertically disposed chutes at the discharge end of the
conveyor, each chute being arranged to intercept a portion of aggregate leaving
the conveyor, and directing it downward onto a common pile (for more
information go to www.freepatentsonline.com/4520918.html).
It is also necessary that the grading of the ballast be regularly checked after
being laid in the track to review the installation. This will determine what
segregation has taken place.