Biology (Form 3)
Biology (Form 3)
Biology (Form 3)
Ecosystems
Estimating plant and animal populations
Energy flow in an ecosystem
Nutrient Cycles
TOPIC 2 PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION .......................................................................................... 14
Photosynthesis
Transport systems in plants
Transpiration
TOPIC 3 : VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES ........................................................................................ 32
Vertebrates
invertebrates
TOPIC 4 THE HUMAN DIGETIVE SYSTEM ................................................................................................... 38
Types of digestion
Digestive Enzymes
The human alimentary canal
TOPIC 5 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ........................................................................................... 47
Components of the circulatory system
Problems associated with the circulatory system
TOPIC 6: THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 56
The male reproductive system
The Female reproductive system
The menstrual cycle
Cell division
TOPIC 7: GENETICS..................................................................................................................................... 69
TOPIC 1 : LIVINGTHINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Living things do not live in isolation. They are land and marine conservation reserves for
always surrounded by other living things and threatened species, and modeling how
non-living things. The natural surrounding of natural ecosystems may respond to global
the living things is known as environment. So climate change.
to say, all living things within an environment
depend on each other for survival. On the
ECOLOGICAL TERMS
other hand, activities of an organisms have
an impact on its environment. This implies HABITAT
that there is a relationship between
organisms and their environment. This is a place where living things are found.
For example, water is a habitat for fish and
ECOLOGY other aquatic animals.
Ecology is the study of interactions among ENVIRONMENT
organisms in an environment. Ecosystems
on the other hand refers to a natural self- Environment refers to the total surrounding
sustaining ecological unit in which living of an organism. For instance, environment
organisms interact and influence one of a student in a classroom will comprise of
another. Examples of ecosystems include fellow students, teachers, desks, books, air,
forests, lakes, grasslands etc. Ecosystem is school blocks, trees, lizards and many more.
made up of biotic (living) and abiotic (non The environment comprises both living and
living) factors. People who study ecology are nonliving things. The living environment) of
known as ecologists. an organism and animals surrounding is
referred to as community. It includes all the
Ecologists study interactions among flora (plants) and fauna (animals) of the
organisms in order to understand why there particular environment.
are so many plants and animals
NICHE
(abundance), and why there are so many
different types of plants and animals This refers to the role that an organism plays
(diversity). In other words, ecologists study in an ecosystem.
ecosystems to understand abundance and
diversity of living things. Applied ecology
In order to understand clearly the dynamics
uses information about these relationships
of an ecosystem, ecologists observe
to address issues such as developing
behavior of species in their habitats, in
effective vaccination strategies, managing
additional to studying their population.
fisheries without over-harvesting, designing
POPULATION a) Quadrat method – in ecology, quadrats
are used to estimate populations of
This is the term used to describe the number
organisms that are too numerous for
of organisms of the same species found in an
example plant populations or slow
area at the same period of time.
moving animals such as snails and
POPULATION DENSITY millipedes. In fact, a quadrat is a light
wooden or metal square frames used to
This refers to the number of organism in a get a representative sample of
population per unit area for example per organisms over a large area being
square kilometers. It usually tells us the way studied. The quadrat is placed at random
population has been distributed in a given over the areas of study and the individual
area. Since organism do not spread evenly, organisms within the quadrat are
then the population density differs from one calculated to obtain sample counts. Then
area to another. Thus, the organism can the average is calculated and then the
have high density in one side of area and low total calculation is estimated. In so
density in other side of the same area. doing, population frequency and
distribution are determined. Generally,
DERTERMINING THE POPULATION SIZE OF
this method is very easy to apply and the
ORGANISMS
quadrat themselves are easy to make.
While it is quite easy to determine the However, quadrats are limited as they
population size of other organism like in cannot be used in animals which are too
human beings, it is not easy to establish mobile.
population of other organisms like birds,
fish, plants in a garden etc. because they are
too mobile or too numerous. b) Transect Method
In order to determine the population of large A transect is a path along which one counts
slow moving animals for instance human and records occurrences of the species
beings or small populations of scattered under study.
plants, a direct counting method for There are two types of transect and these
example census or physical counting is used. are:
Line transect
However, census or direct counting cannot Belt transect
be feasible in establishing population of (i). Line transect method
organisms which are too numerous or too This method involves the use of a straight
mobile, rather the following techniques are line cutting across an area in which the
used to estimate population of such organisms to be sampled are found. A
organisms. transect line can be made using a nylon rope
marked and numbered at 0.5m or 1 m
interval, all the way along its length. A line Then the number of organism in 1𝑚2 =
transect is carried out by unrolling the 100 ×1
= 10
transect line along the gradient identified. 10
The position of the transect line is very This method is suitable for estimating
important and it depends on the direction of population of trees such as those in forest
the environmental gradient you wish to
or woodland.
study. The species touching the line are
recorded along the whole length of the line.
Alternatively, the presence or absence of c) Mark, Release ,Recapture Technique -
This is a method commonly used in ecology
species at each marked point is recorded.
to estimate population size of very active or
The results obtained from a number of such mobile animals such as birds, grasshoppers,
transects made through the study area, are fish, etc. As the name implies, it involves
then combined to obtain the distribution capturing a portion of organisms for
pattern and relative density of the different example grasshopper then mark them and
plant species. From the results, it is easy to then release them back to their habitat to
tell the dominant species or rare species. All mix freely with the unmarked ones. Later
another portion comprising both marked
in all, this method can be used to estimate
and unmarked organisms is captured and
the distribution pattern and relative the number of marked organisms within this
population density of different species in an sample is counted. A formula is then used to
area. calculate the estimated population in the
selected areas as shown below.
(ii). Belt transect Estimated number of organisms =
This method involves the use of two parallel No,of animals in 1st capture ×Total no of animals in 2nd capt
lines or a narrow strip, one meter apart. The No. of marked animals in second capture
Living things remove materials from the Many microorganisms are also more active
environment for growth and other when there is plenty of oxygen – aerobic
processes. These materials are returned to conditions. The decay process releases
the environment either in waste materials or substances which plants need to grow. In a
when living things die and decay. Materials stable community, the processes which
decay because they are broken down remove materials are balanced by
(digested) by microorganisms processes which return materials. The
(decomposers). Microorganisms digest materials are constantly cycled. The figure
materials faster in warm, moist conditions. below summarizes the recycling of
materials in an ecosystem.
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TOPIC 2. PLANT STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTION
Plants, like animals, are made up of tissues the following are the internal structures of
that form organs. These organs include the leaf and their functions.
roots, stems, leaves and reproductive 1 Cuticle
structures like flowers, fruits, seeds and
This is waxy substance secreted by the epidermal
many more. One of the major interests
cells. It is thin and forms the outermost layer
among biologists is to understand the found on the upper part and lower part. It is
structures of these organs as well as the water proof and covers the epidermal cells of the
functions of these structures as they relate leaf. Its functions are:
to the general survival of the plants. This
a) To prevent the water loss through the
chapter will discuss the structure and
leaf surface.
functions of the plants.
b) To protect the inner part of the leaf for
example mesophyll cells from physical
THE LEAF forces.
Leaves are one of the most important organs c) To prevent unnecessary entry of water
of a plant as they are the site for through the leaf surface.
photosynthesis. Generally, leaves come in d) Hairy cuticle protects the leaf from
huge variety of sizes and shapes. Despite predators.
these varieties, all leaves share some e) It allows light to enter the mesophyll cells
commonalities. as it Is transparent.
2 Epidermal layers
External structure of a leaf
Generally, the external parts of a leaf include There are two layers of epidermal cells, namely:
leaf blade (lamina), leaf stalk (petiole), main the upper epidermis and the lower epidermis.
vein (mid rib), leaf veins, apex and leaf The epidermal cells and the cuticle together
margin. The figure below shows some of the form a water proof barrier that protects
external parts of a leaf. delicate tissues inside the leaf by slowing down
water loss through transpiration. Since
epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts, they
allow light to pass through them to reach the
mesophyll layers.
3 Mesophyll layers
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it is found on the upper part of the leaf. It hand, the oxygen produced during
contains palisade cells which are the main photosynthesis leaves the leaf through these
site of photosynthesis. As a matter of fact, stomata. Each stomata is surrounded by two
The palisade mesophyll layers are adapted bean shaped cells called guard cells.
for photosynthesis in the following ways:
(i) They contain numerous chloroplasts.
(ii) They are arranged in a single layer so
that sunlight can pass through them
without passing through other palisade
cells.
(iii) Their cylindrical shape enables them to
be packed together thereby creating a
large surface area for absorption of
sunlight.
(iv) They are found on the upper part of the
leaf hence light does not pass long
distance.
Spongy Mesophyll
Layer
4 Stomata(Singular
Stoma)
The guard cells have a potential of opening and
These are pores on the surface of the leaf closing the stomata thereby regulating the rate
especially in the lower epidermis. They are used of water loss through transpiration. In fact ,when
for transpiration as well as gaseous exchange . the guard cells gain water, they bend into a half
carbon dioxide enters the leaf through these moon shape thereby opening the stomata and
pores passing through the air spaces of the when they lose water, they become more limp
spongy mesophyll to the palisade mesophyll and straightens hence the stoma closes . Guard
where it is used for photosynthesis. On the other cells are different from the epidermal cells in
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such way that the guard cells are bean shaped
and they do contain chloroplasts.
5 Veins
hereditary information. In
addition, it produces information
required to manufacture
proteins. However, this structure
is absent in some cells for
example red blood cells, xylem
cells, as well as unicellular
organisms. The nucleolus found
in this structure is made up of
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) which is responsible
1. Nucleus – it controls the activities of a cell for synthesis of ribosomes.
for example cell division. It also carries 2. Cell membrane – this is a thin layer made of
proteins and fats. It is semi
The above diagram shows a mesophyll to pass through. It also protects and
cell as seen under the electron supports the cell.
microscope. The cell comprises of
protoplasm which include all the cell 4. Mitochondrion- this is a sausage shaped
contents apart from the vacuoles. organelle responsible for respiration. Its
inner surface is highly folded thereby
permeable, thus it allows other increasing surface area on which the
substances to pass through depending chemical processes take place.
on their sizes. It separates cells from one
another and also aids in the protection
and support of the cell. 5. Vacuole – mainly found in in plant cells and
3. Cell wall – this organelle is found in plant contains a solution called cell sap which
cells only. It is made up of carbohydrate dissolves sugar substances and salts. It gives
called cellulose and it is fully permeable. It shape to plant cells through its outward
allows water and other dissolved substances pressure.
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6. Ribosomes – these are attached to rough the chloroplast is filled with a fluid and is
endoplasmic reticulum and they are sites for called stroma. The stroma contains enzymes
protein synthesis. However, some involved in photosynthesis.
ribosomes are suspended freely in the
cytoplasm
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A LEAF AS AN ORGAN FOR surface will receive most sunlight and this
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. will be available to the chloroplasts without
being absorbed by many intervening cell
The process of photosynthesis in green plants walls. The elongated shape of many palisade
takes place to a large extent in leaves. This is due cells may confer the same advantage.
to the fact that the leaves have several The branching network of veins provides a
structures that enable them to carry out this ready water supply to the photosynthesizing
process efficiently. However, it should be noted cells.
that photosynthesis is not limited to these leaves
alone, rather, it also takes place in other green
parts of the plant for instance some parts of the
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
stem, shoots etc.
This refers to a process by which green
In the leaves, the process of photosynthesis plants manufacture their own food using
takes place in the chloroplasts which are found simple inorganic substances in the presence
in palisade mesophyll cells. The following figures of sunlight. During the process of
show the external and internal structures of a photosynthesis, plants combine simple
leaf. inorganic substances namely water and
carbon dioxide using energy derived from
sunlight to make their food in form of
ADAPTATIONS OF A LEAF FOR glucose. This means that photosynthesis is a
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
type of autotrophic nutrition. The water
Leaves are adapted to photosynthesis in the used for photosynthesis is absorbed from
following ways; the soil by the root system. On the other
hand, the carbon dioxide diffuses into plants
Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface
from the atmosphere through the stomata.
area for absorption of sunlight and carbon
The sunlight energy is absorbed by the
dioxide.
green pigment known as chlorophyll which is
Most leaves bare thin, hence, the distance
across which carbon dioxide has to diffuse to found in plant cells. Apart from glucose,
reach the mesophyll cells from the stomata oxygen is also produced during this process.
are very short. However, the oxygen is given off as a by
The large intercellular spaces in the product.
mesophyll provide easy passage through
which carbon dioxide can diffuse. The process of photosynthesis can be
Numerous stomata on one or both surfaces summarized as follows;
allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen with the atmosphere . (i) Word Equation
In palisade cells the chloroplasts are more
numerous than in the spongy mesophyll cell.
The palisade cells being on the upper
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This shows that the raw materials for
photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide
while the products of the process are
glucose (a carbohydrate) and oxygen.
Glucose is the main product while oxygen is
the by product. A by product is a substance
produced besides the main product during a
(ii) Chemical Equation chemical process. In addition, the equation
also indicates that sunlight and chlorophyll
are the necessary conditions for the process
of photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis requires the d. Water- it provides hydrogen required for
following factors for its occurrence; the formation of glucose.
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into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP The carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
is a compound by which energy can be diffuses into the leaf through the stomata up
stored and easily accessed by every living to the chloroplasts of the leaf cell , during
thing. this stage hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide
to form glucose using energy from ATP.
b. DARK STAGE (CARBON STAGE)
However even though it is called dark stage,
it does not occur during the night but the
fact is that it does not require sunlight.
The glucose which is produced during The glucose compound comprises hydrogen,
photosynthesis is used in different ways carbon and oxygen atoms which are assimilated
during the process of photosynthesis. However,
some of them include;
this process of photosynthesis also requires
(a) It is used for respiration thereby enabling other elements which are derived from the soil.
the plant to reduce energy required for Some of them include
its everyday activities for example cell Potassium - controls opening and
division , growth , active transport etc. closing of stomata. It also controls the
(b) it is stored in organs like roots , stems rate of photosynthesis and respiration
and leaves for future in form of starch. Magnesium - for formation of
(c) it is used for formation of lipids chlorophyll
(d) it is used for the formation of lipids Iron - facilitates the process of
(e) it is used for the formation of cellulose chrolophyll formation
which is an integral part of cell walls Nitrogen and sulphur – for formation of
amino acids (proteins)
(f) it combines with mineral elements like
Phosphorus – for energy changes and
nitrogen to form proteins
formation of amino acids, nucleic acids,
(g) it is also used to form lignin which ATP, etc
hardens the plant cell Calcium – for making chemicals which
(h) it combines with nitrogen and other cement cell walls and formation of some
minerals to form amino acids and enzymes
proteins
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LIMITING FACTORS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Materials
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by the Fresh leaves , Mortar, Pestal, Beakers,
following factors Ethanol or Acetone, Filter paper, Razor
blade
Temperature - when temperature is
high, the rate of photosynthesis is also Procedure
high. Similarly, when the temperature is
low, the rate of photosynthesis is also 1) cut the fresh green leaves using the
low. However, the rate of razor blade and put them in the mortar.
photosynthesis decreases when 2) Add small amount of ethanol and
o /acetone and grind the small pieces
temperature goes beyond 40 C.
Light intensity – as light intensity thoroughly.
increases, the rate of photosynthesis 3) Squeeze the green extracts into a beaker
also increases until the plant carry out 4) Cut the filter paper into a rectangular
shape and mark on one side
photosynthesis to the maximum level.
Carbon dioxide – the concentration of 5) Put a drop of the green extract on the
carbon dioxide also determines the rate green spot and immediately put it on
of photosynthesis as Co2 is the raw the beaker with ethanol.
material for this process. *Ensure that the green extracts does
Water – the speed at which not come in contact with ethanol in
photosynthesis occur also depends on the beaker.
the availability of water. RESULTS
PIGMENTS IN THE LEAVES The ethanol will rise through the filter paper and
There are three types of pigments found in plant separates the pigments. In fact, the initial green
colour will separate into yellow, orange and
leaves and other parts. These are
green
a) Chlorophyll - green in color
b) Carotene – orange in colour CONCLUSSION
c) Xanthophylls – yellow in colour Green leaves contain three types of pigments
These three pigments co exist. The orange IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
carotene is responsible for orange colour of
carrot. The yellow color of xanthophylls is The process of photosynthesis is very important
responsible for the yellow color in many flowers as it results into
and fruits. The green color of chlorophyll is
a) Food production
responsible for green colour of leaves and other
b) Oxygen production
parts of the plants.
c) Reduction of carbon dioxide
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT GREEN LEAVES d) Various plant products eg medicines and
CONTAIN THTREE TYPES OF PIGMENTS industrial products like timber.
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TRANSPORT SYTEMS IN PLANTS lignin. As the vessels get order, lignin is laid
down on the original cell wall. This makes
Plants like other living organisms need food
them stronger but less flexible. Finally the
which they use for growth and maintenance.
xylem vessel s can become filled with lignin
Unlike animals which depend on already
forming the woody centre of tree trunk or
made food, plants manufacture their foods
stem. Movement in xylem is restricted to
in their leaves using carbon dioxide and
one direction only, thus from the roots to up
water. However, the distance from the roots
to the stem and leaves.
where water and mineral absorption takes
place to the photosynthesis sites is very THE PHLOEM TUBES.
great and similarly, the distance from the
sites of photosynthesis to some parts of the These are structures in plants responsible for
plant where the manufactured food is to be transportation of manufactured food from
used for various activities is again very great. the site of photosynthesis to all parts of the
This necessitates the presence of transport plant body. They are made up of sieve tube
systems to ferry different substances in cells and companion cells. The sieve tube
plants body. The movement of substances elements are living individual cells arranged
from the regions where they are produced to end to end so that they form long tubes. The
the region where they are used or stored in cross walls between these cells have tiny
plants is called translocation. holes called sieve pores. the sieve tube
contains cytoplasm, however they lack
The transport system in plants is made up of nuclei. On the other hand, the companion
two tissues namely; the xylem vessels and cells are found alongside the sieve tube.
the phloem tubes. They contain both cytoplasm and nuclei.
They are thought to serve their adjacent
THE XYLEM VESSELS
sieve elements.
Xylem vessels are tissues in plants which
Both the sieve tube cells and companion are
run from the roots up to the stem and every
not lignified hence they are soft and do not
leaf of the plant. They are responsible for
live long as they may be crushed easily by
transportation of water and minerals from
the growth of other cells.
roots to leaves and other parts where
photosynthesis takes place. They consist of
dead cylindrical cells which lost their cross
walls and fit together like a series of pipe.
They lack cytoplasm and nucleus. Their
elements are shorter, fatter and more
specialized for transport. The cell walls of
xylem vessels are thickened and hardened
by a tough water proof substance called
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FLOW OF MANUFACTURED FOOD IN A
PHLOEM.
XYLEM PHLOEM
plant.
separates the xylem and phloem tube and
Support for woody Little or no further more it provide new cells to these
plants support two tubes as the cambium is a region of
active cell division.
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in dicotyledonous plants for instance beans,
the vascular bundles are arranged in a
pattern as shown in the figure below
DIFFUSION
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Temperature-high temperature makes 1. It helps in distributing water evenly
particles in a solution or a gas to move throughout the organism because every
faster than in low temperature solution organism is surrounded by semi
and gases thereby increasing the rate of permeable membrane.
diffusion 2. It controls movement of water into and
Surface area-the bigger the area of out of cells
diffusion the faster the rate of diffusion 3. It helps in absorption of water from the
Concentration gradient-if the difference roots by root hairs
between the concentration is bigger, the
rate of diffusion will be high and vice
versa. EXPERIMENT: Osmosis in plants
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFUSION Procedure
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move in Cut 3 stripes of fresh potatoes each of mass
and out of the plant leaves. 3g and length of 7cm and test the flexibility
Plant roots take up minerals from the of each stripe by trying to bend it. Collect 3
soil. test tubes and label them. Pour sugar
Gaseous exchange in the lungs of solution in one test tube and distilled water
some large animals. in another then put the stripes in each test
Excretion of waste substances in tube. Leave the apparatus for 20 minutes
animals. and test the flexibility, mass and length of
Digested food enter in the blood each stripe and record. Observe the changes
stream from the gut. in the flexibility, mass and length of strips.
Unicellular animals take in oxygen
Osmosis in body cells.
and get rid of carbon dioxide.
Since cells are surrounded by a membrane
OSMOSIS
which is semi permeable, it is inevitable that
This refers to the movement of water from osmosis takes place in these cells. The figure
region of high concentration to the region of below summarizes the osmosis in plant cells.
low concentration across semi permeable
membrane
SIGNIFICANCE OF OSMOSIS
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Turgidity – this refers the stiffening of Transpiration pull - a pulling force
cells. It takes place when a cell has been generated by evaporation of water
surrounded by pure water from the plant.
Flaccidity – this refers to shrinking of a Root pressure- a push force generated
cell especially when it has been put in a by the roots. It is developed by
concentrated solution. osmosis
Plasmolysis – this refers to a condition Capillarity which is the ability of water
where the cytoplasms pulls away from to move along a fine tube
the cell resulting into damaging of cell
membrane and eventually death of the
cell Mineral salts are absorbed by diffusion
through symplast pathway until it reaches
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
the xylem where it is carried along with
This is the movement of soluble substances water in the transpiration stream to leaves
from region of low concentration to the or various growing points.
region of high concentration. Thus in this,
TRANSPORT OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN
process substances move against the
THE PHLOEM
concentration gradient. Active transport
uses a lot of energy unlike osmosis and Food substances in form sucrose and amino
diffusion. acids enter the sieve tube and it is believed
that movement of the substances in the
SIGNIFICANCE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
phloem is facilitated by turgor pressure
1. It helps in transportation gradient. The direction of substance
manufactured food and ions. movement may at times change for instance
2. It helps the food to be always when plants shed their leaves, substances
available since it is faster than move from roots upwards.
diffusion.
Experiments to show that the phloem
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN THE XYLEM transports manufactured food (organic)
substances.
Water is absorbed from root hair through
diffusion and it passes from cell to cell by (a) RINGING OR GIRDLING EXPERIMENTS
osmosis through vacuolar pathway or
Procedure
apoplast pathway until water molecules
reach the xylem tissues where it moves Cut off a complete ring of bark including the
against against the gravitational force by phloem and cambium from the main stem
of a woody twig so that the xylem is exposed.
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Leave it for some days and observe the This refers to the loss of water in form of
results. water vapour from the leaves and other
aerial organs through the stomata. Small
RESULTS
amount of water is lost to the atmosphere
through the stem which has tiny poles called
lenticles. The movement of water within the
plant is called transpiration stream while the
movement of dissolved substances within
the plant is called translocation
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TOPIC 3 : VERTEBRATES AND INVERTABRATES
Living things are divided into two kingdoms d. Myriapods: many legs, many
namely plant and animal kingdom. As a matter of segments, 2 antennae e.g. centipede
fact, there are many types of plants and animals Annelids - these include ringed worms
and this is called biodiversity. Generally, all without legs, for instance earthworms.
animals share many similarities as well as Nematodes - these include un-segmented
differences. One of the major differences is that worms which have no legs for instance
some have backbone while others do not have Molluscs: these include un-segmented
backbone. This enables classification of animals animals with gills and one muscular foot
into two main groups namely vertebrates and for example snails.
invertebrate.
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Invertebrates are the most abundant animals on Vertebrates are larger animals and less
earth. They are generally small in size, they numerous compared to the invertebrates. They
include animals like: insects, annelids, include animals like: fish, amphibians, reptiles,
crustaceans, arachnids, Mollusca among others. birds and mammals
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reproduce by laying eggs. Their bodies are
hollow and have scales on their feet.
AMPHIBIANS
REPTILES
MAMMALS
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It helps animal to find mates for
reproduction.
It allows young animals to disperse
thereby preventing overcrowding.
The fish has fins; the fins help in controlling The fish also has other features that enable them
movements of fish in water. There are several to move in water. They have air filled sacs called
types of fins some of these fins are found singly swim bladder for buoyancy. Tail fin is long to
(unpaired) and others are found in pairs (paired). increase tail power to displace more water. They
Fish use fins as structures of locomotion. have strong tail muscles to create more force in
movement.
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brought about by the side to side action of the to generate lift and also insulate the
tail and is caused by alternate contraction of bird, helping it to stay warm and
powerful muscles arranged down the side of the regulates its body temperature.
fish.
TYPES OF FEATHERS
LOCOMOTION IN BIRDS
There are four main types of feathers. These are;
Birds can run, swim but most of them fly. flight, contour, down and filoprumes.
ADAPTATIONS OF BIRDS
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FILOPLUMES animal forward. The whole mechanism of
movement is controlled by the nervous system.
These are small hair like feathers which assist in
insulation. Down the filoprumes feathers are TISSUE OF THE SKELETON
found between the flight and contour feathers to
form a complete insulation. All birds have oil these are tough elastic tissue that join bones
glands on their tails which they obtain oil using together at a joint.
their beaks to smear the feathers to ensure that
they are water proof. Body temperature of birds Ligament is a strip of connective tissue
is higher than of the human beings as they have which attaches bones to each other. They
high metabolic rate to carter for more energy are made of proteins called collagen which is
needed for flight. flexible but resistant to stretching and
another protein called elastin which is more
MECHANISM OF FLIGHT IN BIRDS
elastic.
Flight is possible in birds because the birds wings
TENDONS-these are tough inelastic tissue
act as an aerofoil (an aerofoil is a structure with
curved surface which generates lift in flights) the
that joins muscles to bones. They are made
distance over the top of the wing is greater than of collagen, making them elastic. This means
the distance over the bottom of the wing thus that when muscles contract, it will move the
the air on top moves faster than the air on the bone and not just stretch the tendon.
bottom. this means that the air molecules
becomes more spaced out as they move over the
CARTILAGE-this is very flexible. It is a dense
top of the wing compared to those molecules fibrous tissue which acts as a shock absorber
moving over the bottom, this result in air and also reduces friction. Furthermore, it
pressure being less above the wing below it and joins the bones together for instance the
this generate an upward force called lift, in fact vertebral column and also provides support
the lift is generated on both the down and the for body parts that do not carry much
upper stroke, quill feather will tilt allowing air to weight.
flow between them, while on the down stroke
they lock into position, maximizing air resistance. BONE-this is a complex tissue in which living
The tail and the wings control steering. cells and long twisted protein called collagen
are supported by the crystals of a matrix
LOCOMOTION IN MAMMALS
formed by calcium and phosphate ions.
Mammals move by creating a propulsion force Bones provide support for our bodies and
that moves the body forward. This force is help form shape. The skull protects the brain
provided by the contraction of muscles of the and forms the shape of our face.
legs. As the muscles contract they move the
bone back and forth. The bones cause JOINTS
movement of the locomotory structures
This refers to a place where two or more
producing a propulsion force that moves the
bones meet. The movement of bones
31
relative to each other can occur only at a moved from side to side and also up
joint. and down.
32
opposite direction. These two sets of Presence of ligaments – Ligaments joins a
muscles work in opposite direction. bone to a bone at the joints. This makes sure
These two muscles work in opposite to that the two bones do not separate even
each other are called antagonistic when strong movement activity is taking
muscle, thus pair muscle which on place.
contraction, and produce opposite Some animals such as the carnivore have flexible
effects to each other. trunks due to a flexible backbone. This enhances
b) Cardiac or heart muscle- this is a special flexibility of the whole body during locomotion.
form of muscle which occurs in the walls
of the heart. They are very strong and
does not get tire until the organisms die.
FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON
Presence of movable joints – Locomotion is a) Attachment of muscles and
enhanced by the presence of hinge joints
movement.
and ball and socket joints. These joints allow
the bone to move freely to enhance faster b) Maintenance of the body shape.
movement. Joints are found where two c) Storage of calcium and phosphate
bones meet. The surface of bones at the ions.
joints is covered by a cartilage tissue to
absorb shock and reduce friction during d) Production of blood cells.
movement.
Presence of tendons – These are tough Protection of vital organs e.g. brain is
connective tissues that join a muscle to a protected by bones of cranium.
bone.
33
TOPIC 4: THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Feeding is one of the basic characteristics of There are two types of digestion. These
all living things. Both plants and animals are physical and chemical digestion.
need food for their everyday activities.
A) PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL
However, most of the foods that are eaten
DIGESTION
by animals are not in a form that can be
readily absorbed and used by the body. As a This refers to the breaking down of large
matter of fact, most foods that animals eat particles of food without changing its
are insoluble and cannot pass through the chemical or molecular make up. This
cell membranes into cells. Furthermore, implies that, when food has been
most foods are chemically different from digested physically, it is just reduced in
substances that make up body tissues. its size without forming any new
Meaning to say, the food has to be substances. In the alimentary canal, this
processed and rendered into a state that can type of digestion takes place in the
be readily absorbed by the body. This topic mouth, stomach and duodenum. In the
purports to explore how large particles of mouth it is accomplished by the action of
food are broken down into smaller particles teeth in a process called mastication
and how these food particles are used by the (chewing) while in the stomach it is done
body. by the churning movements. In the
duodenum it is done by the action of bile
DIGESTION
which breaks down large particles of fats
This refers to the process by which large into smaller molecules in a process called
particles of food substances are broken emulsification. Generally, physical
down into smaller particles. The process of digestion renders the food in a state that
digestion makes insoluble food particles to can subsequently be accessed easily by
be soluble there by maximizing their rate of enzymes during chemical digestion.
absorption. The digested food which is in
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DIGESTION
solution form, passes through the walls of
intestine and eventually enters the blood It makes food easy to swallow.
stream through the process of absorption. It increases the surface area of the
Furthermore, digestion makes food easy to food thereby enabling digestive
swallow and also increases its surface area enzymes to act or work on it easily.
so that enzymes can work on it easily. B) CHEMICAL DIGESTION
34
soluble molecules by the action of chemicals they cannot function properly. It should also
called enzymes. be noted that when the temperature is very
low, the enzymes become inactive. The
An enzyme is a protein that works as a
graph below summarises the effect of
biological catalyst. A catalyst is a substance
temperature on enzymatic reactions.
that can alter the rate of chemical reaction
without itself being altered. Thus enzymes
speed up chemical reaction in the alimentary Enzymes are pH dependent.
canal without themselves being used up or
changed. All enzymes are proteins.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
35
enables other molecules to fit into Digestive enzymes are categorized according
the enzyme. to the food substances which they act upon.
. The main types of these digestive enzymes
include proteases which act on protein foods
However, it should be noted that not all
and examples include pepsin, renin, trypsin,
enzymes are digestive enzymes, some
and peptidase; lipase which act catalyses the
enzymes catalyzes other metabolic
breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and
processes in the body for instance thrombin
glycerol and finally carbohydrase (amylase)
is used in blood clotting, carbonic anhydrase
which act on carbohydrates and examples
is used for conversion of carbon dioxide into
include salivary amylase (ptyalin), pancreatic
carbonic acid during respiration.
amylase, maltase, sucrose and lactase.
TYPES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Name of enzyme Digestive juice Site for Where the Food acted Product
containing the production enzymes upon
enzyme of juice acts
36
THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL
37
1. THE MOUTH (BUCCAL CAVITY) action of salivary amylase (ptyalin). It is
also lubricated and moistened for easy
Food enters the mouth in a process called
swallowing by the mucus and saliva
ingestion. After ingestion, it is digested
respectively.
physically by the action of the teeth in a
process called mastication (chewing). 2. OESOPHAGUS
Generally, there are four different sets of
After chewing, a bolus is formed by the
teeth in the mouth responsible for this
tongue, it is swallowed and enter the
mastication namely; the incisors, the
oesophagus which is a muscular tissue
canines, the premolars and the molars. The
running from back of the mouth to stomach.
incisors bite the food chunk while the
Swallowing starts as a voluntary action but
canines tear it and the premolars in
later becomes an involuntary action. During
conjunction with molars grind the food.
swallowing, the epiglottis seals the trachea,
Furthermore, while the food is still in the
preventing food from entering the wind
mouth, the tongue mixes it with saliva which
pipe. The oesophagus has two types of
is produced by three pairs of the salivary
smooth muscles namely; the circular and
glands to form bolus. The saliva contains
longitudinal muscles. The contraction of
four substances namely; salivary amylase,
these muscles is responsible for movement
mucus, water and salts.
of food along the alimentary canal. This
The salivary amylase- this is also called movement is called peristalisis. Little
ptyalin. It is an enzyme which starts digestion of cooked starch continues in the
chemical digestion of cooked starch to oesophagus and sometimes it doesn’t occur
disaccharide called maltose at all.
The mucus-is very important in
3. STOMACH
lubricating the food for easy swallowing
and formation of a bolus which is a ball This is the muscular bag where food is stored
like structure formed after food particles for processing later by the rest of the
have stuck together. alimentally canal. Apart from storing food
Water-moisten the food and dissolves temporarily, the stomach wall also produces
the soluble food substances for example hydrochrolic acid , gastric juice and mucus.
glucose The entry point of the stomach has a ring of
The salt- neautrises the PH in the mouth muscles called cardiac sphincter which
in order for the salivary amylase to act on prevents the food from going back into the
the cooked starch easily. oesophagus and further allowing gases
swallowed with food to escape. When food
In a nutshell, when food enters the
enters the stomach, starch digestion stops
mouth, it is digested physically by the
because salivary amylase is not active due to
action of the teeth and chemically by the
the presence of hydrochloric acid. The
38
chemical digestion of proteins starts in the amount of chime into the duodenum, the
stomach due to the presence of proteases first part of the small intestines.
like pepsin and rennin.
39
with PH within 7-8. It contains trypsin, Absorption is the process by which the small
lipase, pancreatic amylase and salts. The soluble molecules of food enter the blood
trypsin catalyses the hydrolysis of and lymph from the lumen of alimentary
proteins to peptides while the lipase canal. It mainly takes place in the ileum. the
catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids to fatty ileum is adapted to this function in the
acids and glycerol. The pancreatic following ways
amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of
a) It is the longest part of the alimentary
starch to maltose while the salts
canal, ensuring that most of the soluble
neutralizes the acidic chime from
food is absorbed, thus providing a large
stomach to creatre optimum pH for the
surface area for absorption.
action of lipase, trypsin and pancreatic
b) It has inner surface highly folded into
amylase.
finger like structures called villi. This
ii. Jejunum- this is the middle part of the
produces a very large surface area for
small intestines.
absorption of the end products of
iii. Ileum-this is the longest part of the small
digestion.
intestines which is about 6m long. The
lining of the ileum contains glands which
Structure of a Villus
produces intestinal juice containing the
following enzymes.
a) Lipase- responsible for chemical
digestion of lipids into fatty acids and
glycerol
b) Maltose-responsible for chemical
digestion of maltose into glucose.
c) Lactase-responsible for chemical
digestion of lactose into glucose and
galactose.
d) Sucrose-catalyses the hydrolysis of
sucrose to glucose and fructose.
e) Peptidase-catalyses the hydrolysis of c) The ileum has dense network of blood
peptides into amino acids. It also capillaries called lacteals to pick up
contain the mucus which prevent the molecules produced by digestion and
enzymes which digest proteins from transport them away from the
digesting the walls of intestines. alimentary canal.
Digestion is completed in the ileum by
the enzymes listed above. Furthermore the ileum is also adapted for
completion of digestion by having good PH
ABSORPTION IN THE ILEUM and production of different enzymes and
40
presence of epithelium (a single layered ASSIMILATION
membrane) which covers the villi and allows
Once absorbed into the blood stream, the
dissolved substances to pass through the
molecules produced by digestion are taken
blood capillaries and lacteals. Its cell has
by the hepatic portal vein to the liver. These
many mitochondria. Lacteal absorbs the
end products include glucose, amino acids,
following substances; glycerol, fatty acids,
fatty acids and glycerol. The liver process
and fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A,D,E
these end products in the following ways
and K. Other food substances like fructose,
galactose, amino acids and water soluble i. Glucose- Most glucose is transported out
vitamins like vitamin B and C are taken by the liver through hepatic portal vein to
blood. different parts of the body where it is
used for respiration. However excess
The blood capillaries from the ileum join
glucose is converted to glycogen for
together to form hepatic portal vein which
storage by the liver.
carries glucose and other products to the
ii. Amino acids- They are synthesized into
liver where they are stored temporarily or
blood proteins like prothombin and
processed by liver before being transported
fibrinogen while some are taken to
to other tissues
different glands both endocrine and
Glycerol and fatty acids which pass into the exocrine gland for synthesis of hormone
lacteals are transported through the and enzymes respectively. Excess amino
lymphatic system. At the end of the ileum acids are broken down in a process called
there found the appendix and caecum which deamination where the amine group is
has no specific role in digestion. converted to urea as a waste product
and the carboxyl (acid) group is
THE LARGE INTESTINES
converted into glucose in a process
a) COLON- it is wider than ileum and its called transmination which is later
ridged lining contains many mucus cells. converted into Glycogen (animal starch )
Digestion doesn’t take place in the colon, which is stored in the liver and muscles
rather the colon play the following roles, for future use.
absorbing of mineral salts, preparing iii. Fatty acids and glycerol- These are used
faeces for egesting for respiration and excess are taken out
b) RECTUM- this part stores faeces for to connective tissues or different vital
about 24 hours before being egested parts of the body and under the skin for
through the anus during DEFAECATION. storage as fats.
the anus has anal sphincter which when
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER IN RELATION TO
it relaxes the faeces are released.
DIGESTION
41
The liver is the second largest organ, reddish to form another amino acid. During this process,
brown in colour which lies just before the the liver makes amino acids that are deficient in
diaphragm in the body. It has several functions. the diet. It does this by transferring amino
The following are the functions of the liver in groups from one available amino acid to an
digestion; organic molecule like a sugar or an acid to form
the required amino acid. For instance glutamic
acid can be made by removing an amino group
A. PRODUCTION OF BILE from alamine and combining it with an organic
sugar. Alamine → Amino group + Organic acid
The liver produces bile by breaking down red
→ Glutamic acid
blood cells into green and yellow pigments. Bile
is passed to the duodenum through the bile duct.
Bile is a greenish liquid.it contains bile salts like
E. CONTROL OF LIPIDS
sodium bicarbonate and bile pigments. Bile salts
play a big role in digestion fats. They split up fat The liver controls the amount of lipids in the
in the digestive system into tiny fat droplets in a blood. One of the lipids that the liver controls is
process called emulsification. cholesterol which also makes. Cholesterol is
necessary for the formation of membranes. It
has a very low solubility in body fluids.
B. STORAGE ORGAN
The first function of the liver in related to Excess cholesterol may form deposits in the
digestion is this that it acts as a storage organ. As arteries leading to heart attack and stroke in
a matter of fact, the liver stores a lot of severe cases. Gallstones may be formed as a
substances like iron, potassium, vitamins like result of accumulation of excess insoluble
Vitamin A,B,C,D, E and K cholesterol in the gall bladder.
C. DEAMINATION
F. CONTROL OF SUGAR
Amino acids are the end products of protein
Under the influence of insulin, the liver converts
digestion. Because excess amino acids cannot be
excess glucose and amino acids to glycogen for
stored in the body, they are broken down in the
storage when are above their normal content.
liver in a process called deamination. From each
Glycogen I an insoluble carbohydrate. Under the
amino acids, the amino group (𝑁𝐻2 ) is changed
influence of glucagon, it converts the stored
to ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 ). The rest of the amino acid
glycogen to glucose when blood sugar levels are
molecule is changed o glycogen or fat for
below normal.
storage. The ammonia produced from the amino
group is very quickly converted to a less toxic
substance, which is usually urea.
MAIN FOOD SUBSTANCES (FOOD
NUTRIENTS)
D. TRANSAMINATION
Food nutrients are chemical substances that
This refers to the transfer of an amino group
are found in food and have a specific
from one amino acid to another substance so as
42
function. As a matter of fact, there are six (iii) Galactose – single sugar found in
food nutrients namely carbohydrates, milk
proteins, fats/lipids, vitamins, minerals and
water. II. DISACCHARIDES
43
Examples of polysaccharides include down by adding water molecule to them. For
instance
(i) Starch –this is the form by which all
glucose is stored in plants
(ii) Glycogen – this is the storage form of
glucose in animals
(iii) Cellulose – the carbohydrate which
form the cell wall in plant cells
(iv) Chitin – this is the material that makes
B. PROTEINS
up the exoskeleton of insects.
These are complex organic molecules and
REACTIONS IN CARBOHYDRATES there are millions of different sorts each
adapted to carry a specific function, for
Carbohydrates undergo two main reactions
example
namely condensation and hydrolysis.
(i) Catalysts for example enzymes
(a) CONDENSATION
(ii) Transport proteins like
This refers to a condition whereby two or haemoglobin
more molecules combine to produce a large (iii) Antibodies which fight diseases
molecule plus water. For example, (iv) Contractile proteins found in
monosaccharides can build up to form muscles
disaccharides and polysaccharides by (v) Hormones
condensation reaction.
44
foods that are consumed. Some protein ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is much greater
giving foods contains all ten essential amino than that of carbohydrates which is 2:1. For
acids for example animal proteins while example a beef fat molecule is 𝐶57 𝐻110 𝑂7.
others do not contain all the essential amino Fats and oils are important sources of
acids for example most plant proteins. energy; in fact, they contain relatively more
energy than carbohydrates. Fats are solid at
In view of this, the former are called first
room temperature while oils are liquid at
class proteins or proteins of high biological
room temperature. Generally, lipids
value (HBV) while the latter are called
molecules are made up of two basic
second class proteins or proteins of low
elements which are, glycerol and fat acids.
biological value (LBV). The main functions of
Lipids are broken down into glycerol and
proteins include
fatty acids during digestion in a process
Growth of new cells called hydrolysis.
Replacement of dead cells and lost
PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS
cells
Repair of dead cells due to accidents All lipids are insoluble in water but
or illness soluble in organic solvents for
Provision of energy when there are example ethanol.
not enough fats or carbohydrates in Fats are solid at room temperature
the diet but melt easily with high
temperatures while oils are liquid at
When the proteins are digested, the end
room temperature
products are amino acids. However, excess
amino acids are not stored in the body; FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
rather, they are broken down by the liver
(a) They provide energy to the body
into amine group and carboxyl group in a
(b) Some lipids are used in formation of
process called deamination. The carboxyl
cell membrane
group which is made up of carbon, hydrogen
(c) Fats stored under the skin are used
and oxygen is converted into glycogen which
for insulation
is stored in the liver for future use, while the
(d) They are used for oxidation
amine group which is made up of
nitrogeneous compounds is excreted after it
D. VITAMINS
is converted into ammonia then urea. Vitamins are organic substances
C. LIPIDS needed in small amounts in the diet.
Vitamin C is found in fresh fruit and
The most common lipids are fats and oils. vegetables. It is needed to make the
Like carbohydrates, they are made up of protein collagen, which is essential
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the for the formation of skin. A shortage
45
of vitamin C causes scurvy. Vitamin D faeces. This can be prevented by the
is found in many plant foods and is inclusion of roughages in the diet.
made in the skin when sunlight falls DIARRHOEA
onto it. It is needed to help calcium This is a condition in which large
be absorbed and used in the body. A intestines fail to absorb water
shortage of vitamin D causes rickets. thereby producing large quantities of
E. MINERALS watery fluids. This is caused mainly
Minerals are inorganic ions needed by infection and indigestion
by the body. Iron is needed for the ULCERS
formation of haemoglobin, and a
This occur either in the stomach or
shortage causes anaemia. Calcium is
needed for the formation of teeth small intestine due to either little
and bones, as well as for blood production of mucus or too much
clotting. hydrochloric acid.
HEARTBURN
F. WATER This is caused by acidic foods from
Water is needed as a solvent for the stomach when it goes into the
metabolic reactions, as a transport
oesophagus.
medium in blood, for cooling when it
evaporates from the body and as a INDIGESTION
reactant in several metabolic This applies in general to all
reactions sensations of discomfort in the
stomach or duodenum. It is caused
by eating too much food or
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
accumulation of gases in the
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
stomach.
CONSTIPATION NAUSEA
This refers to the retention of the Is either a sign of infection or allergy
contents of the lower alimentary substances where one feels like
canal (large intestine with vomiting.
undigested foods) for long periods.
The urge to defecate is depressed
and it becomes difficult to expel
46
TOPIC 5: THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYTEM
Living organisms need constant supply of pulmonary circulation, blood is pumped
different useful substances for example food from the heart to the lungs for purification
nutrients, oxygen. These substances are and back to the heart. On the hand, in
supposed to be transported throughout the systematic circulation, blood is pumped
body of an organism. In addition, the waste from the heart to all parts of the body and
products that are produced during from all parts of the body back to the heart.
metabolic processes for example urea, This implies that in double circulation, blood
carbon dioxide and sweat are also supposed passes through the heart twice in each
to be removed from the body before they circuit around the body and the heart is a
accumulate to harmful levels. As such, there double pump. Other animals, for example
is a need for transport system in all fish have a single circulatory system in which
organism. blood is pumped from the heart to the gills
then to all parts of the body and thereafter
In human beings, there are two main
back to the heart. Human circulatory system
transport systems namely the circulatory
comprises the heart, blood vessels and blood
system which is also known as blood system
and the lymphatic system. FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
47
- Action of phagocytes
- Action of antibodies
c) Regulation of
-body temperature
-water levels
-nutrient levels in the body
48
The ventricles on other hand are responsible The bicuspid and tricuspid valves open to
for the pumping of blood. Hence they have fill the ventricles
thick walls so that they can exert enough At the same time, the semi lunar valves
pressure on the blood when they contract. close to prevent blood from flowing back
However, the left ventricles are thicker than into the ventricles
the right ventricles as the left ventricles
pump blood over a long distance. In fact the The pressure exerted during systole is called
right ventricles, pump blood from the heart systolic pressure while that exerted during
to the lungs while the left ventricles pump diastole is called diastolic pressure. The rate
blood from the heart to all parts of the body. of heart beat or pulse rate varies with age,
size, health and physical activity. A typical
HOW DOES THE HEART WORKS? resting pulse for an adult is 84 beats per
minute for females and 70 beats per minute
This is quite complex because several things
for males. This increase to 200 beats per
happen at the same time. Each heart beat
minute during physical exercise.
involves a series of events occurring in
different parts of the heart and occurs in two
major phases known as systole and diastole.
BLOOD VESSELS
SYSTOLE
There are three types of blood vessels
During systole the following things occur at a namely
time
Arteries
Ventricles muscle contract at a time, Veins
thereby reducing volume of the Capillaries
heart.
ARTERIES
The increase of blood pressure in the
ventricles closes tricuspid and These are blood vessels that carry
bicuspid valves, preventing blood oxygenated blood away from the heart to
from flowing back into the auricles. the body tissue where they are used for
The semi lunar valves open and blood respiration. They have thick walls and
enter aorta and pulmonary artery. narrow lumen (cavities) which enable them
to withstand pressure exerted by the
DIASTOLE
pumping force of blood. Arteries have no
During diastole, the following things occur at valves along their length. The largest artery
a time is called aorta and it divides into many
arteries which further divide into several
The ventricle muscles relax, thereby
increasing the volume of the ventricles
49
arterioles and the capillaries are joined to
these arterioles.
CAPILLARIES
VEINS
These are the smallest blood vessels which
These are blood vessels that carry have the following properties.
50
Blood is made up of liquid and solid haemoglobin . They are made in the bone
substances. The solid part of blood marrows of flat bones and at the end of long
comprises blood cells and platelets while the
bones. RBCs are elastic , which means that
liquid part of blood is made up of plasma.
they can squeeze through capillaries which
PLASMA
have a diameter smaller than of red blood
It is a straw coloured liquid which transports cells. The cytoplasm of RBC is full of
dissolved substances and blood cells. Almost
haemoglobin , which is a protein which
90% of blood plasma is water which serves
as the solvent for the other 10% of dissolved contains iron and has high affirnity for
substances which include. oxygen. haemoglobin readily combines with
Mineral ions oxygen in oxygen in high oxygen
End products of digestion like glucose , concentration region like lungs forming a
amino acids, fatty acids and glycerols bright red compound called
Water products like uric acid and carbon OXYHAEMOGLOBIN. Oxygen is carried by
Blood proteins for example fibrinogen, respiring, releasing oxygen for use by
prothrombin, antigens and antibodies respiring cells. Red blood cells live for about
120 days in the circulation there after it is
BLOOD CELLS
broken down by the liver into iron and other
There are two main types of blood cells. toxic substances. The iron is stored in the
These include; Red blood cells and white liver for future use while the toxic
blood cells substances are converted into bile pigment
before and they are then excreted.
(a) THE RED BLOOD CELLS
(erythrocytes)
These cells do not have nuclei. They are STRUCTURE OF THE RED BLOOD CELLS
about 0.008mm in diameter and have a
biconcave disc shape which increases the
volume of each cell in order to
accommodate more red pigments called
51
THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS
(LEUKOCYTES)
(a)THE PHAGOCYTES
52
blood. These antibodies attack invading fibers which traps blood cells there by
foreign organisms forming a blood clot. The blood clot is
important because it prevents further loss
(ii) The T-Lymphocytes
of blood and also prevents the entry of
These lymphocytes are further categorized foreign particles into the body.
into two groups namely the helper T cells
If blood clot forms inside the blood vessel it
and the killer T cells. The helper T cells
can cause a heart attack or stroke. During
produce chemical substances which provide
blood transfusion, the blood is prevented
communication among the cells of the
from clotting by adding an anticoagulant
immune system. The killer T cells produce
called sodium citrate. Sucking insects of
chemical substances which kill directly the
blood like mosquitoes also produce
foreign organisms. White blood cells have a
anticoagulants which prevent the blood
very short life span. HIV Attacks the helper T
from clotting.
cells hence AIDS patients have damaged
immune system which make them prone to THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
different infections.
As blood enters capillaries from the
PLATELETS arterioles, it enters with high pressure which
is created by the pumping action of the heart
These are fragments formed by the
and reduction in the lumen from arteries to
disintegration of large cells in the bone
capillaries. This pressure forces a fluid out of
marrow. Like WBC, platelets are irregular in
the capillary between the cells that make up
shape and have no nuclei. Their main
the cell wall of the capillaries. This fluid is
function is to help in blood clotting. Blood
called tissue fluid and it contains plasma
clotting simply means hardening of the
without fibrinogen and red blood cells and
wound at the site of cut. For this process to
white blood cells can squeeze through the
occur, the following substances are
small gaps in the capillary wall and integrates
required; platelets, prothrombin,
with the fluid. This means that the blood
fibrinogen, calcium ions and vitamin K.
remaining behind in the capillary lumen
When blood vessel is cut, blood comes out.
becomes concentrated. As a result, the fluid
When platelets come in contact with
starts to move back into the capillary
atmospheric air, they disintegrate producing
towards the venous ends of the capillary
an enzyme called prothrombokinase or
where the blood pressure is lower. Water
prombroplastin. This enzyme converts
moves back into capillaries by osmosis. This
passive enzymes prothrombin into an active
tissue fluid bathes the cells in the tissue
enzyme called thrombin. In the presence of
surrounding the capillaries. However, not all
calcium ions and vitamins, thrombin
the tissue fluid is reabsorbed back into the
converts the soluble fibrinogen into an
capillaries because the pressure of fluid in
insoluble fibrin. Fibrin form a meshwork of
53
the capillary is too high. This fluid turns to PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
the blood by another route called the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
lymphatic system. Some tissue fluid drains
A number of diseases can affect blood
into another set of vessels called lymph
vessels. Blocking of blood vessels by blood
capillaries to form lymph. Lymph capillaries
clots can cause major problems with the
gradually join up to form large lymph. There
circulation of the blood. Some of these
is no pumping action in the lymphatic problems are
system. Lymph moves along the lymph
vessels because of the following factors Heart failure
This a condition whereby the cardiac
i. The presence of valves in the lymph muscles are unable to pump enough
vessels which prevents the backflow blood for the requirements of the body.
As such, blood vessels narrow to keep
of lymph
blood pressure up and divert blood away
ii. Movement of the skeletal muscles from less important tissues and organs
iii. The lymph in the other part of the to maintain flow to the most vital
body like arms and the head is moved organs, the heart and the brain. During
along the vessel by gravity. this time the patient does not know that
he has a heart failure problem. When
Along the lymph vessels, there are lymph the heart can no longer adapt to the
nodes which have tiny spaces in which lymph problem the symptoms like fatigue and
is filtered before it goes to the blood stream. shortness of breath may occur. This is
due to the fact that the body depends on
Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and
the pumping action to deliver oxygen
traps phagocytes which engulf and digest and nutrient to body cells. When the
foreign particles in the lymph. The largest cells are nourished properly, the body
lymph node is the spleen and other lymph can function normally. With heart
nodes are located in many areas like the failure, the weakened heart cannot
groin, neck and armpits. Lymphatic vessels supply the cells with enough blood. This
has an impact on the routine activities
from all parts of the body join together to
like walking, running and doing other
form two large lymphatic vessels which drain physical exercises.
their contents into subclavian veins. Lymph Cardiac arrest
is also found in the pleural cavity and This is the sudden loss of heart
pericardial cavity where it functionality in a person. it occurs when
the heart stops pumping blood around
(a) Supplies oxygen to the organs it the body. It is a sudden or abrupt loss of
surrounds heart function in a person. The person
(b) Supplies food to organs it surrounds may have or may have no history of
or encloses heart diseases.
(c) Acts as a lubricant preventing friction Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart’s
between surfaces electrical system malfunctions. Death
results when the heart suddenly stops
54
working completely. It occurs when the artery is affected, the heart lacks enough
heart’s lower chambers suddenly start oxygen that can lead to a heart attack. A
beating chaotically without pumping condition known as coronary
blood. Death occurs within minutes after thrombosis.
the heart stops.
55
CHAPTER 6: THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
REPRODUCTION THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
This is a process by which new organisms are The organs of the male reproductive system
formed from the already existing ones. The are specialized for the following functions:
newly formed organism are called off
To produce sperms.
springs while the old ones are called
To discharge and transport sperm.
parents. This process is very important as it
To produce and secrete male sex
ensures maintenance of species in an
ecosystem and also give rise to new hormones.
organisms. The male reproductive system includes
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION internal and external structures.
There are two types of reproduction. These Structure of the Male Reproductive
are; System
A) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION THE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE
STRUCTURES
This refers to the process by which offsprings
are formed by a single parent. An organism
can produce asexually by
B) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
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external structure of the male reproductive The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of
parts are the penis and scrotum. skin which hangs behind the penis. It
contains the testicles also called testes) as
The Penis
well as many nerves and blood vessels. The
The penis is the male organ for sexual scrotum has a protective function and act as
intercourse. It has three parts namely the a climate control system for the testes. For
root which attaches to the walls of normal sperm development, the testis must
abdomen, the body or shaft and the glans, be at a temperature slightly cooler than the
which is the cone-shaped end of a penis. The body temperature. Special muscles in the
glans which is also called the head of the wall of scrotum allow it to contract and relax,
penis, is covered with loose layer of a skin moving the testicles closer to the body for
called foreskin. The skin is sometimes warmth and protection or farther away from
removed in a procedure called circumcision. the body to cool the temperature.
Inside the penis, there is a tube that
THE INTERNAL PARTS OF THE MALE
transport urine and semen. This tube is
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
called urethra. The penis also contains a
number of sensitive nerve endings. Testes - The testes are oval organs about the
size of the large olives that lie in the scrotum
The body of penis is cylindrical in shape and
secured at either end by a structure called
consists of three internal chambers. These
the spermatic cord. Normally, a man is
chambers are made up of special sponge-like
supposed to have two testes. The testes are
erectile tissue. This tissue contains
responsible for formation of testosterone,
thousands of large spaces that fill with blood
the primary male sex hormone and for
when the man is sexually aroused. As the
generating sperm. Within the testes are the
penis is filled with blood, it becomes rigid
coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous
and erect which allow penetration during
tubes. These tubes are responsible for
sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is
producing the sperm cells through the
loose and elastic to accommodate changes
process called spermatogenesis.
in penis during erection.
Epididymis - This is a long, coiled tube that
Semen, a fluid containing sperms, is expelled
rest on the back side of each testicle. it
(ejaculated) through the end of the penis
functions in the transport and storage of
when man reaches sexual climax(orgasm).
sperm cells that are produced in the testes.
When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is
The job of epididymis is also to bring the
blocked from the urethra, allowing only
sperm to maturity, since the sperm that
semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
emerge from the testes are immature and
The Scrotum incapable of fertilization. During sexual
57
arousal, contraction force the sperms into Prostate gland- this is the walnut –sized
vas deferens structure that is located below the urinary
bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate
Vas deferens- This is the long, muscular tube
gland contributes additional fluid to the
that travels from the epididymis into the
ejaculate. Prostate fluid also helps to nourish
pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. It
the sperm. The urethra which carries the
transports mature sperms to urethra in
ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs
preparation for ejaculation.
through the center of the prostate gland.
Ejaculatory ducts - these are formed by the
Cowper’s gland -also known as
fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
bulbourethral glands are pea sized structure
vesicles, the ejaculatory ducts empty into
located on the sides of the urethra just
the urethra
below the prostate gland. This gland
Urethra- this is a tube that caries urine from produces a clear slippery fluid that empty
the bladder to the outside of the body. In directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to
males it has an additional function of lubricate the urethra and neutralize any
ejaculating semen when man reaches acidity that may be present due to residual
orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, drops of urine in the urethra.
the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra,
The sperm
allowing only semen to be ejaculated during
orgasm. Sperms are the male gametes; thus they are
reproductive cells of men. Basically, each
THE EJACULATORY GLANDS.
sperm is made up of the head, neck and tail.
There are three main glands that secrete
The structure of a sperm
useful substances during the process of
ejaculation. These three glands are; the
seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and the
cowpers gland.
58
The head: The sperm has a head which called ejaculation. During this process, the
contains nucleus and acrosome. The sperms are propelled from the epididymis
nucleus is the structure that fuses with through the vas deferens which is muscular.
the female gamete during fertilization. In The seminal vesicles secrete a thick yellow
fact, carries hereditary information. On alkaline substance which nourishes the
the other hand, the acrosome is the sac sperms and activate them by secreting
containing enzymes which dissolves the enzymes. They also provide a medium in
egg membrane for easy penetration of which sperms swim. The prostate gland
sperm. helps to push semen out powerfully during
The neck (middle piece) contains a lot of ejaculation. Further, the cowpers gland
mitochondria which provide energy for neautrises any activity left by urine and
activity of the sperm. provide a more suitable environment for the
The tail (flagellum) helps the sperm to passage of sperms.
swim.
The penis is normally soft because it contains
ADAPTATION OF A SPERM FOR MOBILITY little blood. During periods of sexual activity
the blood vessels in the penis are filled with
They have tail that propel them blood hence the penis expand and becomes
They have a lot of mitochondria in the firm and erect, thereby being capable of
middle piece hence a lot of energy is ejaculating sperms. The secretion from the
produced for movement. accessory glands and sperms together form
They have streamlined bodies that a substance called semen.
minimizes drag during motion.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND
FORMATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF ITS STRUCTURE
SPERMS
The female reproductive system has much
The male gonads consist of highly coiled more complex structure and so are its
tubes called seminiferous tubules. Sperms functions. Sperms are delivered into the
are formed in these tubules. The testes are vagina that get transported through the
held outside the abdominal cavity in fold skin uterus, and finally they penetrate the egg for
called scrotum. Actually the temperature in fertilization .fallopian tube is the site of
the scrotum is 20 𝐶 lower than the normal fertilization and is the one of the most
body temperature. This forms the best important of all internal reproductive
temperature for the sperm production. components. The external components of
From the seminiferous tubules of testis, the female reproductive system help in
sperms pass into coiled tube of the achieving orgasm and secretion of fluid that
epididymis. This stores sperms and enable lubricates the vagina. The external organs
them to gain motility and ability to fertilize. that arouses stimulation are often compared
The sperms are released in the process
59
with male reproductive structures. Here is INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE PARTS
the division of the external and internal
organs.
60
almost nine months i.e. from conception to with the follicle phase. During this follicle
birth. phase, the gonadotrophin hormone is
released by the hypothalamus. This
hormone stimulate pituitary gland to secret
The cervix- also known as neck of the uterus. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)that
It separates the uterus from the vagina. causes a graafian follicle to develop in the
Furthermore, it is always closed except ovary. They also stimulate the follicle cells
during birth and menstrual periods. surrounding developing egg to stimulate
another hormone called oestrogen. As
graafian follicle grows, more oestrogen is
produced. High concentration of oestrogen
The vagina - this is a tubular tract leading
stimulate the pituitary gland to stimulate
from the uterus to the exterior of the body.
another hormone called Lieutinizing
It receives male copulatory organ and male
Hormone. This hormone bring about
gametes contained in garments during
ovulation(releasing of the ovum into the
sexual intercourse. it also acts as a birth
oviduct)and causes graafian follicle to
canal during delivery. It is lubricated by
change into corpus luteum. The corpus
vaginal fluid which prevents friction during
luteum produces a hormone called
sexual intercourse and birth.
progesterone which causes the thickening
of uterus wall in prepation for implantation.
It further inhibits production of FSH and
CHARACTERISTICS OF OVA
reduces oestrogen levels. if fertilization fails
They are non motile. ,corpus luteum degenerate leading to low
They are relatively large as compared to concentration of progesterone and this
sperms. inhibits production of LH from the pituitary
They store food in their yolk which is gland. This in turn causes the corpus to stop
used to nourish the embryo after secreting progesterone and hence start
fertilization. stimulating follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) again. The immediate effect oestrogen
is to bring about healing and repair of the
THE ROLE OF HORMONES ON MENSTRUAL uterine wall, following menstruation and the
CYCLE AND HORMONES cycle is repeated. if fertilization has
occurred, the corpus continues producing
The first sign in puberty in girls is
progesterone and little amount of oestrogen
menstruation, which refers to a discharge of
continue developing the uterine wall and
blood from the reproductive system via
also preventing menstruation. The
vagina. This process repeat itself every 28
progesterone prevents further follicles from
days during the fertility age of a woman and
developing by inhibiting the production of
it is called menstrual cycle. The cycle begin
61
FSH. The progesterone and oestrogen are
also responsible for the growth of mammary
glands during pregnancy hence their sudden
drop brings about lactation.
62
Act as a centre for exchange of
different substances for example food
nutrients and waste products.
Produces progesterone which
stimulates further growth of the
uterus and stimulate milk producing
glands in the breast.
Prevent direct contact between the
foetus and the wall of the mother. This
prevents damages of delicate organs of
the foetus by blood pressure of the
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division and mother .and also prevent agglutination
it is pushed towards the uterus where it and easy contamination of diseases
settles. When it reaches the uterus it is called
FUNCTIONS OF THE UMBILICAL CORD
the embryo and after two months it is now
called foetus. After three months of It carries blood vessels thus arteries
conception, corpus luteum degenerates. By and veins thereby ensuring
this time another structure called placenta transportation of different substances
develop and continue secreting eg food nutrients from mother to the
progesterone. When the female conceives, foetus and waste products from the
the embryo is implanted in the early two to foetus to the mother
three weeks of pregnancy. At this time the
embryo has been produced. The blood
THE PROCES OF BIRTH
vessels and the heart are the first features to
rise, including the umbilical cord, amniotic When the foetus is about 250 days old
fluid and amnion (about 9 months)the process of birth starts.
This process is called labour. in fact it occurs
in three stages. These include :breaking of
FUNCTIONS OF AMNIOTIC FLUID waters, contraction of muscles and a show
This refers to the deliberate prevention of These are tiny capsules which contain
conception [pregnancy] while sexual chemicals which inhibits ovulation. They are
intercourse is still taking place. it is also inserted under the skin and they can be
called birth control. effective for almost five years. When the
couple want to conceive, this can be
METHODS OF CONTRANCEPTION
removed and fertilization can be possible.
These are divided into natural and artificial
THE CONDOM OR SHEATH METHOD
methods
A thin rubber sheath which is placed on the
I. NATURAL METHOD
erect penis or in the vagina before sexual
[a] RHYTHM OR CALENDAR METHOD intercourse. It traps sperms thereby
preventing them from fertilizing the ova.
This involves having sexual intercourse Further it prevents contraction of STIs.
during safe periods. It is based on the fact
that during the menstrual cycle, there is a THE DIAPHRAGM
fertile period of which ovulation is likely to
This is a thin rubber laced in the vagina
take place. Sexual intercourse is avoided
before intercourse, covering the cervix there
during this time to prevent pregnancy.
by preventing entry of the sperms into the
(b) Withdraw Method uterus. It is removed 8 hours after
intercourse.
This is a contraceptive method where a by a
man removes his penis just before he STERILIZATION
releases sperms during sexual intercourse.
This encompasses all the methods that
II. ARTIFICIAL METHODS prevent pregnancy permanently. Examples
include vasecetomy which involves a
SPERMICIDES surgical operation in which man’s sperm
duct are cut or tied. This implies that the
These are chemicals smeared on the male
man will be releasing semen without
reproductive organ to kill sperms
sperms. The testes are not affected, hence
INTRA UTERINE DEVICE sexual desires, feelings and ejaculations will
continue as before. Another example is
It is a small metal or plastic strip bent into a
tubaligation. This method involves the
loop or coil and it inserted and retained in
cutting and tying of the woman’s oviduct.
64
The ovaries are not affected, hence sexual thereby ensuring increase of the number of
desires and menstruation continues as cells in an organism. This increase of the
before but the sperms can not fertilize the number of cells and the increase in size of
egg. the cells result s into growth. In an organism,
cell division occurs rapidly during the early
CHROMOSOMES
stages of growth and development in order
Chromosomes are thread like structures to produce new cells and tissues. Later,
found in the nucleus and containing a linear when the cells become specialized, the
sequence of genes. They are made up of power of cell division is lost and only a
protein called HISTONES which support the limited number of unspecialized retain this
complex DEOXY RIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) power of division for example in meristems
strands where the genes are located. Genes like root tips, shoot tips, young leaves, bases
are structures that carry actual information of internodes, cambium and all malphighian
for a character in an organism. This implies layer in the skin which produce new
that genes are responsible for inheritance; epidermis.
or in short, they are units of inheritance.
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
DNA contains all the information necessary
Basically, there are two types of cell division.
to produce all the enzymes which direct all
These includes,
the metabolic reactions in the body of any
organism such as protein synthesis, i. Mitosis
respiration, photosynthesis in plants and ii. Meosis
production of all chemicals in the cells.
65
mother through the placenta. The zygote NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES
(single cell) starts to divide and produce an
There are fixed number of
embryo consisting of thousand cells. This
chromosomes in each species. Man’s
type of cell division is called mitosis.
body cell contains 46 chromosomes,
During mitosis, the nucleus divide into two; mouse cell contains 40
one chromatid from each chromosome goes chromosomes and garden peas
into each daughter nucleus. The chromatids contain 14 chromosomes.
now become chromosomes and later they The number of chromosomes in each
make copies of themselves ready for the of your liver cells, in every nerve cells,
next cell division. The process of copying is skin cell, muscle cell and so on.
called replication because each chromatid The chromosomes are always in
make a replica (an exact copy of itself) to pairs. This is because when the
form a complete chromosomes. Therefore, zygote is formed, one of each pair
in both plants and animals, the comes from the male one from the
chromosomes are found in pairs. The two female. Your 46 chromosomes
chromosomes belonging to a pair look consists of 23 from your father. the
exactly alike and are called homologous number of chromosomes in each
chromosomes body cell of a plant or animal is called
DIPLOID NUMBER (2n) because of
Homologous chromosomes are
chromosomes are in pairs; it is
chromosomes which have the same shape,
always an even number.
size and sequence of genes, but the genes
might have different effects. Remember the It the division of the nucleus into two
cell have different homologous daughter nuclei that are genetically identical
chromosomes. Each species have specific to one another and to their parent nucleus.
number of chromosomes. For example Since the DNA contains the genes which
humans have 46 chromosomes, maize cell control all the metabolic pathways in the
have 20 chromosomes, mice have 40 while cell, mitosis ensures that a new cell in a
garden peas has 14. The total number of chicken egg develops into a chicken cell and
chromosomes in each cell is called DIPLOID not into a potato cell. There for mitosis is
NUMBER (2n). Every cell in the body of an very process that ensures that every cell in
organism contains the same number of an organism has the same DNA, in short, the
chromosomes. When a cell divides, it is very DNA is in the chromosomes, and mitosis
important that genes should be shared ensures that every cell receives the same
equally between the two daughter cells, and chromosomes.
this means that chromosomes must behave
in an orderly way during the cell division. The function of mitosis include growth, and
replacement or repair of tissues. The
66
importance and significance of mitosis is to disappearance of nuclear membrane and the
ensure that the number of chromosomes nucleolus.
within the species and within the individual
is maintained.
METAPHASE
Mitosis is roughly divided into four main
phases; namely: prophase, metaphase, Once the nuclear
anaphase, and telophase. The phase membrane breaks
between prophase and telophase called down, the
interphase is not considered part of cell sio; chromosomes are
however, it is very important phase much of scattered in the
cells life is spent in this period cytoplasm. A
spindle is formed
PHASE OF MITOSIS
which is attached to
INTERPHASE tiny bodies
called
Although this interphase
centrioles on opposite poles of each
is called a resting stage;
cell. The spindle pulls the
the cell does not rest
chromosomes towards the equator of
completely, the cell does
the cell. Note that homologous
prepare for the next cell
chromosomes do not associate. The
division, replication of
chromatids are seen clearly as they
chromosomes, division
become shorter and thicker and being
of organelles and
separate. This process ends as the
production of enough
chromosomes are fully aligned at the
energy before the cell division starts.
equator.
PROPHASE
67
phase vcomes to an end when the ova. During this cell division , the number of
chromatids reach the poles. chromosomes is reduced by half, hence is
called reductive division. The reduced
TELOPHASE
number is called haploid number (n)
Two new cells
STAGES OF MEOSIS
are formed with
the same The first four stages of meosis are similar to
number of those of mitosis. However, after telophase
chromosomes stage, the cell indulges in metaphase ii, then
as the original anaphase ii and finally telophase ii, during
cell. Nuclear anaphase ii, the chromatids separates and
membrane and go to opposite poles, the two cell star
nucleolus are splitting. During the telophase ii, four
formed in each daughter cells are produced each containing
daughter cell. half the number of chromosomes as of the
Spindle parent cell.
generates
COMPARISON BETWEEN MITOSIS AND
(disappear). The cytoplasm divides into two
MEOSIS
thereby producing two separate daughter
cells. MITOSIS MEOSIS
Then the cell returns to interphase (resting Two daughter cells Four daughter cells
condition) whereby the chromatids seem to are formed are formed
disappear as they uncoil and replicate to
produce full chromosomes again. Daughter cells have The number of
equal number of chromosomes of
MEOSIS (REDUCTIVE DIVISION) this is a type chromosomes to the daughter cell is
of cell division by which cells divide and to their parents half to that of the
form four daughter cells. In occurs mainly in parent
reproductive organs for example testes,
ovary, anther and stigma. This process is Occur in body cells Occur in
very significant as it result into formation of reproductive cells
reproductive cells for example sperms and
68
CHAPTER 7: GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity letters are used to denote dominant genes
and variation among organisms. while small letters are used to denote
recessive genes.
Heredity refers to the process by which
off springs acquire characters or traits Alleles are genes that control the same
from their parents. Heredity can also be characteristic. These genes are located on
defined as transmission of traits from the same loci or positions
parents to offsprings. Examples of traits
Genotype: is the genetic composition of an
include skin color, height, ability to roll a organism in terms of the alleles present (e.g.
tongue etc. Tt or GG)
Variation refers to difference that can Phenotype: the physical or other features of
easily be observed in organisms. an organism due to both its genotype and its
environment (e.g. tall plant or green seed
This implies that genetics can also be defined blood type)
as the study of things or activities that cause Homozygous: having two identical alleles of
resemblance and difference among a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two
identical homozygous individuals that breed
organisms.
together will be pure-breeding
GENES Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a
particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-
Genes are structures found on a DNA
breeding.
molecule of chromosomes and they are
responsible for inheritance. DNA contains all
the information necessary to produce all the Genotype Phenotype
enzymes which direct all the metabolic
reactions in the body of organisms such as TT (homozygous dominant) Tall
proteins synthesis, respiration,
photosynthesis in plants and production of
Tt (heterozygous) Tall
all the chemicals in the cell. Genes are
contained in chromosomes of cells. These
chromosomes are made up of two protein Tt (homozygous recessive) Short
strands called chromatids which are
attached together at a point called VARIATION
centromere.
This refers to observable differences among
Genes are always found in pairs and are organisms. The observable differences
named after alphabetical letters. Capital among organisms of the same species are
69
called intra specific variation while This can also be shown by a punnet square
observable differences among organisms of as shown in the figure below.
different species are called inter specific
variation. Intra specific variations can be
continuous (intermediate variables present)
or discontinuous (intermediate variables
absent). Generally, organisms of the same
species can vary due to
- Genetic factors
- Age PRINCIPLES OF MENDELIAN GENETICS
- Environment
The earliest recorded investigations on
THE GENETIC CROSS DIAGRAM heredity was conducted by Gregory Mendel,
an Australian monk. In his experiments,
The way off springs acquire genes from their
Mendel grew garden peas. The garden peas
parents can be shown using across diagram.
were selected for this purpose due to the
A cross diagram comprises the genotype of
presence of several traits such as purple or
the parents, gametes which are produced
white colored flowers, tall or dwarf plants,
after meiosis and off springs which are
green or yellow pods, brown or white seeds,
produced after fertilization. For example, if a
peas with wrinkled or smooth seed coats and
gene (B) for a black skin in human is
peas with green or yellow cotyledon.
dominant over the gene(b) for brown skin
Secondly, the peas were selected for this
the cross of two monohybrids of this trait
purpose due to their ability to self-pollinate.
can be shown using the cross diagram below
In his experiment, Mendel cultivated tall
peas and then allowed to self pollinate. In
so doing, Mendel obtained pure breeds of
this trait. These pure breeds were allowed to
self-pollinate again and another generation
called first filial generation (F1 generation)
was obtained. In simple terms, filial means
offsprings. He followed the same procedure
and obtained the pure breeds for the trait of
dwarf. He then manually crossed a pure
breed tall plant and a pure breed short
plants (dwarf). This procedure is called
hybridization or cross breeding. All off
springs from this cross were tall as shown in
70
the cross diagram below. He then selfed this
F1 generation and some of the f2 offsprings
were tall while some were short in the ratio
1: 3.
72