1 Arise With Agriculture Students Book 3

Arise with
Agriculture
students’ Book 3
Denis Kakolo
Esmie Chamdimba
Social StudiesBook 3 preamble.indd 1 10/19/2014 2:41:14 PM

CLAIM Limited
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P.O. Box 503,
Blantyre,
Malawi.
© CLAIM 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form, electronic, photocopying,
recording, mechanical, or otherwise except with prior written permission of
the publisher.
Editor : Andrew Mkwate
Designer : Joe Kima Phulusa
Proofreader : Tapiwa Chavula Kamoza
ISBN : 978-99960-35-99-9

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank God for giving them good and vibrant
health during the whole period this book was written. They would also
want to thank their families for being understanding and supportive.
Profound thanks should also go to CLAIM for giving them material,
financial and moral support. The General Manager for CLAIM, Mr.
Andrew M. Chisamba deserves a pat on his back for giving the authors
the opportunity to write through his organisation and Mr. John Yohane
of the same organisation for his guidance.
The authors also want to extend their sincere thanks to all the websites
and books which have been used as reference materials.
ii

iii

Contents
Unit 1: Physical Properties of Soil..........................................................1
Unit 2: Chemical properties of soil.........................................................23
Unit 3: Agricultural Development Agencies and Their Services..........36
Unit 4: Farm Records..............................................................................46
Unit 5: Budgeting....................................................................................58
Unit 6: Farm Business Decision Making...............................................75
Unit 7: Enterprise Combinations...........................................................83
Unit 8: Agricultural Cooperatives..........................................................89
Unit 9: Vegitative Planting Materials................................................... 95
Unit10: Cropping Systems.......................................................................101
Unit 11:Mushroom Productions..............................................................117
Unit 12:Livestork Feeds And Feeding................................................... 137
Unit 13: Sheep And Production...............................................................151
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Unit Physical Properties of Soil
Listing Physical Properties of Soil
1
You may recall
The soil has a variety of physical properties all of
which are very vital as they provide a medium for
plant growth. You will carry out an activity to list
these different physical properties of soil.
from your Junior
Certificate
Agriculture course Activity 1
that soil is a thin
layer of loose Listing physical properties of soil
material covering
the earth. You • Be into groups of at least five to eight each
also learnt the • Choose a group leader who will chair the
roles of soil in crop deliberations.
production and that • Also choose a secretary who will be taking notes
there can never be and eventually present the discussions to the
any crop production whole class.
without soil. Soil is • Brainstorm the physical properties of soil
therefore the center • After 15 minutes, go back to class and present
of any agricultural your suggestions to the whole class.
activity farmers can • Your teacher will consolidate the physical
undertake. In this properties of soil.
unit, you will be
expected to list the
physical properties Physical properties of soil are:
of soil, describe these 1. Texture
physical properties 2. Structure
of soil, determine the 3. Colour
physical properties 4. Consistency
of soil, identify types 5. Porosity
of soil structure and
6. Temperature
how soil structure
7. Depth
can be destroyed.
Describing the Physical Properties of Soil
This sub-topic aims at describing the different
physical properties of soil as listed above. An in-depth
description of these physical properties will help you
understand more about each property.
1
Activity 2
Describing the physical properties of soil
• Form seven groups.
• Choose a leader for each group. This leader will be called a host.
• Each group should have a chart paper.
• Using an eatery method, each host and customers will be responsible
for describing one physical property as follows:
• The meaning of the physical property.
• Factors that affect each physical property.
• Each host should present to the whole class points raised by the
customers.
• Your teacher should summarise the description of each soil property.
Soil Texture
This is defined as the relative proportion of various sized soil particles
found in a soil sample. This means that a soil sample will always contains
rock particles which are different in size. It is from texture that names of
various soils are derived. Recall that the following soils are derived from
soil textural classes.
Clay ………………………...below 0.002 mm in diameter

Silt ………………………….between 0.02 and 0.002 mm
Fine sand ………………….. between 0.2 and 0.02 mm
Coarse sand ……………… between 2.0 and 0.2 mm
Gravel ………………………above 2.0mm in diameter
Soil Texture Triangle

A soil texture triangle is used to classify
the texture class of a soil. The sides of
the soil texture triangle are scaled for the
percentages of sand, silt, and clay.
The boundaries of the soil texture
classes are highlighted in dark lines.
The intersection of the three sizes on the
triangle gives the texture class.
For instance, if you have a soil with
20% clay, 60% silt, and 20% sand it
falls in the “silt loam” class.
Fig. 1.1 soil texture tringle
2
How to use the triangle
Recall that soil texture can be described as the percentage of clay, silt and
sand in a soil sample. The soil triangle therefore gives these percentages.
The total of these percentages should you 100%. For example, point R on the
triangle (40% silt, 20% clay and 40%sand) gives a loam texture. Similarly,
point N (60% clay, 20% silt and 20% sand) gives a clay texture. You will see
that in both cases, the sum of the percentages gives 100%. Repeat the same
exercise to identify percentages of clay, sand and silt on different points of
your choice in the triangle and then identify the textural class the soil
belongs to.
Effects of Physical Properties of Soil on Crop Production
Parent material: This is generally the physical property of the rock

material from which a soil is formed. Some rocks are more resistant to
disintegration than others. Those which are difficult to break such as
granite and sand stones form larger rock particles than those which break
easily such as micas and montmorillonite.
Time: This is the time it takes for the parent material to be exposed to
weathering (soil forming) agents. Where soil forming processes have taken
place for a very long period of time, it is obvious that the soil will contain
particles much smaller than when the processes have been in progress for a
short period of time. Time therefore determines maturity of soil.
Climate: Rainfall and temperature are the major climatic factors which
influence rate of weathering. When it is raining, rain water combines with
atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid which when it falls on
rocks containing carbonates, will easily dissolve away the rocks. On the
other hand, the rain water carries rocks which may knock against each other
and break into smaller particles. High temperatures cause rocks to expand
and when the temperature falls suddenly, the rocks break up into smaller
particles.
Soil Structure
Soil structure involves the arrangement or packing together of individual
rock particles called primary particles to form aggregates. This aggregation
of soil particles which forms secondary units occurs naturally over a very
long period of time.
Soil aggregation can be affected by many factors. Most important of all are:
•Organic matter: This provides a cementing agent of the individual rock
particles forming aggregates. This is why application of organic matter
3
helps to improve soil structure
•Climate: Of all, the most important is rainfall. Whenever it rains soluble

salts like clay and iron oxides leach down. These minerals are very
important in cementing together rock particles. Their leaching leaves rock
particles on the top horizon loosely arranged because there is very little or
no cementing agents.
•Parent material: As stated already, clay minerals and humus are the
cementing agents. It follows therefore that a soil formed from rocks that
give rise to clay or organic matter is likely to give rise to a soil which will
be well aggregated.
Soil Colour
This is the physical appearance of soil which comes as a result of parent
material, aeration and drainage and the amount of organic matter it
contains.
•Parent material: Reddish or brown soils indicate that they contain iron
oxides; soils that originate from silica or quartz (limestone) are whitish in
colour.
• Organic matter: Soils containing large quantities of organic matter are

usually dark in colour.
• Drainage and aeration: As you move around a swampy land you will
notice that the soils are usually grayish as opposed to well drained soils
which are brownish in colour.
Soil Consistency
This is a combination of properties of soil that determine its resistance to
crushing and its ability to be molded or changed into shape. The state of
soil when it is under different moisture content describes soil consistency.
You might have noticed that some soils like clay will be sticky when they
are wet. The same soil will be very difficult to break when it is dry. This
implies that such soils are difficult to work with.
Some soils are soft. They break easily into primary grains when they are
pressed lightly. Others, on the other hand, are friable. Such soils break
easily when they are moist but their particles still hold each other.
4
Soil Porosity
This means the percentage volume of the total bulk of soil which is not
occupied by soil particles. Soil structure describes a situation in which soil
particles are neatly combined to form aggregates creating pores in
between them. The proportion of the pore spaces created as the soil particles
are being aggregated is what constitutes to soil porosity.
Some soils are more porous than others. This is because they have more and
possibly bigger pores than those which are less porous.
Soil structure creates soil porosity. Destruction of structure destroys porosity
too. Porosity therefore influences air circulation and water infiltration and
percolation in the soil.
Soil Temperature
The heat a soil is capable of holding is of primary importance to the chemical
and biological activities occurring in the soil for the good of plant growth.
Soil temperature is affected by soil colour, vegetative cover, soil moisture
content and latitudes.
•Soil colour: Black soils absorb and keep more heat than any other soil
colours. However, it must also be noted that most dark coloured soils are
as a result of organic matter which are generally moist and therefore may
not always be the warmest. Red and yellow coloured soils have shown a
more rapid temperature rise than white ones.
•Vegetative cover: A soil covered by vegetation receives less heat from the
sun than the soil which is on open ground.
•Soil’s moisture content: A moist soil is generally cooler than a dry soil.
•Latitude: This deals with position of the sun as it shines on the earth.
Temperatures along the equator are the hottest as compared with all
other places because the sun overhead more times than most of all other
places on earth. It therefore follows that the soil along the equator is
likely to be the hottest.
Effects of soil temperature on crop growth
•Water evaporation: The soil loses water through evaporation depending

on soil temperature. This becomes critical when rains become scarce.
•Chemical reactions in the soil: Mineral salts must dissolve into soluble
minerals which become available to plants. The rate of such reactions
depends on soil temperature.
5
•Seed germination: The process of seed germination involves enzyme
activation by water; break down of reserved food in the seed and
translocation of the nutrients to the embryo. All these are chemical
reactions which need favourable temperature.
•Microbial activities: Some micro-organisms in the soil decompose organic

matter, while others fix nitrogen. These are very beneficial activities
carried out by micro-organisms living in the soil. Unless the soil has a
favourable temperature, it will be difficult for them to multiply and carry
out these activities. The best temperatures for the activities are between
25c and 40c.
Soil Depth
When crops are growing in the field, their roots need a big soil volume from
which they can absorb water and nutrients. This large soil volume depends
on depth of soil. Deep rooting crops such as cotton, tea, coffee need deep soils
in order to grow well.
Soil depth is influenced by many factors. Most important of all are:
•Slope of land: Soils on steep slopes are shallow because of erosion. The
flat and low land areas have deeper soils because there is relatively no
erosion and some of the soil eroded from the highland is deposited there.
•Parent material: Parent materials which are resistant to weathering take

long to form soil than those which are less resistant. More and deeper
soils are therefore formed making them deeper.
Determining Physical Properties of Soil
Soil Texture
You may wish to recall from your Junior Certificate course that soil texture
is the physical appearance of soil on the basis of rock particle sizes found
in a soil sample. A soil sample is likely to contain different sizes of rock
particles. In this topic, you will carry out activities which can help you find
out the different sized rock particles in a soil sample.
Activity 3
Determining texture of soil using sieve method

• Visit a local environment to observe different types of soil
• Collect the different samples of soil
Materials required
• Soil lump.
6
• Sieves of different sized mesh i.e. 2mm, 0.2mm, 0.02mm, 0.002mm in
diameter.
Procedure
• Break the soil lump lightly into small particles.
• Take a sieve of 2 mm mesh.
• Sieve the soil through the 2mm mesh. Soil particles greater than 2 mm in
diameter will not pass through.
• Repeat the exercise with sieves of 0.2mm. 0.02mm, 0.002mm.
• By the end of the exercise you will have separated the different soil
particles into their textural classes.
• Your teacher will summarise sieve method of determining soil texture.
Assessment
•With the use of the sieves stated above, list the soil textural classes which
you have determined.
•Suggest any limitations to this method of determining soil textural classes.
•Explain why this method works with dry soil rather than wet soil.
Activity 4
Determining soil texture using sedimentation method
Materials required
•Lump of soil.
•Water.
•Transparent jar or measuring cylinder.
Procedure
•Put a lump of soil into a transparent container or measuring cylinder.
•Add water until the cylinder is 75% full.
•Shake vigorously.
•Leave the cylinder to allow the soil particles to settle down.
•Draw what you see.
•Determine the percentage of each type of soil found in the cylinder.
•Your teacher will summarise how soil texture is determined by
sedimentation method.
Soil texture can be determined by use of the following methods:
Assessment
a.What texture of soil is found at the base of the cylinder?
b.Explain why this texture is found at the base of the cylinder.
c.What is the volume of this texture found at the base of the cylinder?
d.Calculate the percentage volume of the soil texture named in “a” above
7
Activity 5
Determining soil texture by using “Feel” method
Materials required
•Different lumps of soil
•Water
•Add a little amount of water to the soil.
•Take the soil between the thumb and the
pointer finger.
•Feel the soil as you move the two fingers.
•Try to mould the soil.
•Your teacher will summarise feel method of
determining soil texture.
Assessment
a. Were you able to make balls from any of the soils you collected?
b. What name is given to the soil from which you made balls?
c. What name of soil was gritty when feeling between your fingers?
1. Sieve method
The different sieves separate the different sized rock particles in the soil.
2. Sedimentation method
In this method, soil will settle down according to their mass. The heaviest
will settle first, followed by the second heaviest and so on.
3. Feel method
The aim of this activity is to see the difference in feel between sand and clay.
You will see that sand soil feels coarse and gritty while clay particles feel
fine and sticky when wet. Clay can also be molded into balls and sausages.
Effect of soil colour on crop production
Soil colour has an effect on crop growth. Black colour in soils is very important
as it keeps soil temperature warm. The rate at which mineral salts can dissolve
in soil water and become available for plant use depends on soil colour. It also
influences the rate at which enzymes in seeds can break down reserved food
necessary for germination. Soil colour has a bearing on the temperature that
influences the activity of microorganisms which decompose organic matter.
Soil temperature is a function of colour. Dark colored soils will absorb more
heat than whitish soils which reflect most of its heat. As a result of this, best
agricultural soils must be dark which absorb and keep heat.
8
Soil Consistency
This is a combination of properties of soil that determine its resistance to
crushing and its ability to be molded or changed into shape. The state of soil
when it is under different moisture content describes soil consistency. You
might have noticed that some soils like clay will be sticky when they are wet.
The same soil will be very difficult to break when it is dry. This implies that
such soils are difficult to work with.
Some soils are soft. They break easily into primary grains when they are
pressed lightly. Others on the other hand are friable. Such soils break easily
when they are moist but their particles still hold each other.
Determining soil consistency

Activity 6
Materials required
• Hoes
• 10 liters water
Procedure
• Break the class into groups of not more than ten
• Take the class to the environment
• Each group identifies and works on a soil sample to good tilth
• To half the soil add 5 liters of water, to the other half add 2.5 liters
• Work on the two soils with the hoes
Assessment
1) Which soil is easy to work with?
2) Why do you think it is so?
You will see that the soil with 2.5 liters of water is easy to work with.
Soil consistency affects the workability of soil.
Effects of soil consistency on crop production

Poor soil consistency affects workability of the soil. It is difficult to work with
and it destroys soil structure. Consistency depends on resistance to pressure
and its aggregate. Consistency changes with the amount of water present
in the soil. Crop production depends on a good soil consistency as good
cultivated soils retain ideal air and water for crop growth.
9
(i) Soil Porosity
This means the percentage volume of the total bulk of soil which is not occupied
by soil particles. Soil structure describes a situation in which soil particles
are neatly combined to form aggregates creating pores in between them. The
proportion of the pore spaces created as the soil particles are being aggregated
is what constitutes to soil porosity.
Some soils are more porous than others. This is because they have more and
possibly bigger pores than those which are less porous. Soil structure creates
soil porosity. Destruction of structure destroys porosity too. Porosity therefore
influences air circulation and water infiltration and percolation in the soil.
You have seen that soil consistency varies with the soil’s moisture content.
Some soils will be sticky, plasticity (capable of being molded), friable (easy
to crush) when they are moist and loose or hard when they are dry. It also
exhibits the soil’s cementation ability. As a result, soil consistency has the
following effects on crop production:
a) Workability. Sticky soils are very difficult for farmers to work with because
the soil sticks to farming implements like hoes, ploughs, ridgerse.t.c.
b) Destruction of soil structure. Plastic soils easily get compacted and reduce
their porosity. This in turn reduces air circulation, water infiltration and
percolation and pant roots penetration through the soil.
c) Erosion. Soils that are weakly cemented easily break into individual soil
grains and become more subject to erosion.
d) Seedling emergence. Plastic soils get pulverized easily by heavy rainfall.
This makes it difficult for emerging seedlings to get out of the soil.
Activity 7

Materials required
• A lump of soil.
• Measuring cylinder.
• Beam balance.
• Burner.
• Matches.
• Crucible or any metal container.
Procedure
• Break into groups of at least five members and obtain the materials listed
above.
• Gently heat the soil until excess water evaporates from the soil. Weight of
the soil shall become constant.
• Weigh the soil.
10
• Find the volume of the heated soil.
• Calculate bulk density.
• Take the volume and weight of soil.
• Compress it.
• Record its volume.
• Calculate particle density as weight of soil solids/volume of the soil solids.
• Calculate %porosity by dividing bulk density by particle density x 100.
ii. Soil Porosity

You may recall that soil porosity is the percentage volume of the total
bulk that is not occupied by solid particles. It implies therefore that such
spaces are either occupied by water or air or both. It should be noted that
the smaller the soil particles, the more tightly packed they are likely to be.
For example, clay soils have very small particles and associated with small
pores. Porosity affects crop production in the following ways:
a) Aeration. Soils must allow free air entry and circulation. Air supplies
oxygen for seed germination, root respiration and microbialactivities
such as decomposition of organic matter.
b) Water infiltration and percolation. In soils dominated by micropores
water movement through the soil is restricted causing most of the water
to be lost as run-off. However, it should be noted that in a sandy soil, in
spite of its low porosity, movement of water is surprisingly rapid. This is
because macropores are dominant.
c) Nutrient retention. Porous soils are poor in retaining nutrients because
most of them are drained to deeper soil horizons where most agronomic
plant roots cannot reach.
d) Root penetration and development. Roots must penetrate through
the soil to search for water and nutrients. Micropores impede root
penetration. The same applies to development of root crops like cassava,
potatoes thereby reducing their yield significantly
Determining soil porosity
Soil porosity is best described by bulk density and particle density. Recall that
density means weight divided by volume. Thus bulk density means the mass
(weight) of volume of dry soil. It is the relationship between the pore spaces
and the rock particles found in soil. Particle density is defined as the mass
(weight) of a unit volume of soil solids.
Suppose your soil has a volume of 1 cm3 and weighs 5 gm. Calculate bulk
density of the soil.
Bulk density (BD) = Weight of oven dried soil/Volume of oven dried soil
If in the field 1 cm3 of soil weighs 5 grams, then the bulk density will be 5
grams per cubic centimeter. (5 gm/1 cm3)
11
Particle density = weight of soil solids/volume of the soil solids.
For example: if the soil above was compressed and ended up occupying 75%
of the cube.
The volume will be 0.75 cm3 but its weight will not change. The particle
density of the soil will be 6.67 grams per cm3 (5 gm/ 0.75 cm3).
% porosity = (bulk density/particle density) x 100

= (5/6.67) x 100 = 74.9%
Effect of porosity on crop production
The percentage porosity depends on the soil texture. It ranges from 40% in
sandy soil to about 60% in clay. Loam soil is about 60% porous. The percent
porosity affects the availability of air and water for plant growth.
(iii) Soil Temperature

This is the hotness or coldness of a soil. Different soils hold heat differently.
This is as a result of factors such as soil colour, moisture content, vegetative
cover and temperature of the atmosphere.
The effects of soil temperature on crop production are many. Effects of

significant importance are listed below.
a) Chemical weathering rates. Low soil temperatures reduce chemical
breakdown and synthesis of chemical compounds found in the soil that
make nutrients available for plant use.
b) Biological activities such as decomposition of organic matter, nitrification.
For example, nitrification in the does not start until soil temperature is
about 200c. The most favourable limit is between 380c and 420c.
c) Seed germination and root growth. Germination of seeds and root
development are delayed when soil temperature is low.
d) Absorption and transport of water and nutrients by higher plants is
adversely affected by low temperatures
e) Development of potato tubers is at its best when soil temperature is
between 280c and 330c
12
Determining soil temperature
Activity 8
Determining soil temperature
Materials required
• Different soil samples
• Containers depending on the number of soil samples
• Thermometers
Procedure
• Break into groups of five
• Go out of the classroom to observe different types of soil.
• Collect different samples of soil from the outside environment by using
the containers
• Get back to class with the soil samples.
• Using the thermometer, measure the temperature of each soil sample
• Report your findings
• Discuss these findings with your teacher
• Your teacher will summarise the soil temperature
Activity 9
Recalling a soil profile
• In pairs, draw and label a typical soil profile
• State the soil horizon where most agricultural activities take place
• State the soil horizon which determines depth of soil
Activity 10
Determine soil depth
• In groups of 5 – 10 members, go out into the field to observe a typical soil
profile
• Measure the depth of each horizon
• One member should present your findings to the whole class
• Your teacher will summarise soil depth
13
iv. Soil depth
In your Junior Certificate agriculture, you learnt about soil profile.
Depth of soil has very remarkable effects on crop production. The most
notable ones as follows:
a) Soil depth affects the amount of soil nutrients the soil can hold. The
deeper the soil, the lager the volume of soil plants can exploit in search for
nutrients.
b) It determines choice of crops that can be grown on a particular land. Soils
which are deep and loos are favourable for most crops because their roots
can go as deep as they want without restrictions. On the other hand, shallow
soils can only accommodate shallow rooted crops.
c) It influences amount of water a soil can hold for plant use. The deeper
the soil, the more water it can hold, making it possible for crops to survive
longer periods of dry spell.
d) It helps in controlling of soil erosion. Deep soils can hold large volumes of
rain water. This in turn reduces possible incidents of soil erosion by running
water which occurs because the soil cannot hold any more rain water.
Activity 11
Identifying types of soil structure
• Break into groups of five to ten members each
• Carryout a library search of the types of soil structure
• Record all your findings
• One member of your group should present the findings to the rest of the
class members
• Discuss the findings with your teacher
• Your teacher should sumarise the types of soil structure
The soil profile reveals the different soil horizons i.e. top soil, sub-soil,
weathered rock and parent material. The subsoil determines productivity of
the soil. This is because it is subjected to very little alteration. Permeability
and chemical composition of the sub-soil influences productivity of the top
soil. However, depth of the top soil determines the volume of soil plants can
exploit in their search for water and nutrients.
It is the depth of the top soil which determines soil depth. The term soil is
defined as a loose layer of the surface of the earth.
Types of Soil Structure

Recall that soil structure is the aggregation of individual soil particles to
14
form soil lumps called aggregates. The soil particles form different types of
aggregates.
You were right if you came up with the following soil structures:
a. Platy Structure: This

structure looks like plates
arranged one on
top of each other.
This is why it is referred to
as platy structure. See the
horizontal layers on the soil
lump put on the surface of the
soil in the diagram below.
Fig. 1.2. Platy structure
b. Blocky Structure:
It is blocky or with many sides. Particles are arranged in blocks.
Fig. 1.3. Blocky structure
Fig. 1.4
c. Cuboidal
Particles are almost round or spherical Particles are arranged around a
central and may be granular or crumb in shape
15
d. Columnar
Fig. 1.5. Columnar structure
e.Prismatic
In this structure, the soil aggregates are vertically arranged forming
columns of different lengths. This depends on the type of soil forming the
structure.
f. Granular
The granular structure is made up of rounded granules on the surface of
the soil containing high amount of organic matter. It differs from crumb
structure through the size of the granules. In granular structure, the
granules are less than 1.2 cm in diameter.
(seeNgomwa Anthony M. et al (2012) – Senior Secondary Agriculture Form
3, Longhorn, Excel and Succeed page 13)
g. Crumb
This structure is usually found on surface soils which are high in organic
matter content. They are seen as rounded granules which are more than 1.2
cm in diameter and are very porous.
h. Single grain structure

In reality, there is no single grained structure because soil structure is the
way how those single grains are brought together. Sandy soil is a very good
example of a soil which is described as having a single grained structure
because the gains exist individually. As a result of this some schools of thought
describe sandy soil as a structureless soil. However, for the purpose of this
book, the structure looks like See Ngomwa Anthony M. et al (2012) page 13
16
How soil structure can be destroyed
You have learnt that soil structure involves natural arrangement of individual
soil particles into specific structures. These structures will remain the same as
long as the soil is not disturbed. In this topic, you will learn how the structures
you have learnt already can be destroyed.
Activity 12
Describing how soil structure can be destroyed
• Form groups of at least five to ten members.
• Carryout a book or website search of the factors that destroy soil
structure.
• Record the factors that destroy soil structure
• One member of each group should present findings from the research
• Discuss the factors that destroy soil structure with your teacher
• Your teacher will summarise the factors that destroy soil structure.
Your research should have come up with the following:
1. Cultivation: As the land is being ploughed and soil lumps are broken
down, the naturally arranged soil aggregates are destroyed. This is made
more serious when ploughing is done when the soil is either too wet or too
dry.
2. Use of heavy machinery: The soil particles are compacted together by

the weight of the machinery especially when the soil is too wet.
3. Raindrop impact. As the rain hits bare ground, the soil particles break up
and fill up the soil pores making it more difficult for water and air to enter
the soil than before.
4. Overgrazing: The grazing itself does not destroy soil structure; but it is
the animals’ hooves which, as the animals move around the pasture land
for a very long period of time, compact the soil particles into hard top
layer of soil.
You have seen that soil structures are naturally formed and that at times
they can be destroyed. When the soil structure has been destroyed, it is not
good enough for proper crop growth and yielding. As a result, it is imperative
that they should be maintained or even be improved.
17
How can this be done?
Soil structure can be maintained and improved by the following operations:
1. Planting vegetation on bear land. Vegetation protects the soil from

raindrop impact which causes break down of soil crumbs and forms an
impervious layer of top soil.
2. Correct crop population. This is achieved by correct spacing of rows,

correct spacing of plants between planting stations and correct number of
plants per station. Correct number of plants in a field ensures complete
coverage of the soil so that it is well protected from rain drop impact.
3. Use of organic fertilizer (manure). Manure helps to aggregate the soil

by cementing the soil particles together. It also ensures stability of the
aggregates.
4. Crop rotation which is dovetailed with a fallow. Leaving the land

crop-free for some years enables it to regain its organic matter which
cements the soil particles together to form aggregates.
Methods of Maintaining and Improving Soil Structure
Activity 13
Describing methods of maintaining and improving soil
structure
• Break into groups of at least ten members each
• Using cluster method, each group should list and describe among
themselves methods of maintaining and improving soil structure
• Each group should submit in turn those methods which have not been
submitted already by another group
• Discuss the methods of maintaining and improving soil structure with
your teacher
• Your teacher should consolidate the methods of maintaining and
improving soil structure.
5. Proper use of heavy agricultural machinery. This can be done by

using them on a soil with correct moisture content. Impact of the heavy
agricultural machinery can be reduced by combining operations so that
they can be done simultaneously. For example, farmers can combine
ploughing, harrowing and ridge construction. In so doing, the soil cannot
be compressed more than when each operation is done at its own time.
18
6. Avoiding overgrazing so that the soil is not compacted significantly and
the soil does not lose vegetative cover.
Recall that the physical properties of soil include texture, structure, colour,
consistency, porosity, temperature and depth. These physical properties
impact plant growth and their yielding ability differently.
Effect of Physical Properties of Soil on Crop Production
Activity 14
Explaining the effects of physical properties of soil on
crop production
• Break into seven groups.
• Use a restaurant method to explain how each physical property of soil
affects crop growth.
• At the end, each group leader should present what have been suggested by
the customers.
• Your teacher should consolidate the effects of physical soil properties on
crop growth.
How soil texture affects crop growth

Soil texture has a very large influence on crop growth. The different sized
rock particles in the soil influence pore sizes in the soil. The pore spaces in
turn influence:
1. Air circulation. The soil must allow free entry and circulation of air
because
• Seeds need oxygen in order to germinate. The oxygen helps in respiration
of food reserves in the seed to release energy necessary for the germination
process.
• Plant roots also need oxygen for their respiration so that they can generate
energy for their growth and absorption of water and mineral salts.
• Decomposition of organic matter. Light soils like sandy soils contain the
least amount of organic matter because there is more rapid decomposition
of organic matter than in heavy soils which are compact and contain the
least amount of organic matter.
This explains why seeds and roots die and decompose in a soil which is
waterlogged because there is no adequate air circulation.
19
2. Water entry, retention and movement through the soil. Water is necessary
for seed germination and plant growth. Unless the soil can allow water
entry and retention, it will be very difficult for the plant to grow properly.
At the same time, it is important for the soil to drain away excess water to
avoid waterlogged conditions. Heavy soils hold more water than light soils.
3. Root development and extension. A soil which is too hard and
compacted prevents roots from extending to search water and mineral
salts from a wide volume of soil.
4. Leaching of mineral salts in the soil. Very loose soil structures do not
hold water. When it rains, the water quickly infiltrates deep into the soil.
As the water is infiltrating, soluble salts are also taken together by the
sinking water. This in turn reduces amount of salts to be used by plants.
5. Ease of cultivation. You might have noticed that heavy soils like clay
are too hard to plough when they are dry and too sticky when they are
wet. This is not the same with light soils such as sandy soils.
Effect of soil colour on crop growth
As the rock particles are being packed into aggregates, they form pore spaces
which are very important in:
• Water infiltration and percolation. Large pore spaces increase water

infiltration. This is the entry of water into a soil during and soon after a
storm. However, when there is no rainfall, water from underground must
move upwards and be reached by plant roots. This is called percolation
– the movement of water through the soil in all directions. Large pores
make it difficult for water to percolate.
• Air circulation. The soil must contain air called soil air which provides
oxygen for respiration in seeds necessary for germination, roots and
beneficial soil organisms like bacteria which decompose organic matter.
• Water retention and drainage. Soils whose particles are tightly packed
such as clay retain water more than those whose particles are loosely
packed such as sandy soil. Plants need water which is at field capacity.
This means that too much or too little water is dangerous for plants.
Excess water must drain away; but at the same time the soil must be able
to keep just adequate amount of water.
20
How soil structure affects crop production
•Temperature of soil. Temperature of soil is very important because it
affects the rate at which mineral salts can dissolve in soil water and become
available for plant use. It also influences the rate at which enzymes in seeds
can break down reserved food necessary for germination. Soil temperature
influences the activity of micro-organisms which decompose organic matter.
Soil temperature is a function of soil colour. Dark colored soils will absorb
more heat than whitish soils which reflect most of its heat. As a result of
this, best agricultural soils must be dark so that they can absorb and keep
heat.
Unit Summary
The building materials of soils are insoluble mineral particles and organic
matter. These substances form soil texture and structure. Depending on
their original parent material, soils can differ in their colour, consistency,
temperature, porosity and depth. All these attributes of soil have a special
contribution towards the soil’s ability to support crop growth and yielding.
Care must be taken by farmers as they make use of this resource so that
they continue to benefit from it indefinitely.
Glossary
Aggregation: The way soil particles are arranged or packed together.
Infiltration: The downward movement of water in the soil as a result of
gravitational pull
Percolation: Movement of water in the soil in all directions as a result of
capillary attraction
Assessment
1. Define the following terms:
• Soil structure
• Soil texture
• Soil consistency
• Soil porosity
• Bulk density
2. Of what use is the soil triangle?
3. Describe any three methods that can be used to determine soil texture
4. With the aid of a diagram describe soil profile
5. Explain how the following can help to maintain soil structure
• Zero tillage
• Application of manure
• Crop rotation
21
6. Explain why soil temperature is important in crop production.
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_density (04/10/2014)
2. http://www.sciencebuddies.org/Files/2392/5/EnvSci_img014.jpg
(01/12/2013)
3. http://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/glossary/s_u/soil_texture_triangle.
html (01/12/2013)
4. Ngugi D. N., Karau P.K. and Nguyo W. (1990), East African Agriculture
A Textbook for Secondary Schools, Third Edition, Nairobi MacMillan
Education.
5. Brady Nyle C. (1974)- The Nature and Properties of Soil, 8th Edition,
New York: MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc
22
Unit Chemical properties of soil
A list of the chemical properties of soil
2
It is not enough
Before we go into a deeper insight of chemical
properties of soil, you will first of all need to list these
chemical soil properties.
for the soil just Activity 1
to contain rock
particles which Listing physical properties of soil
form the physical
properties of • Brainstorm the chemical properties of soil
soil. Plants need • Discuss the chemical properties of the soil with
different types your teacher
of nutrients for • Your teacher will summarise the list of the
proper growth and chemical properties of soil
yielding. These
form chemical
soil properties. The chemical properties of soil are as follows:
Other chemical 1. pH
factors include pH, 2. Nutrient status
salinity and cation 3. Salinity
exchange capacity. 4. Cation exchange capacity
As a student of
agriculture, you Describing the chemical properties of soil
need to understand
the chemical You may recall that the soil’s chemical properties
properties of soil include its pH, nutrient status, salinity and cation
so that you can exchange capacity. By the end of this section, you will
appreciate why be able to describe each of these properties.
some soils can
produce a higher
Soil pH
yield than others.
In this unit, you Soil pH is the degree of acidity and alkalinity of a
will learn in detail soil. This is as a result of the hydrogen (H+) ion and
how each of the hydroxyl (OH-) ion concentration in the soil.
stated chemical soil
properties affects
crop growth and
development.
23
Activity 2
Determining the pH of a soil
• Break into groups of at least five members.
• Each group should go into the field to collect different samples of soil.
• Determine soil pH and soil salinity.
Materials required
1. Soil sample (preferably dry).
2. Universal indicator.
3. pH scale.
4. Distilled water.
5. Test tube.
6. Cork
Procedure for determining soil pH
• Take a small sample of soil and put it in a test tube. The ratio of soil to
water should be 1:2.5 by weight
• Add distilled water into the test tube containing soil. This should be
followed by a few drops of universal indicator
• Shake the test tube thoroughly
• Let the mixture settle for not less than 30 minutes
• Observe any colour change in the test tube
• Compare the colour you see in the test tube with the colours on the pH
scale.
• Record your observations
Questions
a) What colour did you see in the test tube?
b) What do you think is the pH of your soil sample?
c) What conclusion can you make from your investigation?
d) Why do you think it was necessary to use dry soil rather than wet soil?
e) Explain the reason for using distilled water than any type of water.
Soil pH is determined by using a universal indicator. When the soil is acidic,

the indicator turns red and when it turns blue, the soil is an alkaline. Below
is a pH scale which is used to determine acidity and alkalinity of a soil. The
pH of an acid soil is between 1 and 6; the pH of an alkaline soil is between 8
and 14. A pH of 7 indicates that the soil is neutral.
pH scale
24
Acid Neutral Akali
Diagram showingthe pH Scale

Soil pH can also be determined by:
i) Litmus paper. (delete universal indicator)
Materials
a. Soil sample
b. Distilled water
c. Test tube
d. Litmus paper (both blue and red)
e. pH scale
Procedure
a. Put a small sample of soil into the test tube
b. Add water to the same ratio as in activity 2
c. Shake the mixture. Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) can be added to the test
tube before shaking. This will help to split the individual soil grains
from each
d. Let the mixture to settle down
e. Dip the litmus paper into the test tube
f. See colour change on the litmus paper
Red litmus will turn blue if the soil basic and red if the soil acidic.
ii) Use of pH meter (leave it as it is)
Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 pH meter with two elec

pH meter showing both trode imbedded
-
electrodes (OaktonTM in one rode
Waterproof pH 150 portable me (AoktonTM Handheld Ion
ter) Meter)
The pH meter measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
25
Determining soil salinity
Saline soils are those which contain a concentration of neutral soluble salts
with a pH of less than 8.5.
Activity 3
Determining soil salinity
Materials required
• Samples of dry soil from the field.
• Distilled water.
• Test tube.
• Red litmus paper.
Procedure for determining soil pH
• Collect samples of different soil from the field.
• Collect the other materials from your teacher.
• Mix each sample of soil with distilled water and shake.
• Let the mixture to stand for at least thirty minutes.
• Dip the red litmus paper into the mixture.
• Observe colour change on the red litmus paper.
Assessment
a) What colour did you see on the red litmus paper after dipping it in the soil
mixture?
b) What is the pH of the soil?
c) What conclusion can you draw from your observations?
Remember that the aim of the investigation was to find out whether the soil
was saline or not. A saline soil contains high concentrations of neutral salts
which make the soil alkaline. If the red litmus paper turned blue, then the
soil was saline.
Saline soils are sometimes called white alkaline soils. This is when a white
layer on top of the soil becomes very visible.
26
Factors Affecting Soil pH
Soil pH is referred to acidity or alkalinity of a soil. High concentration of
hydrogen ions [H+] makes a soil acidic and when hydroxyl ions [OH-] increase
in their concentration, the soil becomes basic (saline). In this topic, you will
learn what makes the soil to have an increased concentration of hydrogen ions
or hydroxyl ions.
Activity 4
Explaining Factors Affecting Soil pH
Procedure
a. Break into groups of at least five members.
b. Research from the library or relevant websites the factors which affect
soil pH.
c. Record your findings.
d. One member from each group should report their findings to the whole
class during plenary session.
e. Your teacher shall summarise the factors that affect soil pH.
There are several factors which can affect the acidity or alkalinity of a soil.
The major ones are as follows:
1. Use of acid-forming fertilizers: for example, when an ammonium containing

fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4] is applied to a soil, the
molecule breaks into ammonium [(NH4)2+] and sulphate (SO4-)ions. Then,
the ammonium is oxidized to form a nitrate ion (NO3-) for plant up-take,
two hydrogen ions (2H+) and water (H2O) as shown below. Then sulphate
ion in step 1 will combine with hydrogen ions in step 2 to form to form
sulphuric acid in step 3 which will make soil acidic
Step 1: (NH4)2SO4 (NH4)2+ + SO4-

Step 2: NH4+ + 2O2 2H+ +NO3- + H2O
Step 3: SO4- + 2H+ H2SO4
As seen from the equation, the reaction increases concentration of hydrogen

ions in the soil.
The ammonium sulphate first breaks into ammonium and sulphate ions.
The ammonium is oxidized as seen in the equation above. The sulphate ion
combines with hydrogen ion to form sulphuric acid.
This is why sulphate of ammonia is no longer used in maize production as
was the case before. However, this fertilizer is used in tea and coffee estates
where acid soils are most favourable.
27
2. Leaching: During persistent heavy rainfall, soluble cations such as Mg2+,
Ca2+ are washed down the soil profile leaving hydrogen ion. This is because
hydrogen ions are more attracted to clay mineral than most of these cations.
As a result of this, hydrogen ions increase in their concentration causing
soil acidity
3. Crop removal: As crops are growing in the field, they absorb various types
of ions. After harvest, it is expected that the nutrients previously absorbed
by the crop may go back to the soil if their residues are incorporated into the
soil. However, if the crop residues are not ploughed back into the soil, there
is a high reduction of cations in the soil leaving hydrogen ions to dominate.
4. Acid rains: this occurs in industrialized countries where a lot of carbon

compounds are emitted into the atmosphere. When rain is falling, the rain
water combines with carbon compounds to form carbonic acid which gets
incorporated into the soil making it acidic
5. Parent material: A soil formed from sulphur containing rocks release to

the soil significant amounts of sulphur elements. The sulphur then reacts
with water to form hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Hydrogen sulphide in itself
does not make the soil acidic. However, when such a soil is drained, the
hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to form sulphuric acid which makes the soil
acidic.
Modifying soil pH
Time comes when the soil becomes too acidic or too basic for some crops to
grow properly. Under such circumstances, it becomes very necessary for a
farmer to modify the level of soil pH.
Your answers were correct if you found the following
Activity 5
Modifying pH
Procedure
• Form groups of at least five members.
• With the use of your school library, research ways that can be used to
modify soil pH.
• Record your findings.
• One member of each group should report the findings to the whole class
during plenary session.
• Discuss with your teacher how soil pH can be modified.
• Your teacher will consolidate the methods used for modifying soil pH.
28
1) Application of agricultural lime
Lime exits in many different forms depending on how they are prepared. All
of them originate from limestone. The most economic forms of lime used for
agricultural purposes are those that exit in form of calcite, also known as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dolomite which is calcium magnesium
carbonate. When a soil becomes acidic, it means it has a higher concentration
of hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl ions (OH-). Liming supplies lime
elements which are calcium and magnesium. Through cation exchange
capacity, calcium and or magnesium replaces the hydrogen ions to raise the
percentage base of the soil.
Liming of acid soils enhances availability and plant up-take of elements such
as molybdenum, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. On the other hand,
it drastically reduces concentration of iron, aluminum and manganese which
under very acid conditions exist in quantities which are toxic to plants.
The application process is done before the land is ploughed. The lime is spread
all over the field manually by hands or by use of a truck as is shown in the
picture below or by use of a aircraft. Thereafter the land is ploughed. This
incorporates the lime into the soil
2) Application of manure
Manure increases the amount of cations in the soil and reduces the
concentration of hydrogen ions. On the other hand, manure is positively
charged; and as a result, it helps to hold cations in the soil so that they cannot
easily leach. In so doing, the soil becomes less and less acidic.
3) Application of inorganic fertilizers

Use of acid-forming fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia can be used to
increase acidity in an alkaline soil. There are some crops like tea which do
well in acid soils. In such situations, it is advisable to use such acid forming
fertilizers.
Nutrient status of the soil
This has something to do with availability of different minerals in a soil in

right proportions. It is these nutrients which determine a soil’s capacity to
support crops.
29
Activity 6
Factors affecting nutrient status of soil
Procedure
• Brainstorm the factors that affect the nutrient status of a soil.
• Discuss the factors that affect a soil’s nutrient status with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the factors which affect nutrient status of a
soil.
Your answers should include the following points:
1. The parent material from which the soil was formed: parent materials
influence the chemical properties of a soil. Soils developed from basic rocks
like limestone, tend to have high content of calcium element. On the other
hand, soils developed from granite and sandstone give rise to sandy soils
which are generally low in mineral content.
2. Soil pH: pH of a soil has direct influence on the availability of nutrients such
as phosphorus. In acidic soils, this nutrient becomes insoluble and therefore
unavailable to plants. It also influences multiplication and activities of
beneficial soil organisms some of which are responsible for nitrogen fixation
and decomposition of organic matter.
3. Leaching: In heavy rainfall areas, soluble salts like nitrates are washed
down the soil profile, leaving the top soil with low nutrient status. This is
more noticeable in sandy soils.
4. Nutrients uptake by plant. Nutrients are continuously taken up by plants.

The higher the yield a farmer obtains from a field, the higher the amount
of nutrients extracted from the soil. When crop residues are not ploughed
back into the soil, more nutrients are lost.
5. Crop removal. Nutrients are removed with crops as they are being
harvested.
6. Soil erosion: When top soil is eroded, it goes away with mineral nutrients it
contains. This is why erosion should be controlled at all times.
7. Method of cultivation. Farming practices affect the availability and

removal of plant nutrients e.g. Use of bush fire to clear land, overgrazing,
monocropping, improper use of farm machinery, cultivation of marginal land.
30
Salinity
Salinity is a condition of the soil that is associated with the accumulation of
soluble salts in the soil.
A soil may become saline due to the following:
Activity 7
Determining salinity of a soil
Materials required
• Samples of dry soil.
• Distilled water.
• Test tube.
• Red litmus paper.
Procedure
• Collect samples of different soils from the field.
• Mix each sample of soil with distilled water and shake.
• Let the mixture stand for at least thirty minutes.
• Dip the red litmus paper into the mixture.
• Observe color change on the red litmus paper.
Assessment
Assessment
• What color did you see on the red litmus paper after dipping it in the soil
mixture?
• What is the pH of the soil?
• What conclusion can you draw from the activity?
Saline soils are those which contain a concentration of neutral soluble salts with
a pH of more than 8.5. They are basic soils. Saline soils are sometimes called
white alkaline soils. This is when a white layer on top of the soil becomes very
visible. They basically contain high levels of ions such as nitrates, sulphates,
chlorides and bicarbonates.
1. Heavy irrigation of land using water with high levels of salts. As the water
evaporates, the salts can visibly be seen on the soil surface.
2. Application of fertilizers which eventually lead to accumulation of soluble
salts
3. Parent material which as it weathers, it releases its salts into the soil
31
Cation Exchange Capacity
Cation Exchange Capacity is the ability of the soil to exchange cations. It is a
measure of its ability to hold and release various nutrients for plant use.
Exchangeable cations are Ca++, Mg++, Na+, K+. Examples of anions are Cl-,
Activity 8
Explaining cation exchange capacity
Procedure
• Break into groups of five.
• Using your school library, research on the process involved in cation
exchange capacity in the soil.
• Choose one member from your group to present your findings.
• Discuss your finding with your teacher.
• Your teacher will consolidate the process of cation exchange capacity.
NO3- and CO3-.. Examples of anions are Cl-, NO3-, and CO3-. The cations are
held, or adsorbed into clay soil colloids and organic matter, while anions are
found in the soil solution. The cations are not easily leached from the soil
because they are strongly attracted by clay and organic matter because they
are negatively charged. However, they can be replaced by, or exchanged with
ions in the soil solution through the cation exchange process. An example
is when lime is added to acidic soil (with a high concentration of hydrogen
ions). The calcium and magnesium in the soil will replace the hydrogen ions,
thereby raising the soil pH. This then improves the soil condition.
Cation Exchange Capacity is important to crop production because it modifies

and improves soil pH. The soil pH affects availability and release of plant
nutrients necessary for plant growth. At the same time, some plants do well
under acidic conditions while others prefer alkaline conditions. This is the
more reason why farmers have to make sure that the soil pH is modified by
liming, applying organic manure and fertilisers. Organic matter is a ‘ware
house’ for plant nutrients and is crucial for the formation of aggregates.
Plant nutrients found in organic matter include NH4+, Ca++, K+ and Mg++. Thus
organic matter contributes to CEC through the exchange of such elements
with others that have similar charges.
Generally, the more clay and organic matter a soil holds, the higher the CEC.
Clay content is important because of its large quantities of negative charges.
The small particles have a high ratio of surface area to volume. Sands have
no capacity to exchange cations because it has no electric charge. This can be
32
improved by adding organic matter.
A high CEC enables plants get nutrients for growth and production.
Unit Summary
Soil is also made up of chemical elements that influence crop production
directly or indirectly. These substances affect the soil’s capacity to support
plant growth and yielding. There are basically four chemical properties of
soil and these include; nutrient status, soil pH, salinity and Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC). All these together form a soil which successfully supports
plant growth.
Explaining the effects of chemical properties of soil on crop

Production
1. Nutrient Status
Farmers are always very concerned about crop yield they get after harvest.
However, it must be remembered that any yield ū farmer obtains from
her field is a function of nutrients that have been depleted from the soil.
Nutrient status of ū soil affects crop production in the following ways:
a) It affects vegetative growth of crops. Nitrogen, for example is responsible for
synthesis of protein molecule which is necessary for growth, while calcium,
phosphorus are responsible for the skeletal formation of plants.
b) Some nutrients like phosphorus brings forth resistance against diseases to
plants due to the lignin they form.
c) They affect maturity of some crops. Tobacco matures if amount of
phosphorus supersedes that of nitrogen. Nitrogen promotes succulence
while phosphorus brings maturity.
d) Yield potential of crops. The higher the yield a field produces is dependent
on the amount of nutrients the soil contains. If the farmer intends to
maintain that high yielding ability, then it is imperative to maintain ū
high nutrient status of the soil by applying fertilizers.
e) Soil pH. You will recall that soil pH is the preponderance of hydrogen ions
in a soil. This implies that if the nutrient status of a soil is dominated by
hydrogen ions (H+), the soil becomes acidic and not favourable for some
crops. On the other hand, when the soil dominated by hydroxyl (OH-) ions,
the soil becomes basic. Soil pH determines choice and productivity of crops.
2. Soil pH
a) It affects availability of some nutrients. At low levels of pH, phosphorus
becomes insoluble by forming less soluble compounds of iron and aluminum.
Phosphates are readily available at pH range of 6.5 to 7.5. When the pH
rises above 8.5, manganese, potassium, boron, iron and zinc become less
available.
b) It determines choice of crops to be grown in an area. Acid soils are best
33
suitable for tea production
c) Very acid conditions of a soil limit the activity of soil microorganisms. This
means that when organic matter is incorporated into the soil, it will not be
decomposed and nutrients they hold cannot be released for plant growth.
On the other hand, nitrification can be put to a complete halt.
d) In acid soils, damage of some crops by nematodes is more serious than in
neutral soils. This is because the crops do not develop the much needed
resistance since phosphorus that brings resistance to crops is not readily
available.
3. Soil Salinity
You will recall that soil salinity is the salt content in the soil. The process by
which this salt increases is called salinization. The salts that are generally
responsible for salinization are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium
(Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), chloride (Cl-). When sodium predominates in
a soil, the soil is described as a sodic soil. The effects of this condition to
crops are detrimental.
a) It causes plasmolysis in plants. This is a condition in which plants
lose water from their cells to the soil in an attempt to balance off salt
concentration between the soil and the plant cells. This causes plat
death.
b) It causes toxicity to plants especially the roots causing impairment in
absorption of water and mineral salts.
c) When sodium increases in a soil, the sodium ions tend to disperse
mineral colloids which then develop a tight, impervious soil structure.
This prevents drainage of excess water from a farmable land.
d) Since saline soils are generally basic, with a pH of not less than 8.5, this
interferes with microbial activities such as nitrification, decomposition
of organic matter which are beneficial to crops.
4. Cation Exchange Capacity

Recall the meaning of cation exchange capacity. Also known as “Base
exchange capacity”, it is a sum of exchangeable or replaceable cations that
a soil can absorb. The process of cation exchange which occurs between the
soil solution and clay or organic matter is of tremendous value to crops.
a) It enables nutrients that are strongly adsorbed by clay or organic matter
to be released to the soil solution where they can become available for
plant use.
b) It also enables cations to be transferred from the soil solution and
become adsorbed by the clay and organic matter where they cannot
easily be lost by leaching.
c) Cation exchange capacity enables hydrogen held by clay colloids and
humus be replaced by basic elements such as calcium and magnesium
and in the process reduce soil acidity
34
Glossary
Adsorption: A process by which soil particles attract and hold some mineral
nutrients tightly, making them unavailable to plants.
Unit Review Questions

1. State any three chemical properties of soil
2. Describe how each of the chemical properties of soil affects crop production
3. State the factors which determine CEC of the soil.
4. Discuss factors that affect soil fertility
5. Explain why humus is called a ‘ware house’ for plant nutrients
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity (04/10/2014)
2. http://www.sciencebuddies.org/Files/2392/5/EnvSci_img014.jpg
(01/12/2013)
3. http://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/glossary/s_u/soil_texture_
triangle.html (01/12/2013)
4. Ngomwa M., Sigei P. and Cheruiyot D. (2012). Excell & Succeed, Senior
Secondary Agriculture Form 3. Lilongwe: Longhorn-Greymatter Ltd
5. Kanjala B and Kaperemera N. (2002): Stride Agriculture book 3 Nairobi

Longman Malawi (Pty) Ltd
6. Ngugi D. Karau, P and Nguyo W. (1990): East African Agriculture,

Third Edition, MacMillan Education
7. Brady N.C. (1979): The Nature and Properties of Soil, Eighth Edition,
London: MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc.
35
Unit Agricultural Development
Agencies and Their Services
Identifying Agricultural Development
3 Agencies and their Services in Malawi

There is a wide variety of agricultural development
agencies in Malawi which play positive roles in
You may recall
that agriculture agricultural production. At this point in time, you
is the practice will carry out an activity to identify these agencies.
of raising crops
and animals on a Activity 1
farm to support
Identifying Agricultural Development
the daily living
of humans. As Agencies and their Services in Malawi
human population Procedure
increases, demand • Brainstorm as many development services required
for food from in agriculture as possible.
agricultural • Break into groups of at least ten members.
products also • Identify the agencies offering agricultural services
increases. in Malawi.
Unfortunately, • Visit a nearby agriculture development agency in
land for agriculture your area.
remains the same. • Evaluate the availability of the agricultural
This therefore calls development agency and the services which they
for agricultural provide in your area.
productivity to • Record your findings.
improve. This • One member from every group should present their
is the reason findings to the whole class.
why agricultural • Your teacher shall consolidate your findings.
development
agencies should In Malawi, there is a wide variety of agriculture
come into being so development agencies which help farmers to improve
that they can help their agricultural productivity. Below is table 1
to raise efficiency showing various agricultural development agencies
and productivity of and the services they provide.
crops and animals
on a farm.
36
Table 1 showing various Agricultural Development Agencies and the ser-
vices they provide
Agricultural development agency Services provided

in Malawi
Department of Agricultural Research Services(DARS) Research
The Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation Marketing
(ADMARC)
Land Resources and Conservation Unit Infrastructure
The Agriculture Communication Branch Extension
Marketing agents Processing
Department of Agricultural Research Services(DARS) Production
The Malawi Rural Finance Company Credit
Describing the services offered by the Agricultural

Development Agencies
This subsection aims at providing you with an in-depth knowledge and

understanding of the various agricultural development agencies. In order to
achieve this, you will be expected to do an activity.
Activity 2
Describing the services offered by agricultural
development agencies
Procedure
• Form seven groups.
• Each group should choose a leader who will serve as a host.
• The rest of the members shall serve as customers.
• Using eatery method, describe the services offered by the agricultural
development agencies.
• The host should present your descriptions.
• Your teachers will summarise the services offered by the agricultural
development services.
a. Research
Research is an investigation that is carried out in order to find out a solution
to a problem. It is designed to collect, analyse and interpret data into
information which is useful.
37
The DARS conducts research in order to provide farmers with information
which creates an increase to production and their commodities.
The department is responsible for:
• Testing, certifying and monitoring the production, processing, storage and
marketing of seeds.
• Breeding and releasing resistant crop varieties.
• Establishing plant quarantines and other government control measures.
• Plant pest diagnostic and advisory services provided by the ADMARC.
• Recommending the use of specific pesticides supplied by ADMARC.
• Improving the genetic makeup of livestock in order to improve
production.
• Providing Artificial Insemination services for dairy farmers to achieve
cross-breeding.
• Testing, certifying and monitoring the production and release of farm
machinery.
• Analysing, testing and making fertilizer recommendations.
In Malawi there is different research stations spread across the country. For
example, there is:
1. Lifuwu research station in Salima for rice research.

2. Chitala research station in Salima for groundnuts and cotton.
3. Makoka research station in Zomba for cotton.
4. Baka research station in Mzimba for livestock.
5. Bvumbwe research station in Thyolo for horticulture.
6. Chitedze research station in Lilongwe for legumes and farm
machinery.
7. Lunyangwa research station in Mzuzu for pastures and livestock.
8. Mwimba research station in Kasungu for tobacco.
9. Kasinthula research station in Chikhwawa for rice.
10. Kavuzi research station in Nkhata Bay for coffee.
b. Marketing
Marketing means the whole range of activities which are involved in the
transfer of a commodity from point of production to point of consumption. The
Agricultural Development and Marketing Cooperation is a statutory company
mandated by parliament to carry out the various marketing functions. Apart
from ADMARC other organizations which carry out one or more of the
marketing functions are:
• Co-operatives
• Processors
• Itinerant traders
• Wholesalers
• Retailers
38
• Commission agents and brokers
The ADMARC play the following roles:

• Planning, monitoring and regulating crop production.
• Licensing crop production for example tobacco.
• Regulating and controlling the quality and supply of seeds.
In general terms an efficient marketing system, needs efficient marketing

functions. These are:
i. Buying and selling

This involves transfer of product ownership. The seller accepts to let go of
the commodity upon being satisfied with the amount of money offered by the
buyer. At the same time, the buyer is ready to let go of his money upon being
satisfied with the price and quality of the product.
ii. Product planning

This is an activity which takes place at the very beginning of the product’s
life. The producer decides on what to produce and how the product should look
like. This is in response to the customers’ needs at that moment.
iii. Transportation
This deals with space utility. A commodity produced in one area can still exist
in an area where it is not produced. For example, tea produced in Thyolo or
Nkhata Bay is spread throughout the whole Malawi. It does not make any
difference whether you produce it or not. This in turn encourages farmers to
produce even more because there is a much bigger customer base.
Transport system must be very efficient to ensure that commodities reach

their destinations at the point of the customer’s needs. Road network must be
passable throughout the year. The railway transport must be fast and reliable;
so too air and water transport systems.
iv. Promotion
Promotion involves all the activities which are done to a product so that
customers can buy it in larger quantities than ever before. It may involve
price reduction for a certain period of time (for example during Christmas),
special wrapping, including a different commodity on top of the one being
promoted or an offer would be like “If you buy so much quantity, you will get
so much quantity of the same product free of charge”.
The whole idea behind promotion is to raise demand and therefore volume of
sales. A rise in demand will call for increased production of the product and
eventually a rise in profit making.
39
v. Market intelligence
This involves gathering information. A producer gathers information about
prices of inputs such as fertilizer, labour, transport etc in advance so that s/he
can decide on the most economic method of production. As a seller s/he gathers
information about customers’ demand for the product. It is this information
which will encourage the producer to produce more than ever before or reduce
production levels or completely stop its production. Customers’ preferences
change with time; and as a result producers need to know of these trends to
avoid producing more than what customers can buy.
On the side of buyers, market intelligence involves gathering information

about quality and price of commodities before purchasing. It is possible that
there can be a lot of sellers for one particular commodity. The prices and quality
may differ too. An intelligent buyer should first of all go around checking all
these attributes before buying to avoid regrets.
vi. Grading
Grading involves putting together commodities which have the same
attributes. For example, a farmer may wish to grade tobacco based on leaf
length, colour, thickness, and spots. Those with the same attributes will be
put together and be given the same price. If a farmer mixes tobacco leaves with
different attributes, then its grade will be based on the worst attributes. This
in turn reduces its price; and consequently, the famer may not make profit.
vii. Storage
This has to do with time utility. Most agricultural products are produced
seasonally and yet they are required all year round. This implies that there
must be a mechanism which ensures that supply of the commodity perpetuates
despite its seasonality.
Another advantage of storage is that the commodity can be sold at a time

when its supply is low but with high demand. At this time, its price goes up.
There is therefore need for efficient storage facilities so that the commodity
does not lose quality and quantity while in store.
viii. Advertisement
This is different from promotion because advertisement involves informing
customers about the existence of a product and its associated attributes. In
so doing it helps to persuade the buyer so that the product can be tried and
eventually the customer becomes loyal to the product.
Unless customers are informed about the existence of a product, it will be

very difficult for them to buy it.
40
ix. Market research
This involves gathering information about customers’ needs since these needs
keep on changing. For example: Should Malawi continue producing tobacco
just because it is our highest foreign exchange earner or there is need to turn
to another crop since the world is advocating about anti-smoking campaign?
There is need to carry out market research in order to establish amount of
demand for the commodity.
x. Pricing
It is a process during which the minimum price of a commodity is established.
Farmers need to consider all the inputs used for production, including taxation,
transportation, storage, advertisement and the like. The price of a commodity
at break-even point is when a commodity is sold at a price where the seller
does not make a profit or a loss. Anything above the break-even becomes the
farmer’s profit. It is important to price the commodity very carefully to avoid
losses.
xi. Risk bearing

A risk is variable outside the farmer’s control in which there is divergence
between expectation and the real outcome. For example, a farmer may plan
to make a profit of about K20,000,000.00 from the sale of tobacco. This is an
expectation. Unfortunately the real outcome becomes a loss because more than
half of the tobacco caught fire. The risk is the fire which came unexpectedly.
In order to ensure the profit despite a risk, a farmer must prepare for the
eventuality through risk bearing. This can be in form of:
• buying an insurance cover
• diversification
• embarking on less risky enterprises
xii. Financing
Farm operations need funding. Farmers need inputs, hired labour,
transportation of the agricultural inputs and outputs, risk bearing and all
the marketing functions already discussed above. Farmers must decide the
sources of finance for these operations.
Some possible sources of finance are:

• Personal savings
• Borrowing from friends, commercial banks such as National Bank,
Standard Bank, Opportunity Bank etc. money lending institutions like
MICRO-LOANS, FINCA
What should be remembered is that loans attract interest and this is a cost
the farmer will incur; and therefore has a bearing on profit making.
41
c. Infrastructure
This is a collective name to include transport facilities like roads, abattoirs,
storage facilities such as grain silos, and market structures which have a direct
impact on agricultural production. Sometimes farmers fail to raise production
because they do not have reliable transport networks or there is no efficient
storage facilities for products such as dairy products.
d. Extension
You have learnt that research brings about new farming interventions. These
interventions must reach farmers because they are the ones who need to use
them. Extension services aim at bridging the gap between researchers and
farmers. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development in Malawi has
an extension services department which teaches farmers about new methods
of agriculture.
The Department of Agricultural Extension and Training of the Ministry of

Agriculture and Water Development offer technical information, advisory
and support services to smallholder farmers to enable them increase their
agricultural production to meet their needs. There are Extension Departments
in each Extension Planning Area of the Rural Development Program which
achieve this by;
• Providing direction and technical agricultural advice and information to
smallholder farmers.
• Providing training to farmers at Farm Training Centers to change attitudes,
and improve knowledge and skills.
• Strengthening links between researchers and farmers.
e. Processing
Public or private manufacturing companies buy agricultural produce as raw
materials from farmers or itinerant traders. They process the raw materials,
turning them into the finished products required by consumers. Such companies
include Rab Processors, Bakhressa Milling Co, Dairy Board Malawi Limited,
Nali, Cori Oils, Mapeto (David Whitehead & Sons), Cold Storage Company,
Chibuku Products, Bares wheat flour processor, Universal Biscuits and
Confectionary. These companies transport and sell to wholesalers or retailers
and advertise their products.
f. Production Credit
Credit is a source of capital, which is one of the factors of production. Current
agricultural extension service could achieve more results if more capital were
available. In order to overcome the capital shortage in agriculture, agricultural
credit, which is borrowed resources, is available. The agricultural credit system
42
facilitates the transfer of other people’s savings through credit agencies to the
farmers in order for the latter to finance their farming enterprises. Farmers
in turn have to pay interest on the capital borrowed.
Three categories of capital exist namely; long term credit, medium term credit
and short term credit.
1. Long term credit is used for the purchase of land for major improvement
works. It is normally repayable over periods of 15 to 30 years.
2. Medium or intermediate-term credit is used for minor improvements such
as fencing, and purchase of machinery and livestock. Repayment period
ranges from two to fifteen years.
3. Short-term credit. This is intended for working capital like fertilizer, seed,
sprays, fuel, feeding stuffs and hire of machinery and labour. Repayment
period is one year.
Credit is used to overcome shortages in capital input where potential for

increasing production exists. Capital is both scarce and costly in agriculture.
Credit must therefore be used to finance the most profitable activities on the
farm.
Relating the importance of agricultural development

agencies on a growing population
You may recall from our introductory remark that human population in
Malawi continues to rise and yet Malawi as a country shall not increase in
its area. This implies that something must be done in order to ensure that
Malawi continues to feed itself.
Activity 3
Relating the importance of agricultural development
agencies on a growing population
Procedure
• Brainstorm the importance of agricultural development agencies to a
growing population.
• Discuss the importance of agricultural development agencies to a growing
population with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the importance of agricultural development
agencies to a growing population.
These agricultural development agencies are important as they provide a wide

range of services already stated above with an aim of increasing agricultural
productivity. They specifically carry out the following:
43
1. Regulating production levels of certain crops in order to raise prices
2. Promoting horticultural production for commercial and self sufficiency
3. Providing efficient transport system to carter for perishable crops like
tomatoes so that they do not go bad while in transit.
4. Increasing production of food crops and livestock leading to surplus for
export earning foreign exchange
5. Providing credit facilities to farmers to enable them increase the volume of
production and hence more food to a growing population.
6. Encouraging bulk selling of commodities by small scale farmers so that
they can earn more to meet the domestic demand
Unit Summary
Farmers need access to information in order to improve production. Such
services include input provision, credit provision, farm management,
food and nutrition, extension and training, market information, Seed
technology, crop protection, farm mechanisation and many more. Some of
the agencies that provide these services include ADMARC, The Department
of Agricultural Research Services, The Extension Department, Dairy Board,
Chibuku products, Nali processors and many more.
Agricultural Development agencies assist rural communities to achieve
advanced socio-economic autonomy through giving the necessary knowledge,
skills and access to services to undertake and pursue sustainable livelihood
activities (ranging from agriculture to small and medium business) whilst
also increasing awareness on social and health issues.
Glossary
•Abattoir: an animal slaughtering structure.
•Agency: a business or an organisation providing a special service e.g.
marketing.

1. List the agricultural development agencies found in Malawi.
2. State the services which the agricultural development agencies provide to
the Malawi nation.
3. Explain the importance of these services to the growing population.
References
1. http://www.ada-kzn.co.za/ (04/10/2014)
44
2. Ngomwa A. Sigei P., Cheruiyot D. (2012): Senior Secondary
Agriculture Book 3, Nairobi: Longhorn-Grey Matter Publishers
3. Kanjala B., Kaperemera N.T. (2002): Strides in Agriculture Book 3 Blantyre
4. Ngugi D., Karau P.K, Nguyo W. (1990): East African Agriculture, Nairobi
Education
45
Unit Farm Records
In this unit, you will learn the importance of different
4 types of records. Eventually you will practice keeping

records of a selected crop or animal enterprise.
The meaning of farm records
Farm records refer to systematic entries of various
The efficient
organisation and farm business activities and transactions including
management of a data on finances and inventory the farm has for a
farm depends on certain given period of time. It must be systematic
knowledge and because the transactions need to be recorded as they
information about occur and in a conventional manner
the farm for future
Types of Records
reference. Such Farm records vary significantly. This depends on
knowledge and type of information that is being dealt with. You will
information would
look into the various examples of records existing on
be available only
a farm and categorise them.
if accurate records
are kept regularly. Activity 1
Farm records help
farmers assess their Describing types of records
management skills.
Procedure
Farming is a
business, and just • Brainstorm in your groups examples of farm records.
like any other • Categorise them into three major categories.
business, farming • Report your findings to the whole class during
aims at maximizing plenary session.
profit. This is only • Discuss the types of records with your teacher.
possible through • Your teacher will summarise the types of records.
keeping of accurate
records of all farm
transactions and the Farm records include; planting dates of crops, breeding
proper analysis of dates for livestock, types and amounts of fertilizer
these records. Proper used for each field, amount and type of feed given to
record keeping will each class of livestock, quantities and types of seeds or
prevent guessing or tools bought for the farm by date of purchase and the
estimating in the quantities and types of farm products sold by date of
farming business as
sale.
the records kept are
precise, concise, and
complete and show There are three types of farm records and these are:
actual amounts, 1. Inventory records
weights and 2. Production records
measurements. 3. Financial records
46
1. Inventory records
This is an inventory of all assets of the farm. It is a detailed list of assets of
the farm with full description and value of each item stated. It includes fixed
assets like buildings, sheds and fences and such assets as machinery, tools,
equipment and livestock. Any additional or disposals are recorded as they
occur. At the end of the farming year, a complete inventory should be taken.
Table 1 below shows a farm inventory record.

Visit a nearby farm to see the inventory records kept. Consider the
remarks made if they are practical. Discuss with the rest of the class.
Table 1
The steps involved in taking an inventory;
• count the items physically.
• physical measurement of, for example, size of the land, buildings and
other structures, and available crop yield.
• estimating the value of assets using the present market prices.
When estimating the present value of the equipment and machinery, it is

important to consider depreciation or loss of value of the item over time.
The depreciation value can either be straight line or fixed rate (declining
balance) per annum, or sum of digits. Every fixed capital item has a life
span. This is the period the item is expected to be in use and its operation is
very efficient. The item is withdrawn from use because it has used efficiency
and effectiveness.
Let us look at an example of a machine bought at MK9, 000.00 whose

estimated scrape or salvage value after 8 years is K1, 000.00. The machine’s
annual depreciation is 25%.
Calculate the value of the machine at the end of its life span using:
i. straight-line method
ii. reducing balance method
iii. sum of digits method
47
Table 2
Depreciation per annum = cost of asset – estimated salvage value

Estimated number of years of life of an asset

= K9, 000.00 – K1, 000.00
8 years
=K1, 000.00 per year
Table 3
Depreciation for the last year = last but one year book value – the scrape
value
Depreciation for the 8th year = 7th year book value – the scrape value
= K1, 201.00 – K1, 000.00 = K201.00
Table 3: Sum of - digits method
The digits are summed up. The total becomes the denominator used for
solving depreciation. Before calculating the depreciation, subtract the
salvage or scrap value of the capital item. The value that remains is
called depreciable value or depreciable property. In our example here,
depreciable value is: K8, 000.00 (K9, 000.00 – K1, 000.00.00 = K8, 000.00)
48
Table 3
Tables 1, 2 and 3 show methods used for calculating depreciation.

Value of depreciation is used to estimate present market price of a machine.
Find out the method you would adopt if you were a farmer. Why would you
adopt that method?
2. Production records
Visit a nearby farm and find out what production records they keep. Record
your findings
Production records show the amount of produce (yield) from crops and
animals. They entail recording the operations or activities and inputs used
in producing a crop or raising animals and the farm produce or outputs.
Farmers use different inputs to grow crops like maize, cotton, rice, tobacco,
groundnuts, beans etc. Dairy farmers also use inputs.
Discuss with a friend what inputs these farmers use. Some of the inputs
farmers use are as follows:
These farmers use pesticides, labour, seeds, fertilizers and farm implements.
The dairy farmer uses dairy animals, drugs or medicine, feeds and dairy
farm equipment. Two types of inputs are used in production; variable costs
and fixed costs. Variable costs vary with crop grown or animal raised. Fixed
costs are used for a long time e.g. buildings and equipment and permanent
labour.
Table 4: Egg production record
49
Table 5: Feeding record
Table 6: Sheep breeding record
Table 7: Crop production records
Tables 4, 5 6 and 7 are examples of production records
Farm produce are also production records. The actual weight of crop and
animal yields (kilograms of maize and kilograms of meat per animal, liters of
milk per animal or number of eggs per chicken) is recorded. By comparing the
yield and inputs, the farmer is able to calculate gross margin and profit for the
various enterprises.
3. Financial Record
A record of all farm financial transactions should be made. It should include
all purchases of farm inputs and other expenditures such as salary and wage
payments, rent, and telephone and electricity bills on the one hand and all
sales including receipts from services rendered such as machinery hire. These
are normally recorded in the cash book and are the basis for calculation of
some important performance measures such as profit.
There are several financial books kept in the farm. Some of them are cash
book, cash analysis book, balance sheet, and ledgers. Each type of financial
record will be looked separately.
50
1. Cash book
This is a book of accounts where all financial transactions are recorded.
It records money received and paid out. A cash book thus keeps records of
transactions that involve receipts and payments of cash or by cheque. The
simplest form of cash book is the single column cash book. See Table 8 of
single column cash book.
Table 8 Single Column Cash book
19,200
45,000
19,200.00
Stating the reasons for keeping farm records
You have seen that there are several records a farmer can keep. Have you
ever thought of reasons why farmers keep records?
Activity 2
Stating reasons for keeping farm records
Procedure
• Visit a nearby farm to research on reasons why the farmer keeps records.
• Present the findings to the class during plenary session.
• Discuss the reasons for keeping records with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the reasons.
51
Farmers keep records for several reasons. Some of the reasons are outlined
below.
1. Help in planning and budgeting. This will enable the farmer to make
appropriate choices and decisions in the farm.
2. Provide a history of what has been happening on the farm. It can be used
for comparison purposes.
3. It is required by financial institutions before any loan can be approved to

determine the need and capacity of the farmer to repay the loan as well as
to determine whether the farmer can benefit from the credit if advanced.
4. Adequate farm records avoid being overtaxed because the tax will be
based only on the actual farm profit.
5. A comparison of the relative profitability of different crop and livestock

enterprises will suggest which enterprise should be expanded and which
one should be reduced or even eliminated to increase farm profit.
6. Determines financial status of the farm.
7. Help in proper management of various routine livestock or crop

production practices e.g. the dates of calving, vaccination, harvesting.
8. For comparison purposes between farmers dealing with the same

enterprise. This helps to discover the cause for the difference.
9. They help the farmer know when to breed animals.
10. Help the farmer to calculate how much tax to pay.
2. Cash analysis book

This is a book of accounts that will display all the enterprises, showing
their incomes and expenditures separately. Like in the trading account,
entries must be made as the transactions occur lest the farmer forgets
some of the entries.
Example of a cash analysis book
Suppose Mrs. Jede had three enterprises namely chicken, maize and
beans. The following transactions were made in 2015:
• On 1st September, 2015, she had a total opening balance of K1, 258,000.
Of this amount, maize had K250,000.00, Chickens had K780,000.00, while
beans had K228,000.00
• On 04th September, she bought 10bags feeds weighing 50 kg at K8,000
52
each
• On 8th September she sold 240 eggs at K14,400.00
• On 10th September she repaired the chicken kraal at K500.00
• On 15th September, she sold 300 eggs at K60 each
• On 21st September, Mrs. Jede bought 4 bags of Diammonium phosphate
at K15, 000.00 each for the maize enterprise and 25kg maize seed at K8,
000.00.
• On 25th September, she bought 2 bags of 23:21:0+4S fertilizer for the
beans at K12,500 each
• On 30th September she paid two gentlemen who were preparing land for
the maize enterprise K21,000.00
• On 12th October, she sold eggs for K25,200.00
Table 9
• On 24th October she sold out all the chickens at K96,000.00

• On 20th November she paid K6,000.00 for planting maize
• 23rd November, she paid for preparing land for beans planting at
K14,000.00
• She sold 540 eggs at K60.00 each
• On 26th May, 2016 she sold beans at K800,000.00 and on the same day,
she paid all debts amounting to K158,000.00 whichshe incurred in the
course of growing beans
• On 19th June 2016, she sold 85 bags of maize at K12,500.00 each
• On 20th June, 2016 she paid K201, 000.00 to her labourers caring for
maize.
Required: Prepare cash analysis for Mrs. Jede’s three enterprises between
September, 2015 and June, 2016.
The cash analysis book will look like table 10 below.
53
Cash Analysis book for Mrs. Jede (September, 2015 to June 2016
Purchases and Expenses (K) Sales and Receipts (K)
Date Description Total Payments Feeds Seed Fertilizer Labour Date Description Total Receipts Chickens Maize Beans
04/09/15 10 bags feeds 80,000.00 80,000 1/09/15 Opening bal-
10/09/15 Kraal repairs 500.00 500 ance 1,258,000.00 780,000 228,000
21/09/15 4 bags fertilizer 60,000.00 60,000 08/09/15 Egg sales 14,400.00 14,400 250,000
21/09/15 25 kg seed 8,000.00 8,000 15/09/15 Egg sales 18,000.00 18,000
25/09/15 2 bags fertilizer 25,000.00 25,000 21,000 12/10/15 Egg sales 25,000.00 25,000
30/09/15 Land preparation 21,000.00 24/10/15
54
(maize) 6,000 Chicken sales 96,000.00 96,000 800,000
20/11/15 Maize planting 6,000.00 14,000 29/11/15 Egg sales 32,400.00 32,400
23/11/15 Land preparation 14,000.00 201,000 26/05/16 Beans sales 800,000.00
(beans) 19/06/16 Maize sales 1,062,500.00 1,062,500
26/05/16 Labour costs 158,000.00 ________
(beans) 30/06/16 Total Receipts 3,306,300.00
20/06/16 Labour costs 201,000.00 965,800 1,312,500 1,028,000
(maize) 3,306,300.00
30/06/16 Total Payments 573,500.00 80,000 8,000 85,000 242,500
Closing Balance 2,732,800.00
01/07/16 Opening bal- 2,732,800.00
3,306,300.00 ance 885,300 1,016,500 831,000.00
3. Balance sheet
This is a statement of all assets and liabilities of a business for a specific
period of time. It is usually prepared at the end of a financial year to show
how much the business is worth. It shows the value of assets such as
crops, livestock, machinery, buildings, cash in hand and also the value of
liabilities such as loans, inputs like fertilizers, feeds and any other items
that were delivered but have not been paid for yet.
Example of a balance sheet for Mr. Nthewa, a flue-cured tobacco farmer.
At the end of 2014 crop growing season the following were his assets and
liabilities.
• Cash in hand: K215,000.00
• Cash at the bank: K1,340,000.00
• Land value K3,500,000.00
• Remains of fertilizer K85,000.00
• Bank loan K102,000.00
• He owed some of his workers K85,000.00
• Value of barns K175,000.00
• He owed MRA some tax K140,000.00
• Value of farm equipment K120,000.00
Required to draw a balance sheet for Mr. Nthewa for the period ending 31st
July, 2014
Balance Sheet for Mr. Nthewa as at 31st July, 2014
Liabilities MK Assets MK
Bank Loan 102,000.00 Cash in hand 215,000.00
Debt payable 85,000.00 Cash at Bank 1,340,000.00
Tax Payable 140,000.00 Land Value 3,500,000.00
Total Liabilities 327,000.00 Value of fertilizer 85,000.00
Value of barns 175,000.00
Net Capital 5,108,000.00 Value of farm equipment 120,000.00
5,435,000.00 Total Value of Assets 5,435,000.00
Unit Summary
Farming as a business requires accurate and up-to-date records. Three types

of records have been studied. These are
- Inventory records
- Production records
- Financial records
A complete picture of the farm cannot be obtained without taking into
55
account all farm transactions during the farming year. Outstanding receipts
and payments as reflected in the debts are important components of the
farm transactions.
Questions
1. Why is it important for farmers to keep records and accounts?

2. Of what use is an inventory?
3. A farmer kept the following information on his farm
- 02/03/2010 He sold 30 units of eggs at K7.00 per unit
- 03/03/2010 He bought one bag of layers mash at K800.00
- 02/03/2010 He bought 2 bags of manure at K50.00 per bag.
- 05/04/2010 He sold vegetables at K500.00.
- 10/06/2010 He sold 6 bags of maize at K15,000.00.
- 12/08/2010 He sold 3 bags of cassava at K6,000.00.
- 15/09/2010 He sold 5 bags of groundnuts at K15,000.00.
- 06/12/2010 He bought 2 bags of CAN at K 12,000.00.
(a) Using this financial record, calculate the profit or loss.

(b) Explain any two importance of keeping financial records on the farm.
4. Table 9 below shows transactions that were recorded on a farm. Use it to

answer questions that follow.
a. Prepare a profit and loss account.
b. Calculate the farmer’s profit or loss.
c. Describe any three uses of this type of record on a farm.
d. Explain the benefit of calculating depreciation on a farm.
Glossary
1. Inventory: contains information about the type and amount of stocks an
entity possesses
2. Depreciation: This is loss of value of the item over time
3. Depreciable property: This is value of the capital from which
depreciation can be calculated
4. Salvage value: This is value of an asset at the end of its lifespan.
Reference
1. http//www.bing.com
2. Kanjala B. M., Kaperemera N.T Strides Agriculture Book 3. Blantyre :
Longman Malawi
3. Kayira D.M CHANCO Teach yourself series. MSCE Agriculture. Zomba:
Chancollor College Publications
56
4. Ngomwa A., Sigei P., Cheruiyot D.(2012) Excell & Succeed, Senior
Secondary Agriculture Book 3. Lilongwe: Grey Matter Limited
5. Ngugi D., Karau P.K., Nguyo W. 1990 East African Agriculture, Nairobi:
Macmillan Education
57
Unit Budgeting
5
Defining a Budget
Activity 1
Defining the term budgeting
What do you do Procedure
when your parents • Brainstorm the meaning of the term budgeting
give you pocket • Discuss with your teacher the meaning of
money before you budgeting
start spending it? • Your teacher will summarise the term budgeting
I hope you first of
all make a budget. A budget is an estimate of expected costs and returns of
What is a budget a business or enterprise. You may recall that farmers
then? need to properly choose what to produce. Farmers may
wish to choose those enterprises which can give them
the highest profit. This is the function of a budget.
Budgeting is a method of analysing plans for the use of
agricultural resources. A Farm plan is a programme of
the total farm activity of a farmer drawn up in advance.
A Farm plan serves as the basis of farm budgeting.
Therefore, a farm plan can be prepared without a
budget but budgeting is not possible without a farm
plan. In this unit you will learn the commonly used
types of farm budgets, namely, partial budget, break
even budget and complete budget.
Therefore, budgeting can be defined as:
1. The physical aspect of farm planning when

expressed in monetary terms.
2. The expression of a farm plan in monetary terms by

estimation of receipts, expenses and net income.
3. Farm budgeting is a process of estimating costs,

returns and net profit of a farm or a particular
enterprise.
4. Budget is a statement of estimated income and

expenditure.
58
Types of farm budgets
Farmers are faced with different situations that require estimates before
implementing them. As the situations differ, so do the types of budgets.
Activity 2
Stating types of farm budgets
Procedure
• Brainstorm types of farm budgets
• Discuss these types of budgets with your teacher
• Visit a nearby farm to see the types of budget the farmer formulated
• Report your findings to the whole class during plenary session
• Your teacher consolidates the types of farm budgets
There are three types of budgets

a. Partial budget
b. Break-even budget
c. Complete budget
a. Partial budget
Partial refers to estimating costs and returns and net income of a particular
enterprise. It refers to estimating the returns for a part of the business i.e.
one or few activities for example
i. To estimate additional cost and returns from growing one hectare of
hybrid maize in place of local maize.
ii. To estimate additional cost and returns by adopting foliar application of
chemical fertilizers instead of soil application
Partial Budget Components

Partial budgets are based on the principle that small business changes have
effects in one or more of the following areas
1. Increase in income
2. Reduction or elimination of costs
3. Increase in costs
4. Reduction or elimination of income
The net impacts of the above effects will be the positive financial changes
minus the negative financial changes. A positive net indicates that farm
income will increase due to the change, while a negative net indicates the
change will reduce farm income.
59
A partial budget consists of two columns, a subtotal for each column and
a grand total. The left hand column has the item that increases income while
the right hand column notes those that reduce income for a farm business.
Uses of a partial budget

Brainstorm with your partner, the situation in which a farmer would find a
partial budget useful. Some of your findings should be as follows:
1. Introduce a new enterprise without necessarily changing other
enterprises
2. Change one enterprise for another- sometimes referred to as substitution
3. Expand the existing enterprise or make additions to existing enterprise
e.g. increase the area for crops or increase livestock herd for beef, dairy,
broiler, egg production, sheep, goats
4. Buy new farm machinery or equipment
5. Adopt a change in method of production, for example, introducing the use
of a milking machine instead of hand milking
Table 2: An example of a Partial budget in which the farmer switches from
Table 12
60
raising replacement Heifers to Buying Heifers.
Partial budgeting can be useful in the decision process farm owners and
managers use to decide on alternative uses of resources they have in their
businesses. Partial budgeting is a systematic approach that can assist the
manager in making informed decisions. But this budgeting process can
only estimate possible financial impacts, not assure them. Management
decisions and chance can change the projections. These may result in better
or poorer than expected performance. Repeating the analysis using different
assumptions about key variables will give some idea about the degree of risk
involved in making the proposed change.
Example of a partial budget

Mr. Senzani has 2 hectares of land on which he grows NSCM 41. He however
wants to make the following changes;
• To apply 4 bags of urea instead of 6 bags per hectare at K1,300.00

• To sell 40 bags of maize at K1, 000.00 per bag to Chibuku Products
Limited instead of K850, 000.00 per bag to ADMARC.
• To store maize in 50kg sacks at K30.00 each instead of storing it in the
nkhokwe.
• To spend K500.00 instead of K300.00 on Actellic.
• To spend K600.00/hectare instead of K300.00/hectare on casual labor.
a) Prepare a partial budget for Mr. Senzani.

b) Should Mr. Senzani go ahead with his plan? Explain your answer.
c) Explain any two uses of the partial budget prepared above to Mr. Senzani.
d) Explain the major weakness of the partial budget prepared above.
Table 13
61
The farmer would require rates to be less than K339/hr for a contractor
using the same machine as he was considering purchasing before he would
contract the machine. Based on 5.85ha/hr, the rate equates to K58/HA. As
the farmer can get his harvest done by contract for approximately K35/ha,
he is keen to look further into contracting.
The same technique can be used to look at the breakeven rate given different
proportions of the crop being downgraded, for different price discounts etc.
For example, the farmer uses the technique to determine the financial
impact if the contractor did not arrive on time by changing the proportion
of grain received for different grades to 70% grade 2 and 30% for grade 3.
The breakeven rate is K9/ha, well below the anticipated K35/ha. The farmer
can now make an informed decision about his machinery decision problem
noting that the K150, 000 received from the sale of his old machine could be
put to good use, funding his investment in beef cattle.
b.Break-even budget
The break-even level or break-even point (BEP) represents the sales amount—
in either unit or revenue terms—that is required to cover total costs (both
fixed and variable). Total profit at the break-even point is zero. Break-even is
only possible if a firm’s prices are higher than its variable costs per unit. If so,
then each unit of the product sold will generate some “contribution” toward
covering fixed costs
In economics, business and cost accounting, the break-even point (BEP) is the
point at which total cost and total revenue are equal: there is no net loss or
gain, and one has “broken even.” i.e. both sides of the equation are the same.
A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been
“paid,” and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In short,
all costs that need to be paid are paid by the firm but the profit is equal to 0.
For example, if a farmer produces and sells less than 250 bags of maize each
year, she/he will make a loss; and if she sells more, she/he will make a profit.
With this information, the farmer will then need to see if she/he is able to
produce and sell 250 bags of maize in a year. If she is able to produce more
than 250 bags, then she/he can go ahead and embark on the enterprise because
she/he is now sure of making a profit. On the other hand, if she/he sees that
it is impossible but still wants to embark on the business, then s/he must try
doing the following:
1. Try to reduce the fixed costs (by renegotiating land rentals for example, or
keeping better control of telephone bills or other costs).
2. Try to reduce variable costs through input substitution – adopting organic
62
farming.
3. Increase the selling price of the maize. This can be achieved through
selling the maize in times of scarcity.
The aim is to reduce break-even point and increase profit.
Purpose
The main purpose of break-
even analysis is to determine
the minimum output that
must be exceeded in order
to make profit. It also
is a rough indicator of
the earnings impact of a
marketing activity.[1]
The break-even point is one
of the simplest yet least
used analytical tools in
management. It helps to
provide a dynamic view of
the relationships between
sales, costs, and profits. Figure 5.1.Showing break-even point.
For example, expressing break-even sales as a percentage of actual sales

can give managers a chance to understand when to expect to break even (by
linking the percent to when in the week/month this percent of sales might
occur).
The break-even point is a special case of Target Income Sales, where Target
Income is 0 (breaking even). This is very important for financial analysis.
Construction
In the linear cost-volume-profit analysis model (where marginal costs and
marginal revenues are constant, among other assumptions), the break-even
point (BEP) (in terms of Unit Sales (X)) can be directly computed in terms
of Total Revenue (TR) and Total Costs (TC) as:
TR = TC (this is break-even point, the result is zero)
P x X = TFC + V x X
P x X – V x X = TFC
(P – V) x X = TFC
X = TFC
(P – V)
This is an algebraic presentation in which X is being made subject of the
formula where:
63
•TFC is total fixed cost,
• P is Unit Sale Price,

• V is Unit Variable Cost,
• X is the total number of units to be sold – in our example number of maize
bags
The Break-Even Point can alternatively be computed as the point where

contribution equals fixed costs. The quantity, (P-V), is of interest in
its own right, and is called the unit contribution margin (C): It is the
marginal profit per unit, or alternatively the portion of each sale that
contributes to Fixed Costs. Thus the break-even point can be more simply
computed as the point where Total Contribution = Total Fixed Cost:
Figure 1 showing break-
Total contribution = Total fixed cost even point.
Unit contribution x number of units = Total fixed costs
Number of units = total fixed costs
Unit contribution
Limitations
•Break-even analysis is only
a supply-side (i.e., costs
only) analysis, as it tells you
nothing about what sales
are actually likely to be for
the product at these various
prices.
•It assumes that fixed costs
(FC) are constant. Although
this is true in the short run,
an increase in the scale of
production is likely to cause Figure 5.2
fixed costs to rise.
•It assumes average variable costs are constant per unit of output, at least
in the range of likely quantities of sales. (i.e., linearity).
•It assumes that the quantity of goods produced is equal to the quantity
of goods sold (i.e., there is no change in the quantity of goods held in
inventory at the beginning of the period and the quantity of goods held in
inventory at the end of the period).
•In multi-product companies, it assumes that the relative proportions
of each product sold and produced are constant (i.e., the sales mix is
constant).
64
c. Complete budget
1. Complete Budget
This budget also known as whole farm budget looks into every detail of the
farm. It includes budgeting for both fixed and variable costs. In fact this is
the budget that is prepared when a farmer wants to start a farming business.
A complete budget is prepared when:
i) A farm plan is prepared for a new farm
ii) When drastic changes are suggested in the plan of the existing pattern
on an established farm. Complete budgeting can be prepared for short run
(annual budget) and for long run.
An Example of a Complete Budget.

The table shows the fixed costs and the variable costs for maize, cassava, tea
and rice at a certain farm in Mulanje.
8,000
–6,100
Table 10
65
Study the table thoroughly and answer questions that follow.
1. Find two crop enterprises that have the highest gross margins (GM).
2. i Which crop would you advise a farmer to grow?.
ii Why would you advise a farmer to grow the crop you have mentioned in (i)
above?
3. Which crop would be the worst for the farmer to grow?
4. Calculate the whole farm gross margin.
5. Work out the whole farm profit.
Table 11 Difference between complete budget and partial budget
Table 11
Every farming activity calls for its own type of budgeting. However, the gen-
eral activities are the same.
How to Budget for an Agricultural Enterprise
Activity 2
Describing how to budget for an agricultural enterprise
Procedure
• Brainstorm activities in volved in budgeting for an agricultural
enterprise.
• Discuss these activities with your teacher.
• Collect data from agricultural enterprises.
• Prepare budgets using the data collected.
• Your teacher will summarize the steps involved in budgeting.
66
Steps Involved in Budgeting
a. A farmer should decide on what to produce. This should be based on the
farmer’s skill and customer demand.
b. Estimate the input requirement such as fertilizer, seed, labour, transport
and the like. The farmer should make sure that every input that will be
sourced should be included in the estimate.
c. Make an estimate of the expected yield. This can be in terms of volume
for example, liters of milk or mass such as kilograms of maize. The esti-
mates should be realistic. To avoid over or under-estimating a farmer can
get estimates from extension service personnel.
d. Make an estimate of prices for the yield. Prices differ with market. Min-
istry of Agriculture can provide estimated prices of different commodities
at different locations.
e. Estimate fixed costs of buildings, machinery depreciation.
f. Calculate total cost.
g. Calculate total revenue.
h. Calculate net revenue. If the net revenue is positive, the enterprise has
made a profit. If the net revenue is negative, the enterprise has regis-
tered a loss. If the net revenue is zero, the enterprise has neither made a
loss nor a profit. A farmer must choose an enterprise which brings posi-
tive net revenue. The farmer’s interest should be centered on the margin
of profit. The higher the profit, the better for the enterprise.
2. Partial Budgeting: A Financial Management Tool

Partial budgeting (also known as marginal analysis) is a management tool
that can compare the costs and returns that are affected by a potential
change in a business. It is especially useful in evaluating budgets that
involve small, specific, and limited changes within a business by helping to
determine the profitability of that change. If the potential change will im-
pact several aspects of the business, then it will be necessary to use a whole-
farm budget. Whole-farm budgets contain both cash and non-cash income
and expenses; and they also consider fixed costs that are associated with the
business. You may want to do a complete whole-farm budget of your busi-
ness to see if it has profitability, liquidity, and solvency subsistence over the
long term.
As a reference, there are also three additional types of budgeting that may
be more suitable to your needs than a whole-farm budget or a partial budget.
• Enterprise Budgeting contains all of the income and expenses associated
with a single enterprise,
• Cash Flow Budgeting depicts monthly cash surpluses or deficits and can
be used for the entire business or for an individual enterprise, and
• Capital Budgeting summarizes the capital investments the business
plans to make and the profitability of those investments.
If your operation seems to need fine-tuning, then a partial budget would
67
be a more appropriate tool to analyze its performance. Business managers
should evaluate their individual situations and make an informed decision
about how they will be impacted by future events when considering their
options regarding the proposed change. It is especially important to keep in
mind that the answers you obtain from partial budgeting are no better than
the quality of the information used in the analysis.
When Should You Use A Partial Budget?

You might want to use a partial budget to analyze the effect of:
1. Expanding an enterprise (for example: adding 20 cows to a 100-cow herd),
2. Substituting commodities with similar requirements (example: substitut-
ing 50 acres of tomatoes for 50 acres of peppers)
3. Buying new equipment or machinery (example: buying new equipment
rather than leasing or custom-hiring or vice versa),
4. Changing or adopting production practices (example: changing feed ra-
tions in a livestock enterprise),
5. Participating in a government program, or,
6. Considering an alternative enterprise.
This gives you an idea of the types of changes that partial budgeting can
analyze. However, you should always keep in mind that partial budgeting
can only analyze small changes within the business, not major reorganiza-
tions.
Limitations of Partial Budgeting

Although partial budgeting can be applied in a variety of situations it does
have limitations to its use.
a) It is restricted to evaluating only two alternatives.
b) The results obtained from a partial budget are only estimates, and are
only as good as the original data that is entered. If you enter inaccurate
information in the budget, you receive inaccurate results.
c) Partial budgeting does not account for the time value of money. That is,
the difference in the value of cash received and/or expended now, versus
its value at some future date.
d) Partial budgeting only provides an estimate of the profitability of an al-
ternative relative to current operations. It does not provide an estimate of
the absolute profitability of the business.
e) Costs and returns that are not affected by an intended change are not in-
cluded in the partial budget. In other words, you can only use the partial
budget to consider the costs and returns of a specific action. If you cannot
determine all the areas that will be affected by the intended change, it
might be better to use a whole-farm budget to evaluate the impacts of the
change.
Components of Partial Budgeting
In order to use partial budgeting to evaluate a potential change in a busi-
68
ness, a manager must first be able to answer four questions about that
change:
1. What new or additional costs will be incurred?

2. What current costs will be reduced or eliminated?
3. What new or additional returns will be received?
4. What current returns will be reduced or lost?
The partial budget can be divided into three main sections:
(I) Costs,
(II) Benefits,
(III) Analysis.
The analysis section includes net change in profits and a break-even analy-
sis (also known as benefit/cost ratio).
The possible changes that can occur in a business fall into four categories.
These categories are added returns, reduced returns, added costs, and re-
duced costs. Added costs and reduced returns compose the cost section
of the partial budget. They represent the negative effects of a proposed
change. Added returns and reduced costs fall into the benefits section of the
partial budget and are the positive effects of a proposed change in the busi-
ness.
The analysis section of the partial budget contains both net change in profits
and benefit/cost ratio analysis. Net change in profits is the factor that deter-
mines whether the change can improve or hurt the current financial situa-
tion. If the benefits are greater than the costs, the change will have a posi-
tive net benefit. If costs related to a proposed change are greater than the
benefits (negative valued net benefits), then the proposed change should not
be considered or reconsidered, as it will cost more than it will return.
The benefit/cost ratio looks at the relative values of the benefits and costs
when the profits from two considered alternatives appear to be the same
value. Using the benefit/cost ratio can help the manager determine which
option would produce better returns. Both net change in profits and the ben-
efit/cost ratio should be used to evaluate the results from a partial budget.
In many instances, these components of partial budgeting will not apply to

your situation. However, it is a good idea to evaluate all of the four possibili-
ties to ensure that some variable or impact has not been overlooked, and to
reduce the chances that variables or impacts have been counted more than
one time. Remember that you do not need to evaluate costs and returns that
are not affected by the proposed business change.
A partial budget can be arranged into the following format:
69
Problem (Proposed Change
Section 1: Costs Section 2: Benefits
A. Additional Costs (These will be the D. Additional Returns (These will be
costs incurred as a result of grow- the returns received as a result of
ing a new commodity or using a growing a new commodity or using a
new practice.) new practice.)
B. Reduced Returns ((These will be E. Reduced Costs (These will be the
the returns that are given up as a costs that will no longer be incurred
result of no longer producing the as a result of giving up the current
current commodity being grown or commodity or practice for a new
practice being used.) one.)
C. Total Costs (A + B) F. Total Benefits (D + E)
Section 3: Analysis
G. Net Change in Profits (F – C)
H. Benefit/Cost Ratio (F ÷ C)
Example of a partial budget
Mr. Senzani has 2 hectares of land on which he has been growing Mkango
maize variety for so many years. He however wants to make the following
changes;
• He decides to use for producing Kholophethe beans variety.
• The yield of maize has been 80 bags weighing 50kg each per hectare. He
expects to produce 60 bags of beans weighing the same per hectare.
• The price of maize is K250.00 per kilogram while beans is expected to be
sold at K450.00 per kilogram
• In both cases, sacs are needed at the cost K150.00.00
• Mr. Senzani will need to apply Actellic dust to both at the rate of 5 bags
per tin of Actellic. Its cost K2, 500.00 per tin.
• Labour requirement for maize production is K150, 000.00 per hectare.
Beans on the other hand shall require K120, 000.00 per hectare.
• Fertilizer requirement: 4 bags of 23:21:0+4S and 2 bags of urea for maize
per hectare at the cost of K21,000.00 each; and 4 bags of 23:21:0+4S per
hectare for beans costing the same price.
• Mr. Senzani will be expected to buy 4 bottles of Cypermethrine at the cost
of K4, 500.00 per bottle to control bean beetles.
• Labour for controlling the bean beetle is expected to be K30,000.00 per
hectare.
Steps in Constructing a Partial Budget
The partial budget is ready to be developed after all appropriate data is pro-
duced. Again, only the costs and returns that change as a result of proceed-
ing with the specific change should be included in the partial budget. An
example of how to perform a partial budget follows. For analysis purposes
we will be comparing two proposed changes against our current business
practice. This will require two separate partial budgets, because if you will
recall, one of the limitations of partial budgeting is that you are restricted to
evaluating only two alternatives per budget. Finally, an evaluation of the
70
benefit/cost ratio result is provided to explain how to compare the results of
the partial budgets for the two proposed changes (when they seem to pro-
duce equal profits).
Problem: Maize Production vs. Beans Production

Section 1: Costs Section 2: Benefits
A. Additional Costs D. Additional Returns
vBeans v Beans
• 4 bottles Cypermethrine @ • K350,000.00 (value of beans mi-
K4,500 = K18,000.00 nus value of maize)
• Labour for applying Cyper-
methrine = K30,000.00 E. Reduced Costs
• Total: K48,000.00 v Beans
B. Reduced Returns • Sacs = K3,000.00 (20 ad-
• 00.00 ditional sacs for maize @
C. Total Costs K150.00 each)
A + B (K48,000.00 + • Actellic = K10,000.00
00.00)=K48.000.00 • Labour = K30,000.00
• Urea = K42,000.00
F. Total Benefits
D + E = K435,000.00
Section 3: Analysis
G. Net Change in Profits: F – C = K435,000.00 – K48,000.00 = K387,
000.00
H. Benefits/Cost Ratio = F ÷ C
K435,000.00 ÷ K48,000.00
= 9.06
In this example, the benefits/costs ratio means that for every K1.00 spent
on production of beans, the famer will be making K9.06 more or a profit of
K8.06
3. Breakeven Budget
Breakeven, in simple terms is how many units an organization must sell (in
units or money) in order to breakeven covering all fixed and variable expens-
es. It is important to know your breakeven as gives you realistic estimates
of how much your sales need to start marking a profit. In fact a breakeven
analysis is one way to know whether you should go forward with a business.
Example
Suppose a farm that produces tobacco has the following information:
1. Fixed costs
a. Land (rent): K50,000.00
b. Production salaries K120,000.00
c. Barns: K30,000.00
71
2. Variable Costs
a. Fertilizer K1400.00
b. Seeds K400.00
c. Chemicals K200.00
3. Sales price: K4,000.00 per kg
To find the breakeven we use the following formula:
Fixed Costs ÷ (sales price – variable cost)
Calculations
Total fixed cost = K200, 000.00
Total variable costs:K2, 000.00
Breakeven = Fixed cost ÷ (sales price –variable cost)
K200, 000.00 ÷ (K4, 000.00 – K2, 000.00)
K200, 000 ÷ K2, 000 =100 units
Please note that the variable costs are per unit.
This farmer must produce 100 units of tobacco in order to break even.
How to Budget for an Agricultural Enterprise

Every farming activity calls for its own type of budgeting. However, the
general activities are the same.
Activity 2
Describing how to budget for an agricultural enterprise
Procedure
• Brainstorm activities involved in budgeting for an agricultural
enterprise.
• Discuss these activities with your teacher.
• Collect data from agricultural enterprises.
• Prepare budgets using the data collected.
• Your teacher will summarise the steps involved in budgeting.
Steps involved in Budgeting

1. A farmer should decide on what to produce. This should be based on the
farmer’s skill and customer demand.
2. Estimate the input requirement such as fertilizer, seed, labour, transport
and the like. The farmer should make sure that every input that will be
sourced should be included in the estimate.
3. Make an estimate of the expected yield. This can be in terms of volume for
example, liters of milk or mass such as kilograms of maize. The estimates
should be realistic. To avoid over or under-estimating a farmer can get
estimates from extension service personnel.
4. Make an estimate of prices for the yield. Prices differ with market. Ministry
of Agriculture can provide estimated prices of different commodities at
different locations.
72
5. Estimate fixed costs of buildings, machinery depreciation.
6. Calculate total cost.
7. Calculate total revenue.
8. Calculate net revenue.
If the net revenue is positive, the enterprise has made a profit.

If the net revenue is negative, the enterprise has registered a loss.
If the net revenue is zero, the enterprise has neither made a loss nor a profit.
A farmer must choose an enterprise which brings positive net revenue. The
farmer’s interest should be centered on the margin of profit. The higher the
profit, the better for the enterprise.
Unit Summary
Budgeting is an estimate of the future expenses and income of a proposed
farm plan. It is a translation of a physical plan into financial terms.
Farming is a business, like any other business, it requires advance planning
for the available resources. As such, it requires an estimate of the expected
expenses and to some extent a prediction of the outcome. Budgets also provide
a useful yard stick against which farmers can measure their activities.
Partial budgets help farmers to expand the existing enterprise or make addition
to the already existing enterprise. A partial budget helps the farmer to come
up with a change in method of production of his/her enterprise. Partial budget
shows the financial implications of a proposed small change in the farm that is,
increasing a particular enterprise at the expense of another. A partial budget
is also known as a change in the production techniques. A partial budget will
help to determine whether the change will be profitable or not.
Simply, four questions are important in partial budgets:
i. What extra costs (EC) are to be incurred?

ii. What present /existing income or revenue is to be forgone or given up?
iii. What present costs will no longer be incurred?
iv. What extra income is to be earned?
Total gains = Extra revenue + Cost saved

Total Cost = Extra Costs + Revenue forgone
Net gain/loss = Total gains – Total costs
If the costs are more than the income, it is not advisable to implement the
proposed change. If the net gain is positive, the proposed change is profitable. A
partial budget only includes resources that will be changed e.g. variable costs.
It does not consider the resources in the businesses that are left unchanged.
73
Only the change under consideration is evaluated for its ability to increase or
decrease income in the farm business.
The break even calculation show that it will require a certain amount per
unit before the plan will break even with the existing enterprise. If it means
borrowing funds to engage in another enterprise it will require a higher return
to meet the repayment.
A complete budget is a type of budget which examines the effect of changes

made to the whole farm. A complete budget is mandatory when a farmer;
-Is opening a new farm.
-Makes new changes in the farm.
-Is making major reorganisation the farm.
Reference
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break-even_%28economics%29 (04/10/2014).
2. http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=10&topicid=239 (30/06/2014).
3. www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/.../c1-50.html (30/06/2014).
4. www.agric.nsw.gov.au/econ/budget..
5. D.A. Patton (2001): Evaluating enterprise change and capital investments
- partial and break-even budgets. Agfact M1.2 second edition, Agricultural
New York: Research Centre, Trangie.
6. Kanjala B.M and Kaperemera N.T, (2012): Strides in Agriculture Book 4,
Revised Edition, Blantyre: Lonjgman Malawi.
74
Unit Farm Business
Decision —Making
6
Stating the Economic Principles in Farm
Business Decision—Making
The idea of decision making on a farm is to enable
the farmer maximise profit. Farmers therefore need
Time has come
to make the right decisions at all times so that even
when farming
when it is difficult for most farmers to prosper, this
should be taken
particular farmer should still stand out and make
seriously as a
profit.
business. In every
business venture Activity 1
right decisions
are the basis Stating the economic principles in farm
for high returns business decision making
on investment. Procedure
Farmers need • Form groups of at least five members
to value very • Using your library or internet, research on the
highly any of economic principles farmers use when deciding
their investment, on what to produce, how to produce, how much to
whether it is produce, when to produce and where to buy and
money, time or sell.
energy. • Record all of your findings
• Each group should present the findings to the class
This is why • Your teacher will summarise the economic principles
decision making that farmers use in decision making
becomes very
important to a The economic principles that farmers use in
farmer and indeed deciding on what to produce, how to produce, how
in this unit. You much to produce, when to produce and where to buy
will in this unit and sell are;
learn among many a. Opportunity cost
other things, the b. Comparative advantage
economic principles c. Substitution of inputs
in farm business d. Diminishing marginal returns
decision making,
how each of these
principles help in
decision making.
75
Explaining how each of the economic principles helps in
decision making in farm business
You have seen that farmers need to think very critically about what to
produce, how to produce it, when to produce it, how much to produce it and
where to buy input and sell the produce. You are now ready to learn how the
economic principles stated above can help farmers to make right decisions.
Activity 2
Explaining how the economic principles can help farmers
in decision making
Procedure
• While with your teacher in the classroom, brainstorm how each of the
economic principles helps in decision making in farm business
• Discuss these economic principles with your teacher how they help in
decision making in a farm business
• Your teacher shall help you summarise how each of the economic
principles can help in decision making in a farm business
a. Opportunity cost
This is the value of a foregone alternative. When a farmer decides to produce
maize instead of groundnuts, the difference in value between groundnuts and
maize is a foregone alternative and therefore an opportunity cost.
For example: If maize production (which is a major food crop for most
Malawians) produces a surplus whose profit is K250, 000.00; while
groundnuts makes a profit of K350,000.00. This farmer foregoes K100,
000.00 if she/he chooses to grow maize rather than groundnuts. The
opportunity cost here is K100, 000.00. This implies that every decision
a farmer makes has a consequence. As a result farmers must give every
decision a very serious thought.
b. Comparative advantage
This is another principle that is used when choosing enterprises. Farmers
must concentrate and take advantage of enterprises which best suit the
environmental conditions of their areas. For example, farmers in Tsangano
have a comparative advantage over farmers in hot areas of Malawi in production
of Irish potatoes. Farmers need to appreciate that they cannot venture into
every enterprise. It is best to choose only those enterprises which suit best in
their locality. Comparative advantage also works where the farmer has skill
for a particular enterprise. As a result, farmers are advised to choose those
enterprises which they are able to handle due to skill or those enterprises
which best suit the environment.
76
c. Substitution of inputs
The underlining issue is profit maximisation. Inputs contribute a great
deal to cost of production. Efforts must be made by farmers to reduce as
much as they can to reduce this cost. One way is to substitute inputs. For
example, prices for organic fertilizers continue to go up. These fertilizers
can be substituted by organic fertilizer. Use of machinery can economically
substitute human labour. This is why some enterprises are embarking on
outsourcing certain services instead of hiring permanent labour.
d. Diminishing marginal returns

This is a law in production decision making which states that if a variable
input is increased while all other inputs are held constant, a point is
eventually reached where the additional output for every additional input
will decline. The law is clearly advising farmers to decide on the right
amount of inputs for every enterprise because too much of the input is
dangerous.
Meanings of the following words should be understood:

1. Diminishing means declining or getting reduced
2. Marginal means additional or incremental
3. Return means output or yield
This law is about declining of additional yield as a result of additional level

of input being used.
Drawing a graph to illustrate the law of diminishing
marginal return
You have learnt that the law of diminishing marginal return helps farmers
to decide correctly. In this section, you will learn how to illustrate the law
graphically.
Activity 3
drawing a graph to illustrate the law of diminishing
marginal return
Procedure
Break into your groups
• Collect data on level of input and the corresponding yield for any given
enterprise
• Tabulate the collected data
• Draw a graph using the tabulated data
• Your teacher will consolidate the graph
77
In your activity 3, you were correct if you collected data as found in the table
14 below
Imagine if a farmer grew maize on one hectare. He applied different
fertilizer levels as seen in the table 14.
Table 14
Table 1 showing the relationship between level of input (fertilizer) and its
corresponding yield.
Interpreting the graph as a farm business management
tool
78
The size of land is being held constant while level of fertilizer is being
increased by equal amount.
You have seen the shape of the graph. What shape does it have?
Activity 4
Interpreting the graph as a farm business management
tool
Procedure
• Break into your groups.
• Suggest the meanings of the following words:
• Diminishing
• Marginal
• Return
• Using the table above add the following columns as seen in table 2 below.
• marginal return
• income assuming 1 bag of maize costs K4,000.00.
• cost of input assuming 1 bag of fertilizer costs K12,000.00.
• profit
• fill the additional columns
• From the table, identify the level of marginal return which is the highest.
• From the table, identify the level of input which brings the highest profit.
Table 15
79
The graph depicts three segments.
1. The first segment is where the yield of maize is increasing at increasing

rate. The rate of increase is the marginal output. You will notice that in
this segment the marginal output is increasing until it reaches 6.
2. In the second segment, the yield continues to increase but at a declining
rate. The declining rate is the marginal output. In this section, the
marginal output is declining from 6 to 0.
3. The last segment is where the maize yield starts to decline from 37 bags
to 34 bags.
Farmers must choose the right amount to produce based on the second
segment. This is the segment where maximum profit can be attained. To
be more specific, the farmer should produce 31 bags of maize using 8 bags
of fertilizer in order to attain maximize profit of K38,000.00. If the farmer
produces 37 bags of maize using 11 bags of fertilizer, he only makes a profit
of K16,000.00.
Unit Summary
Farming as a business is about making right decisions. Right decisions
form the basis for profit maximisation. There are economic principles which
farmers must use when making decisions concerning their operations. These
are opportunity cost, comparative advantage, input substitution and the law
of diminishing marginal return.
Glossary
Opportunity cost: The value of the foregone alternative
Return on investment: Profit
Review Questions
1. Define the following terms:
• Comparative advantage
• Marginal return
• Economic optimum point
2. Explain how farmers can use the following to increase profits on a farm
• opportunity cost
• law of diminishing marginal return
3. From table 2 above, explain why it is not maximum return that gives
maximum profit.
80
Review Questions
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage (04/10/2014)
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminishing_returns
4. http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/global/changing-farming-
practices/input-su
5. Kanjala B.M. and Kaperemera N.T. (2002): Strides in Agriculture Book 3,

Blantyre: Longman Malawi (Pty) Ltd
6. Ngugi D.N. Karau P.K. and Nguyo W. (1990): East African Agriculture,
A Textbook for Secondary schools, Third Edition. Nairobi: Macillan
Education
81
82
Unit Enterprise
Combinations
7
Outlining factors to be considered when
selecting enterprise combinations
Many farmers, (subsistent or commercial), combine
enterprises. Have you ever thought of why they do
In the previous
this?
unit, you learnt
that it necessary
Activity 1
for farmers to
decide on what Outlining factors considered by farmers
to produce. You when combining enterprises
have seen farmers
in your area Procedure
producing a wide • Visit a nearby farm
variety of crops • Find out from the farmer what s/he considered when
and animals on choosing the enterprises for the farm
the same farm. • Present your findings to the class during plenary
This is enterprise session
combination • Discuss your findings with your teacher
because the • Your teacher will consolidate the factors considered
farmer is by farmers when combining enterprises
producing
There are many factors farmers consider when
different crops
combining enterprises. Most important of these are
and animals. In
the following:
this unit, you
1. Profitability of the enterprise: In trying to
will learn what
maximize profit, farmers choose those enterprises
farmers consider
whose total profit can be significantly high.
when choosing
enterprises to
2. The farmer’s food requirements: Most farmers
combine and
in Malawi produce for consumption. It is the excess
also the types
which they may sell for money. In this connection,
of enterprise
a farmer can choose those enterprises which
combinations
bring sufficient balanced food for the family. Most
which can exist on
families in Malawi believe that “Kulemera ndi
a farm.
kudya”, which literally means the rich, are those
that have food on their table.
83
3. Resource availability: Success of every enterprise depends on
availability of production resources in right amounts and at the right time.
The major production resources which must be available are land, labour,
capital and management. There resources are explained below:
i. Land: This resource determines the size of an enterprise. It also

determines how many enterprises can be combined successfully. Type of
land (in terms of slope, soil type) can also determine type of enterprises a
farmer can venture into.
ii.Labour: This is the amount of work done by humans. Families which

depend on family labour cannot successfully run a combination of many
enterprises even if they may have adequate land.
There are instances when a farmer combines two or more enterprises and the
enterprises are competing for labour. A farmer needs to establish a labour
profile. This is an outline of labour requirements for each of the enterprises
so that the farmer can know how much labour is needed during the whole
production period.
Activity 2
Drawing a labour profile
Procedure
• Form groups of at least 5 members.
• Use the instructions and data provided below.
Suppose a farmer wants to grow maize, groundnuts and tobacco. He has
a labour supply of 250 man days on the farm. Below is table 5 showing
labour requirements in man days for each enterprise.
• Draw a bar chart using the data in table 5 above to show a labour profile
for the three enterprises. Your teacher shall provide you with a chart
paper.
• One member of your group should present your work to the whole class.
• Discuss the labour profile with your teacher.
• Your teacher will consolidate the labour profile.
Many farmers, (subsistent or commercial) combine enterprises. Have you ever
thought of why they do this?
84
Assessment for learning
• Identify the months in which the labour supply was lower than labour
requirement.
• Suggest a name which is given to the period when labour requirement is
higher than labour supply.
• How can such months be dealt with so that the enterprises continue to
receive the attention they deserve?
• Identify the months in which labour supply is higher than labour
requirement.
• What name is given to the period whose labour requirement is lower than
labour supply?
• How can excess labour be dealt with on a farm?
iii.Capital: This is a term used to describe live and non-living stock on the
farm used for production. It also includes money for everyday running of
the business. Capital is what is used to start a business with and indeed
for its everyday running. Since capital is always scarce, it is important for
farmers to use it economically.
iv. Management: This is a skill inherent in the farmer to assist in decision

making. The farmer must have sound managerial skills in order to decide
on the most economic enterprise combinations and how well the other
resources can best be put into use.
4.Nature of enterprises: Enterprises fall into three major types.

i. Competitive enterprises: These compete for production resources
ii.Supplementary enterprises: One is the main enterprise while the
other is just an additional one.
iii.Complementary enterprises: The two enterprises help each other
5.Opportunity cost: This is a foregone alternative. A farmer would want to

reduce this foregone alternative as much as possible. As a result it would be
necessary to combine those enterprises which are not competitive.
6. Comparative advantage: This is a principle in which a farmer chooses

those enterprises which perform very well in that area. This ensure high
productivity and profit maximisation.
7.Risks and uncertainties: These words are at times used interchangeably as

if they mean the same. However, they are different. A risk is a situation
in which it is possible to predict its outcome. Those who take risks are
aware of possible outcomes which are generally bad but in case they
succeed, the result is more rewarding than when it is avoided. Usually,
85
high risk enterprises are most rewarding – high risk high returns. For
example, tobacco is a high risk enterprise. It is purely commercial faced
with possible unpredictable price fluctuations, bad weather such as wind,
hailstorms, fire and diseases. When all is well, farmers make a lot of
money.
Uncertainty is a bad situation of not knowing what will happen in the future.
No one knows whether or not there is going to be favourable weather condition
in a particular growing season; and yet farmers start investing way before the
onset of the rainy season.
A risk is predictable while uncertainty is not. One can insure against a risk
but not uncertainty.
How to safeguard against risks and uncertainty
i.Diversification: venturing into several enterprises with the hope that not
all of them can fail.
ii.Choosing enterprises which are of low risk
iii.Buying an insurance cover so that when the enterprise fails beyond the
farmer’s control, the insurance company can compensate
iv.Input substitution so that the farmer does not invest a lot into inputs.
For example, use of locally prepared feeds rather than using commercially
prepared ones; or use of manure rather than organic fertilizers which are
generally very expensive
v. Flexibility in methods of production. Farmers are advised to use capital

items which can easily be turned for a different enterprise.
8.The farmer’s ability: This has to do skills in managing the enterprise.

For example, although tobacco is a high paying enterprise some farmers are
not interested in it because they do not have the skills. Some farmers choose
easily managed enterprises although their profits are low.
Explaining Types of Enterprise Combinations

You have learnt the factors which farmers consider when combining
enterprises. Based on the reasons for combining the enterprises, three types
of enterprise combinations exist.
86
Activity 3
Explaining types of Enterprise Combinations
Procedure
• Form groups of at least five members
• Use your library or internet to research on the three types of enterprise
combinations.
• Explain the types of enterprise combinations.
• Present your findings to the whole class during plenary session.
• Discuss the types of enterprise combinations with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the types of enterprise combinations for you.
Enterprises fall into three major types.

i.Competitive enterprises: These are enterprises which compete for
resources. In fact, most enterprises fall into this group. When increase
in one enterprise causes a decrease in the other, it means that these are
competitive enterprises. For example: If a farmer has four hectares of land;
and he wants to combine maize and forestry, it means that if he decides to
increase maize enterprise, he must reduce land for the trees.
ii.Supplementary enterprises: These enterprises do not compete for

resources. In fact they at times support each other. One of the enterprises is
the main one while the other is there as just an additional one. For example,
maize grown together with beans. The beans support maize with nitrogen
which it fixes while the maize provide the beans with support. The farmer
does not need to reduce size of maize enterprise in order to introduce or
expand the beans enterprise.
iii.Complementary enterprises: These are enterprises which are combined

specifically to assist one another. The example given above explains a
complementary relationship. Another example can be ducks and fish raised
in a pond. Ducks provide manure to the pond while fish meal can be fed to
the ducks.
Unit Summary
Many farmers diversify enterprises. Farmers have to consider a number of
factors when deciding on the type of enterprises to combine. Some of them are
profitability, farmers’ food requirement, management skill and nature of the
enterprises among many more factors.
The idea behind enterprise combination is to maximise profit.
87
Farmers must therefore understand that there are different types of
enterprises depending on their nature. Some compete for resources, while
others supplement each and there are yet others which complement each
other. Competitive enterprises need a deep thought before they are chosen
because they are associated with opportunity cost. As the other enterprise
increases, the other decreases, thereby foregoing an income.
Glossary
Risk: A bad situation with full information which denotes the difference
between expectation and real outcome.
Uncertainty: A bad situation with less than full information whose outcome
cannot be predicted
Opportunity cost: This is a foregone alternative

i. Define the term complementary enterprise.
ii. Outline factors to consider when choosing an enterprise.
iii. Describe how labour can affect enterprise productivity.
iv. Explain how the factors outlined above affect the choice of an enterprise.
v. Explain the difference between labour supply and labour requirement.
References
i. Barnard C.S, Nix J.S. (2011): Farm Planning and Control, Second Edition,
Cambridge: University Press
ii. Kanjala BM and Kaperemera NT (2002): Strides in Agriculture Book 3,
Blantyre: Longman Malawi (Pty) Ltd
iii. Chard P.G.D (1995): Focus on “O” Level Agriculture Book 4, The College
London: Press (Pvt) Ltd
iv. Ngugi D.N Karau P.K and Nguyo W. (1990): East African Agriculture, A
Textbook for secondary schools, Third Edition. Nairobi Kenya
88
Unit Agricultural
Cooperatives
8
Importance of Agricultural Cooperatives
By choice, individual farmers join agricultural

cooperatives. They have their own goals to achieve.
Individual farmers
What is the importance of agricultural cooperatives?
are often faced
with challenges
Activity 1
ranging from
inadequate Explaining importance of agricultural
capital, difficulties cooperatives
in marketing of
their agricultural Procedure
produce and • Brainstorm the meaning of the term agricultural
access to loans in cooperatives.
order to expand • Discuss with your teacher the meaning of the term
their businesses. agricultural cooperative.
To address this • In groups, Research from your school library and the
problems, farmers internet or from a nearby agricultural cooperative
come together to in your area on the importance of agricultural
form cooperatives. cooperative.
These are • Visiting an agricultural cooperative to observe its
members, who activities.
share common • Report your findings to the whole class.
interests, are • Discuss the importance of agricultural cooperatives
willing to pull with your teacher.
their resources • Your teacher summarise for you the importance of
together and agricultural cooperatives.
derive much
An agricultural cooperative is a group of farmers who
economic benefit
come together on voluntary basis for the purpose
from interests.
of achieving a common goal for mutual economic
This avoids
benefit. In general, agricultural cooperatives are very
middlemen
important to farmers because of the following:
taking advantage
of smallholder
i. Cooperative societies help to reduce marketing costs
farmers who are
for small scale farmers. By collecting small amounts
generally illiterate
of produce from individual farmers and bulking
and do not have a
the produce into larger quantities for processing or
financial muscle.
transport, they lower per unit costs of processing or
89
transportation and enable farmers to benefit from markets which would
otherwise be inaccessible to individual farmers.
ii.Cooperatives also help in the procurement of various inputs farmers need

for the production of crops and livestock products. They pull their resources
together and be able to access large quantities of inputs more cheaply than
would be individually.
iii.They have a stronger price bargaining power. As a group, they form a

strong monopoly and become price makers rather than being price takers
when they operate as individuals.
iv. They are more credit worthy as a cooperative because the group serves
as a security. Most individual farmers do not have collateral for loans. This
makes it difficult for them to access loans needed to expand or increase their
agricultural productivity.
Principles for Formation of Agricultural Cooperatives
An agricultural cooperative is a group of farmers who come together on
voluntary basis for the purpose of achieving a common goal for mutual
economic benefit.
Activity 2
Identifying principles for agricultural cooperative
formation
Procedure
• Visit a nearby agricultural cooperative
• Research on how the agricultural cooperative was formed
• Record your findings
• Present the findings to the class during plenary session
• Discuss the principles for agricultural cooperative formation with your
teacher
• Your teacher will summarise the principles for you
When a group of people have agreed that they form a cooperative, they
abide by the following:
• A cooperative should be legally constituted with guiding rules and

regulations.
• Participation is free, people are free to join or withdraw.
• tCooperatives should be impartial, non-partisan and non-religious.
• The cooperative must be efficiently and effectively organised
• It must be open to all farmers who share a common interest.
90
• The cooperative should have enough capital/funds
• Cooperatives are organised and run according to democratic principles
(one person, one vote)
• A cooperative must continually educate its members to improve their
productivity and marketing skills
• Members managing the funds are skilled, trustworthy and highly
motivated
• All members are committed to the cooperative and its success
• The cooperative should have adequate infrastructure (staff houses, offices,
storage facilities), personnel, transport, equipment and supplies.
• Should join from the local to the national level
• It must follow the legal procedures of forming and registering a

cooperative as follows:
- Minimum number of eligible persons to form a cooperative being ten
- Elect an interim committee
- Draft the cooperative’s rules and by-laws (constitution)
- Articulate the objectives of the cooperative
- Suggest a name for the cooperative.
- Apply for registration to the relevant agricultural authorities.
There are different types of farmer cooperatives depending on the

membership and purpose for its setup. Most commonly they include:
• Farm production cooperatives
• Marketing cooperatives
• Consumer cooperatives
• Savings and credit cooperatives
Farm production cooperatives

They deal with the production of particular crops and livestock keeping.
Members work on the farm as a group. At the end of the production and
marketing, the members share the profit. Farm production cooperatives are
able to exploit the economies of scale through large –scale production.
Marketing cooperatives
They assemble, process, and sell farm produce. Individual farmers carry
out the production and bring their produce together so as to transport and
process as a group. In this way operation costs are reduced. An example
in Malawi is the National Small Holders Farmers Association of Malawi
(NASFAM).
Consumer cooperatives
They deal primarily with farm inputs. They buy inputs in bulk and then sell
91
to members at subsidised prices. They may also offer marketing services to
their members.
Savings and credit cooperatives (SACCO)

They encourage their members to save their earnings and later provide them
with loan facilities. The given loan is always proportional to the savings one
has made but a low interest rate is paid as compared to the commercial banks.
In general, most cooperative societies also offer savings and credit services. In
Malawi, there are many SACCOs registered under Malawi Union of Savings
and Credit Co-operative Organization (MUSCCO), the umbrella body for all
SACCO.
Explain Challenges of Running Agricultural

Cooperatives
Activity 3
Explain Challenges of Running Agricultural Cooperatives
Procedure
1. Brainstorm the challenges of running agricultural cooperatives.
2. Discuss the challenges of running agricultural cooperatives with your
teacher.
3. Your teacher will summarise the challenges of running agricultural
cooperatives.
The challenges are many

i. Lack of loyalty to the cooperative. This occurs when members fail to abide
by their own rules and regulations especially on issues of repayment of
loans. Some members deliberately do not want to pay back loans. This
brings quarrels and divisions within the cooperative
ii.Misuse of funds by executive members. This is a serious issue because

members of the executive need to be trustworthy.
iii. Lack of sound economic base of the cooperative which makes it

impossible for members to obtain loans and other benefits. Members have
very high expectations from the cooperative; as a result of this they lose
confidence when their needs are not met.
iv. Lack of knowledge about the rights and obligations of members. When
members do not have adequate education on their rights and obligations,
they get frustrated when they don’t get what they think are their
entitlements.
92
Solutions to The Challenges Faced in Running
Agricultural Cooperatives
Agricultural cooperatives have a very important role in improving agricultural
production by smallholder farmers in Malawi. Despite the challenges being
faced, there is still need to encourage their existence.
Activity 4
Describing solutions to the challenges faced in running
agricultural cooperatives
Procedure
• In groups of two suggest solutions to the challenges faced in running
agricultural cooperatives
• Present your suggestions to the class
• Discuss the solutions with your teacher
• Your teacher should summarise the solutions to the challenges
For the cooperatives to be successful, it is vital to ensure that challenges are

minimised.
1. Lack of loyalty to the cooperative can be solved through advocacy.Members

must learn to believe that the cooperative is their own and they cannot
afford to see it fail since its failure is their failure. Education about
cooperatives can best solve this problem.
2. Misuse of funds by executive members. This can be checked through

putting in place mechanisms of transparency. Members should be able to
monitor what is going on in the cooperative.
3. Lack of sound economic base can be solved through ensuring that

members meet their subscriptions and high financial prudence by the
executive. Some cooperatives especially those that deal with production
close up because they fail to pay utility bills. This is a good example of lack
of financial prudence which eventually erodes the entire economic base for
the cooperative.
4. Lack of knowledge about the rights and obligations of the members. This
can be solved through orientation. Members must be oriented on their
rights and their roles. Each member must be given a copy of these rights
and obligation so that they can recite when need arises.
Unit Summary
An agricultural cooperative is a group of farmers who come together on voluntary
basis for the purpose of achieving a common goal for mutual economic benefit.
93
They come together to leverage on issues of input procurement, access to loans
and determination of prices for their commodities. Misunderstandings may
arise when management of the cooperative by the executive is compromised
with personal interests. The executive and the general membership should
take the cooperative as a personal organisation so that it can be sustained for
their benefit. Otherwise cooperatives have collapsed and failed to meet their
intended purposes.
Unit Review Exercise

1.Define an ‘agricultural cooperative’.
2.What factors contribute to the success of the cooperative?
3.Outline the benefits farmers get by being a member of an agricultural
cooperative.
4.Name two types of cooperatives.
Reference
1.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative (02/10/2014)
2.http://www.wfo-oma.com/documents/agricultural-cooperatives.htm
(02/10/2014).
3.Ngomwa M. Anthony et.al, (2012) Excel and Succeed Senior Secondary
Agriculture Form 4. Lilongwe Grey matter. Longhorn Publishers.
4.Ngugi D.N., Karau P.K., Nguyo W. (1990) East African Agriculture Third
Edition (1990). Nairobi Macmillan Publishers.
5.Kanjala B.M, Kaperemera N.T (2002) Strides Agriculture Book 4.
Longman Malawi. Thirteenth impression 2011.
94
Unit Vegetative Planting
Materials
9
Listing Vegetative Planting Materials
There are many crops which cannot be raised using

Living things must true seeds. However, these crops must also multiply
multiply in order so that they do not become extinct.
to maintain their
species. In your Activity 1
Biology lessons,
you learnt that Listing Vegetative Planting Materials
living things Procedure
reproduce sexually • Break into your groups.
and asexually. • Brainstorm the various crops which are planted by
Crops, like any using parts of the old plant.
other living thing, • List the names of the vegetative planting materials
reproduce using these plants use for their reproduction.
sexual and asexual • Present your findings to the class during plenary
methods. In sexual
session.
reproduction of
• Discuss the vegetative planting materials with your
crops, true seeds
teacher.
are used to raise
the new offspring.
• Your teacher will consolidate the vegetative planting
However, some materials.
crops are raised
by planting You might have seen that there are many crops which
parts of the old are propagated using parts of the old plant. The table 17
plant. These are below shows crops and the type of vegetative planting
vegetative planting material that is used.
materials. In this
unit, you will
learn about the
vegetative planting
materials which
farmers can use,
names of the parts
of the vegetative
planting materials,
advantages and
disadvantages of
vegetative planting
materials.
95
Table 17
Table 17 showing vegetative planting materials
Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the air plant,

Kalanchoe pinnata.
Figure 9.1 : Examples of air plant
Bryophyllum daigremontianum produces plantlets along the margins of its

leaves. When they are mature enough, they drop off and root in any suitable
soil beneath.
Labeling Parts of Vegetative Planting Materials

The vegetative planting materials must have certain parts to ensure growth.
Not every part of the vegetative plant can grow into a new plant. In this
section, you must identify those parts of a plant which are very important in
the growth of a new plant.
96
Activity 2
Identifying and labeling parts of the vegetative planting
materials
Procedure
• Form groups of at least five members.
• Obtain from your environment as many plants as possible which are
planted by vegetative planting materials.
• Identify the parts of vegetative planting materials which are
important for growth of a new plant.
• Draw the vegetative planting material.
• Label the parts of the vegetative planting material
• Present your findings to the class.
• Discuss your findings with your teacher.
• Your teacher shall summarise the parts of the vegetative planting
materials.
I am sure you carried out a very good research
Figure 9.2
Explaining the advantages of vegetative planting

materials
Did you know that sugarcane produces seeds and yet farmers do not use
them? Instead, they use stems. Have you tried to think about why farmers
do this?
97
Activity 3
Identifying and labeling parts of the vegetative planting
materials
Procedure
• Brainstorm the advantages of vegetative planting materials.
• Discuss these advantages with your teacher.
• Your teacher shall consolidate the advantages of using vegetative
planting materials.
Vegetative planting materials use parts of the old plant. This method
of propagation is called asexual propagation. Advantages of this type of
propagation are:
• The vegetative planting materials are readily available to farmers from the
previous crop. In case they have to be obtained from another supplier, they
are relatively cheap.
• The vegetative planting materials have enough food reserves that can be
used to sustain growth of the new plant. This increases survival rate of the
new plants.
• The method ensures genetic uniformity as such the offspring resembles the
parent plant. This becomes an advantage in situations where the parent
plant was superior in terms of traits such as high yielding, disease and
pest resistance.
• The vegetative planting materials are not subjected to dormancy as is the
case with some seeds such as tomatoes which must be dried first before
they can germinate.
• They provide the only way of propagating crops whose seeds do not
germinate or do not breed true.
• Plants propagated by this method grow faster and mature earlier than
those established using “seeds”. This is because of the large amount of food
reserves the vegetative planting materials have.
Explaining disadvantages of vegetative planting
materials
Activity 4
Explaining the disadvantages of using vegetative
planting materials
Procedure
• Brainstorm the disadvantages of vegetative planting materials.
• Discuss these disadvantages with your teacher.
• Your teacher shall consolidate the disadvantages of using vegetative
planting materials.
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Disadvantages of vegetative planting materials
• They cannot be stored over a very long period as is the case with “seeds”
because they can wilt and eventually die.
• They are usually bulky and therefore difficult to transport over a long
distance
• They need to be handled with care during transportation otherwise the
growing points can easily be destroyed.
• There is a very high risk of transferring diseases from the parent plant to
the new plants.
• It is difficult to introduce variation into the crop. As a result crop improvement
becomes difficult.
Unit Summary
Use of vegetative planting materials has given an opportunity to plants

which do not produce true seeds to multiply as well. Many crops such as
onions, sugarcane, most grass pastures, potatoes, cassava and many more are
propagated in this way. It would have been difficult for them to perpetuate
their species if they did not use vegetative materials for reproduction. It has
been found out that plants propagated in this way have higher chances of
survival than those that use true seeds because of the large quantities of
food reserves they have. However, it is very difficult to introduce superior
variations in these crops.
Glossary
Suckers: These are shoots which arise from the axillary bud at the base of
a parent plant. They can be uprooted and planted elsewhere
Corms: They are enlarged base of an underground stem which stores food
Rhizomes: Thick, horizontal underground stem. They contain buds from
which new shoots and roots grow
Tuber: A stem tuber is an underground swollen portion of the plant which
acts as a food storage organ, such as irish potato
Runners: They are stems that grow horizontally on the ground with
internodes from which new shoots and roots can grow

1. Mention the vegetative planting materials farmers can use for propagation
2. Draw a well labeled diagram of the vegetative planting materials
mentioned in question 1 above.
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of propagating crops by using
vegetative planting materials.
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References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction (03/10/2014)
2. Ngomwa Anthony M., Sigei Peter and Cheuiyot Daniel (2012): Senior
Secondary Agriculture Form 3, Longhorn Publishers
3. Kanjala BM and Kaperemera NT (2002): Strides in Agriculture Book 3,
4. Owen G.H. (1998): O-Level Agriculture, Longman Group Limited
5. Ngugi DN, Karau PK and Nguyo W (1990): East African Agriculture, A
Textbook for secondary schools, Third Edition
100
Unit Cropping Systems
10
Outlining Cropping Systems
Different crops can be arranged on the same piece of
land differently by different farmers depending on their
In unit 7 you needs. You may recall that farmers in the villages can
learnt that grow many crops on the same of piece of land during
farmers raise the same crop growing season. This is an example
different types of a cropping system; but it has a special name. In
of crops and this section, you will list names of different cropping
animals. This
systems which farmers can use on their fields.
was referred to
as enterprise
combination. In Activity 1
this unit you will Outlining cropping systems
learn how crops
can be grown on Procedure
the same piece • Brainstorm the meaning of “cropping system”
of land. The • In your groups, research from your school library
arrangement of or anywhere the different cropping systems which
different crops on exist
the same piece of • Present your findings to the rest of the class
land during the • Discuss your findings with your teacher
same crop growing • Your teacher should consolidate the cropping
season is called systems
cropping system.
Cropping system which are practiced by farmers are:
a. Monoculture.
b. Monocropping.
c. Continuous cropping.
d. Mixed cropping.
e. Crop rotation.
f. Bush fallowing.
g. Shifting cultivation.
h. Organic farming.
i. Agroforestry.
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Analysing Activities Involved in the Cropping Systems
The cropping systems you listed above are significantly different from each
other depending on how they are carried out. This section will look into the
activities which are involved in each cropping system.
Activity 2
Analysing activities in the cropping system
Procedure
• In your groups carry out a book research on activities involved in each
of the cropping systems listed above.
• One member of every group should present your findings to the class
during plenary session.
• Discuss these findings with your teacher.
• Your teacher will help you summarise the activities of each cropping
system.
There are many cropping systems which farmers practice as they grow their
crops. These cropping systems are:
a. Monoculture
Here the farmer grows every crop on its own plot. The farmer can grow many
different crops but they are grown separately on what is called pure stand.
b. Monocropping
In monocropping, a farmer solely grows one crop on the farm and nothing else.
While in monoculture a farmer can grow several crops but on pure stand, here
the famer grows only one crop throughout the whole crop growing season. Tea
estates are a very good example of monoculture; but this can also apply even
to annual crops such as maize, groundnuts, beans and the like as long as the
farmer grows entirely one crop in the crop growing season.
c. Continuous cropping
This is a system of growing crops on a piece of land every year without fallowing
(allowing the land to rest). Most farmers in our villages practice this type of
cropping system because they do not give time for their fields to rest and
regain fertility. This is because most farmers do not have large land holding
for fallowing.
d. Mixed cropping
This means growing different crops on the same plot during the same crop
growing season. Farmers can grow maize together with beans or maize
together with groundnuts planted between the maize stations. The system
maximises land use.
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Fig. 10.1 Example of mixed cropping
Forms of mixed cropping
1.Mixed intercropping
Crops are mixed up together without any pattern in the field. Crops grown
in this way are those that are planted by broadcasting.
2.Row intercropping
Different crops are grown on the
same ridge. Here it can either mean
planting the two or more crops on the
same planting station or planting the
other crop between planting stations
of the main crop. For example, soya
beans can be planted between maize
planting stations.
Fig. 10.2 An example of row
3.Relay intercropping intercropping
The farmer first plants the main crop
on the field. As the main crop is about
to mature another crop is planted
on the same field. The practice is
successful where the rainy season
is longer than required by the first
crop. This is common with maize
and beans. As the maize is about to
mature, the furrows are prepared for
the next crop. The maize leaves are
removed to allow sunlight penetrates
to the second crop. The maize is
then harvested when it dries up
Fig. 10.3 An example of relay
completely.
intercropping
This system is called relay because there is a time when the two crops are
allowed to grow at the same time after which the first one is harvested to
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leave the land to the send crop. Think of how relay race operates! The second
runner starts running but slowly as the first one is approaching.
e. Crop rotation
It is a practice of growing different crops which have significantly different
growing habits and nutrient requirements in an orderly sequence on the same
piece of land every year. In practice, farmers must choose properly the type
of crops to be included in the rotation so that its objective of maintaining soil
fertility and productivity is achieved.
When planning a rotation, there are some guidelines which must be

followed.
• Crops with high nutrient requirement should come first in the newly
cultivated land so that they can take advantage of the high soil fertility
already existing in the field.
• Deep rooted plants should alternate with shallow rooted plants. This ensures
that the deep rooters absorb nutrients from the deep soil horizon and bring
them to the top horizon for the shallow rooters to use.
• Crops that suffer from the same diseases and pests should not follow each
other in order to break their life cycle.
• In trying to control weeds, crops which are difficult to weed for example
wheat (because they are grown too closely) should be followed by those that
are easy to weed.
• At the end of the rotational program, the land should be allowed to rest so
that the soil can rebuild its fertility through control of diseases and pests
and increasing of organic matter.
Table 18
An example of a rotation
Complete the rotational program in the table 18 above so that they follow the
pattern you see in table 19 below?
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Table 19 Crops rotating in a six year rotational program
f. Bush fallowing
To fallow means to rest
without being planted with
a crop. In this cropping
system, a farmer leaves a
piece of land when yield
starts to decline so that it
can regain fertility before
she comes back again.
The land is left bare and
is subject to high risk of Fig.10.4 Land left to generate bush
erosion. In some cases the famer may plant cassava and go away to another
land.
g. Shifting cultivation
This is a cropping system where land is cultivated for several years until
the crop yield starts to decline. The farmer then shifts to start farming on
another land. The practice is best practiced in areas which are scarcely
populated and a lot of land stays idol. This is why it is possible for the
farmers to shift from one land to another.
The land which is left is under fallow. As population increases, land for
shifting cultivation declines, as a result, the farmer may come back to claim
all the plots left behind although not at the same time. Today shifting
cultivation is not practiced in this country because of land scarcity.
h.Organic farming
It is a cropping system where crops are grown using organic inputs such as
manure (organic fertilizer) rather than inorganic inputs like commercial
fertilizers. Pests, diseases and weeds are not controlled by chemicals but
by ecologically friendly methods such as cultural, biological and physical
methods. The aim is to ensure that the environment is not polluted by the
inorganic chemicals that are used to fertilize the soil and to control pests,
diseases and weeds. As a result of this organic farming is also referred to as
eco-farming (ecological farming) or biological farming.
105
i.Agroforestry
This is a cropping system in which agronomic crops are grown in association
with forest trees. The trees are planted in such a way that they leave a
sizeable strip of land where the agronomic crops are grown. They are best
planted in east-west direction so that sunlight can still reach the field crops.
Most common trees which are incorporated in agroforestry are leguminous
trees used as livestock feeds such as Leucaena, Sesbania sesban (locally
known as jerejere).
Forms of agroforestry
1. Agrosilviculture
What does “agro” mean? What about ”silviculture”?
The word agrosilviculture is made up of two words – “agro” which means
field crops, while “silviculture”
means growing trees and
shrubs. Agrosilviculture is
the practice of growing of
field crops and trees, shrubs
together on the same piece of
land. It involves planting rows
of field crops to be followed
by rows of trees. The spacing
of the rows should be large Fig.10.5. Field crops and trees
enough to allow the crops access the sunlight.
2. Silvopastoral
Trees are grown in association with pasture. The word is derived from
silviculture and pastoral. Pastoral means rearing animals. Farmers can
grow forest trees or fruit trees together with the pasture. What it is required
is that the trees should give
sufficient space for the pasture
to receive sunlight. 8 – 20
meters space for trees before
the next strip of pasture can be
enough
3. Agrosilvopastoral
Agronomic crops, pasture and
trees or shrubs are grown
together.
Fig.10.7.
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Activity 3
Explaining advantages of each cropping system
Procedure
• Form nine groups.
• Each group should choose a leader to serve as a host.
• Each group should have a flip chart on which to write the advantages
• With the use of eatery method, explain advantages of the cropping
systems.
• Record all the advantages raised by the customers on the flip chart.
• The host should present the advantages to the rest of the class during
a plenary session.
• Discuss these advantages with your teacher.
• Your teacher shall summarise the advantages of each cropping system.
Explaining the advantages of each cropping system
As you have already noticed the different activities involved in the different
cropping system, I hope that you have already noted some positive
contributions of each cropping system.
In your activity, I am sure that you came up with the following advantages
a. Monoculture
•It is easy to determine the right quantities of inputs such as fertilizer,
pesticides and herbicides because they all land on the intended plant.
•Possible competition for crop growing resources such as sunlight, nutrients
and water is reduced.
•It is easy to mechanise operations in the field. For example planting,
weeding and harvesting can easily be done in crops which are planted on
pure stand.
b. Monocropping
•It reduces the cost of start-up capital because the farmer invests in one crop
only.
•The farmers specialise in the management of the crop; and as a result, it
becomes very easy to perform the operations with precision.
•As a result of the farmer’s specialisation, crop productivity increases. The
farmer knows what to do and when because s/he has grown the crop several
times before.
•The farmer makes a lot of profit since s/he enjoys economy of scale because
monocropping is usually associated with large scale farming.
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•It is easy to mechanise farm operations because the farmer grows one crop
only which needs its special type of machinery.
•Since the land is not given time to rest, there is maximum land utilisation
and the entire land contributes to economic returns for the farmer. There is
no land which remains idle.
•With proper crop management, the system contributes to the farmer
maximum returns in terms of money and or food because the whole land is
put into use.
d. Mixed cropping
•It insures against total failure through diversification since not all the crops
are going to succumb to adverse weather conditions or poor prices equally.
•Where legumes are included the system increases soil fertility through
nitrogen fixation by the legume.
•There is high total yield per unit area of land. The sum of the two or more
crops gives a higher total yield than when one crop is grown on pure stand.
•The mixture of different crops on the same land increases plant population
which in turn covers up the whole field and controls soil erosion.
•A farmer is self-sufficient in food because he can grow all the food crops
needed by his household.
•It is possible for farmers with small land holdings to grow a wide variety of
crops from the same piece of land.
•It helps to control pests and diseases because some of the crops serve as
trap crops, meaning instead of the disease or pest to attack crop “A” the pest
attacks the other crop.
e. Crop rotation
•It improves soil fertility. This occurs when legumes are included in the
rotational program. The legumes fix nitrogen into the soil which can be used
by itself and the non-legume growing in association with each other.
•There is maximum utilisation of nutrients in the soil when deep rooters are
rotated with deep rooted crops. The shallow rooted crop extracts nutrients
from the top soil horizon. In the process some of the nutrients may leach
down. When a deep rooted crop comes in, it will use the nutrients which
leached.
•It controls pests and diseases. There are some pests such as nematodes
(eelworms) which attack tobacco, cabbage. These are best controlled by
rotation because the practice replaces the susceptible (favourable) host
(tobacco/cabbage) for the nematode with a non-susceptible host.
•It controls weeds. This is done like this:

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- When crops which are difficult to weed are replaced by crops which are
easy to weed. Weed build up in the field is reduced
- Witch weed, a parasitic weed to plants of the grass family, can be controlled
if crops of the grass family are replaced by crops from a different family.
In so doing, this parasitic weed has no host from which to survive.
•Since crop rotation involves growing of many crops, it ensures maximum

utilisation of labour during the growing season. As a result, possible trough
months which are characterised by less work on the field can easily be dealt
with.
f. Bush fallowing
It helps to control soil erosion. During the resting period, the field is
covered by natural vegetation. This vegetation protects the soil from all
agents of soil erosion. The practice may also help to maintain or even
improve soil fertility. When the vegetation which grows during the resting
period dries up, it gets incorporated into soil to form humus. It is also
cheap because generally, it does not require a lot of capital investment.
The farmer leaves the land under fallow because the land has lost fertility
and it is difficult for him to buy fertilizer.
It is cheap because it does not require use of inorganic fertilizers. Weeds
and pests are controlled during land clearing. At this time the cleared
plant residures are set on fire which in the process kills the pests and
weeds as well.
h. Organic farming
It is cheap because farmers do not have to buy fertilizers and pesticides.
Water pollution by chemicals such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides
used in agriculture is controlled. The ecosystem is not also disturbed. The
use of chemicals usually kills even beneficial organisms such as nitrogen
fixers, pollinating insects, earthworms and the like which makes the world
good enough to live in. The use of manure improves soil structure which in
turn improves water and air circulation in the soil.
i. Agroforestry
The farmer has a large source of income base. Apart from the agronomic
crops, the farmer can also sell tree products like poles, fuel wood, timber. The
farmer maximises the use of land resource. Since trees are generally deep
rooted, they get their nutrients from the deep horizon and bring them to the
surface as their leaves fall and decompose. Where legume trees are used, the
system improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation by the legumes
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•The trees help to control soil erosion. Their roots open up the soil and increase
water infiltration rate while at the same time their foliage intercepts rain
drops before falling to the ground. In turn, they help to conserve water in the
soil since apart from increasing water infiltration rate, water loss through
evaporation is reduced.
•The trees protect the crops from strong wind.
•Legume trees such as Leucaena and Sesbania sesban are a good animal
feed.
Explaining Disadvantages of the Different Cropping

Systems
Activity 4
Explaining disadvantages of different cropping systems
Procedure
• Each group should choose a leader to serve as a host.
• Each group should have a flip chart on which to write the advantages.
• With the use of eatery method, explain disadvantages of the cropping
systems.
• Record all the disadvantages raised by the customers on the flip chart.
• The host should present the disadvantages to the rest of the class
during a plenary session.
• Discuss these disadvantages with your teacher.
• Your teacher shall summarise the disadvantages of each cropping
system.
You were correct if you came up with the following disadvantages of the
various cropping systems. Compare them with the following disadvantages:
a. Monoculture
•There is less total yield per unit area as compared with mixed cropping
although individually a crop produces a much higher yield when grown on
pure stand than in a mixed stand.
•Pests and diseases can spread more rapidly because there are no trap
plants in the field which help to trap the diseases as is the case in mixed
stand.
b. Monocropping
•The farmer faces a high build-up of pests and diseases in the field because
the susceptible host for the pests and diseases are always available in
the field. The farmer must make heavy investment in disease and pest
110
management in order to succeed the fight against them.
•There is much higher risk of total loss in times of crop failure or low
market prices than in (monoculture, crop rotation, mixed cropping and
agroforestry) because the farmer grows one crop in a whole crop growing
season.
•If the farmer grows a non-cover crop, the soil is subject to high risk of soil
erosion.
•There is rapid exhaustion of land because the crop uses nutrients from the
same soil horizon.
•There is high risk of soil exhaustion as the crop exploits the same soil horizon
and the soil is not given time to rest and rebuild its organic matter content
•High build-up of pests and diseases in the field since the favourable host is
available all the time.
•Since the soil loses much of its organic matter because it is not given time to
rest, soil structure is destroyed.
d. Mixed cropping
•It is difficult to determine right quantities of inputs such as fertilizer and
pesticides. The farmer either ends up applying more than required or less
than required.
•It is difficult to mechanise operations on the farm because every crop may
require its own machine specifications.
•The farmer requires to have a wide range of skills and knowledge for the
various crops that are grown on the farm.
•There is need for high start-up capital because every crop may need its own
capital investment.
•There is always low yield per unit area because the crops compete for growing
resources such as water, nutrients and sunlight.
e. Crop rotation
•It requires a large land holding to carter for all the crops that are included
in the rotational program.
•It requires high capital investment on capital inputs for the various crops
under the rotation.
•It may not be practical where the farmer intends to use much of the land for
his/her most preferred crop because she may end up using the largest piece
of land on a less profitable crop.
•Where the rotation is not well planned, it may result in low profitability if
some of the crops included in the rotation are of low value or low demand.
111
f. Bush fallowing
•As the land becomes exhausted, the farmer realises low crop yield
•It cannot be practiced where there is limited land supply because the
farmer would not have anywhere to go when the land becomes exhausted
•The farmer does not put long term investment in land management; and as a
result the land may be subject to erosion even at the time the land is under use.
•Since land clearing is usually done by fire, it destroys beneficial soil
organisms, organic matter and the some volatile nutrients such as nitrogen
escapes into the air.
•It is not possible in areas where there is high human population and people
scramble for land.
•Farmers usually realise low yields from the fields.
•It exposes land to erosion because vast pieces of land are cleared.
h. Organic farming
•Organic inputs are usually slower than the inorganic inputs.
•In case of organic fertilizers, they may not always be readily available for
large farms.
i. Agroforestry
•Agronomic crops may not produce high yield because of shading from the
trees.
•It cannot be practiced where land is scarce to carter for both trees and the
field crops.
•There is high labour demand as the trees may need regular pruning to ensure
that there is limited shade in the field of crops.
Describing Cropping Systems which can Promote Crop

Yields
Farmers use these different cropping systems because of different reasons.
However, some of them promote crop yields while others do not. In this
section you will choose and describe the cropping systems which can promote
crop yields.
Activity 5
Describing those cropping systems which can promote
crop yield
Procedure
• Evaluate each cropping system.
• Choose the cropping systems which can promote crop yields.
112
• One member from your group should present your findings to the whole
class.
• Discuss these findings with your teacher.
• Your teacher will consolidate the cropping systems which can promote
crop yield.
It is becoming evident that Malawi should do everything possible to raise crop

productivity so that she can feed itself as well provide enough agricultural
raw materials to ensure that agro-industries should flourish and create jobs
for the growing population. Although we have so many cropping systems, very
few of them can help to promote crop yield.
In the meantime, Malawi emphasise the need to produce enough for

consumption. As a result, our local farmers are encouraged to diversify
production to meet this need. However, Malawi needs to put an extra gear
to promote crop production for export. A careful analysis of what countries
in the developed world are doing now is that farmers have specialised in
specific crops so that they can develop sufficient skills to promote crop
yield. The only cropping system which has achieved this is monocropping.
However, monoculture coupled with crop rotation and organic farming are
also playing a significant role.
1. Monocropping
Monocropping is the agricultural practice of growing a single crop year after
year on the same land. It is economically a very efficient system, allowing
for specialisation in equipment and crop production techniques because the
operations are carried out by the farmer repeatedly year after year. This is
turn increases crop yield. Farmers must choose an enterprise they are highly
conversant with and whose capital resources they can afford. They should also
adopt the principle of comparative advantage, otherwise the system can flop.
The system has challenges. Monocropping can damage the soil ecology
(including depletion or reduction in diversity of soil nutrients) and provide
uncushioned advantage for parasitic species, and increasing crop vulnerability
to opportunistic insects, plants, and microorganisms. The concentrated
presence of a single cultivar, genetically adapted with a single resistance
strategy, presents a situation in which an entire crop can be wiped out very
quickly by a single opportunistic species. An example of this would be the
potato famine of Ireland in 1845–1849, and according to Devlin Kuyek, it is
the main cause of the current food crisis with monoculture rice crops failing
as the effects of climate change become more acute.
The success of the system is a highly increased dependency on pesticides and

113
artificial fertilizers.
Monocropping increases crop production because crops grow independently.
As a result:
a. It is easy to determine right quantities of inputs such as fertilizer,

pesticides
b. It easy to mechanize operations which makes it easy for farmers to finish
operations in time but at the same time cultivate large farm holdings from
which they can produce highly
c. Crops do not compete for growing resources such as space, nutrients,
water, light etc. the result of which is high yield
However, monocropping requires heavy chemical fertilizer application and
proper pest and disease management in order to sustain high yield.
2. Monoculture
Monoculture is almost similar to Monocropping in that crops are grown in pure
stand the only difference is that in this system farmers grow a wide variety of
crops in those pure stands. Because of this diversification, farmers are more
secured than in Monocropping. In case of crop failure due to unfavorable
environmental conditions, farmers can still survive on the other crops since
not all the crops can be affected in the same way.
The system can encourage crop rotation which can help to enrich the soil and
control crop diseases. Monoculture can maximise land utilisation in such a
way that if the land consists of swampy soil, this can be used for paddy rice
production; if there is a hilly land, it can be used for silviculture and so on. The
sum of all these enterprises increases very tremendously the amount of crop
production by farmers.
3. Organic Farming
Locally available inputs are used for crop production. These are organic
manure, cultural methods of controlling weeds, pests and diseases. What this
cropping system implies is that farmers do not need high capital investment
in order to produce. Everyone interested to grow crops can and the yield is
equally high. Since the largest proportion of farmers in Malawi is those that
cannot afford inputs, this system therefore brings everyone on board and
make those landholdings which are presently failing to produce due to lack of
inputs become productive.
Unit Summary
A wide variety of cropping systems are practiced in Malawi. The most common
ones are mixed cropping, crop rotation, monocropping and monoculture.
To lesser extent some farmers practice agroforestry and organic farming.
114
Shifting cultivation and bush fallowing systems are becoming extinct because
of land shortage. Farmers choose a cropping system they find most suitable
for them. Each farming system has its own merits and demerits. Farmers
need to be advised as to which cropping systems can promote crop yield to
sustain Malawi’s ever growing population.
Review Questions
1. List the cropping systems which farmers can adopt when growing crops.
2. Analyse activities involved in any five cropping systems of your choice.
3. Explain why farmers these days are adopting organic farming.
4. Discuss the challenges associated with Monocropping.
5. In your own words analyse the best cropping system you can recommend
to farmers as the best in increasing crop yield.
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cropping_system (02/10/2014).
2. https://extension.cropsci.illinois.edu/handbook/pdfs/chapter05.pdf
(02/10/2014).
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocropping 02(10/2014).
4. www.fao.org/ag/ca/.../06CROP1.PDF (03/10/2014).
5. Ngomwa A.M., Sigei P. and Cheuiyot D (2012): Senior Secondary

Agriculture Form 3, Longhorn Publishers. Nairobi
6. Kanjala B.M and Kaperemera N.T. (2002): Strides in Agriculture Book 3,

Longman Blantyre: Malawi (Pty) Ltd.
7. Owen G.H. (1998): O-Level Agriculture, Longman: Longman Group

Limited.
8. Ngugi D.N, Karau P.K and Nguyo W. (1990): East African Agriculture,
A Textbook for secondary schools, Third Edition. Nairobi: Macmillan
Education
115
116
Unit Mushroom
Productions
11
Describing mushrooms
I am sure that you have ever seen mushrooms locally
growing in your area. In this lesson you will learn more
Since time about parts of a mushroom.
in memorial
mushrooms have Activity 1
been growing
wildly in the bush. Describing mushrooms
For many years,
Procedure
the Malawi Nation
• Brainstorm the parts of a mushroom.
has depended on
naturally growing
• How many types of mushrooms do you know?
mushrooms, • Visit your environment and identify species of local
collected from the mushrooms.
forests and gardens • Be careful because some wild mushrooms are
only during the highly toxic.
rainy season • Draw a well labeled diagram of a mushroom.
and sometimes • Discuss the parts with your teacher.
in localised • Your teacher will consolidate the parts of the
areas. Wrong mushroom.
identification
of mushrooms Mushrooms are fungi, and a member of the
has resulted in basidiomycetes. Mushroom is a tightly interwoven
poisoning hence mass of hyphae. It forms from the fusion of hyphae
the need to have from two different mating hyphae from two different
cultivated strains mating types. Haploid spores are produced on
that are known the hyphae lining the gills of the mushroom. A
and are safe for mushroom may produce millions of spores.
consumption. As a
result, mushrooms
Mushrooms are distinguished by their possession of
have now become
club-shaped reproductive structures called basidia.
a very important
crop.
Many fungi reproduce asexually; most important
method of asexual reproduction is the production of
spores. It is composed of a hyphae, as are all fungi.
There is an extensive mass of hyphae in the soil.
The above-ground portion, or fruiting body, of many
mushrooms is only a small part of the total plant.
Many of the largest and most conspicuous fungi- puff
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balls, mushrooms, toadstools are bracket fungi. Typically, the life cycle of a
fungus involves a haploid and a diploid stage. The diploid stage is usually
very short.
Fig.11.2. Parts of fungus

Fig.11.1. Parts of Mushroom
Discussing parts of a mushroom

• Spores
• Basidium
• Nucleus
• Cross wall
• Hyphae
• Micorrhizae
Identifying Cultivated Species of Mushrooms
The wild mushrooms you obtained from your local environment just grow
wildly on their own. Due to high demand for mushrooms, efforts have been
made to start cultivating mushrooms so that they can become available all
year round.
Activity 2
Identifying cultivated species of mushrooms
Procedure
• Visit a nearby mushroom farm.
• Identify mushroom species being cultivated at the farm.
• Form small groups.
• Using your school library or internet, research on different mushroom
species that are cultivated.
• List the cultivated mushroom species.
• Choose the suitable mushroom species for your area.
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• Present your findings to the rest of the class during plenary session.
• Discuss these species with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the species of mushrooms.
Two types of mushrooms are grown in Malawi. They are Oyster and Bottom
mushrooms.
(a) Oyster Mushrooms
Oyster mushroom
(Pleurotus spp) is a
relatively new type of
mushroom in Malawi and
is picking up very well.
It is very versatile and
relatively easy to grow
than button mushrooms
because of its low input
requirement and nature.
Yield levels are very
elastic, varying from one
substrate to another.
The biological efficacy
ranges from as low Fig.11.3. Oyster Mushrooms
as 20% to as high as
10%. Different species of Pleurotus spp are suited for growing within the
temperature ranges of 150`C – 300`C. Pleurotus spp. can be grown on most
lignocellulotic agricultural and forestry waste. Most of the substrates
require pasteurisation to give economic yields.
Pleurotus sajor caju, which is highly adaptive, prefers temperatures of

between 220`C and 240`C, while Pleurotus ostreatus produces very well at
120`C – 200`C
b) Button mushroom
Two varieties are recommended
i. TNS 1 which requires a cropping temperature of 160`C – 200`C. It is white

in colour and has a potential yield of 15 kg per square meter.
ii. TNS 2 requires a cropping temperature of 180`C – 220`C. It is bigger than

TNS 1. It is white in colour and is scaly with a potential yield of 15kg per
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square meter. These temperatures are
prevalent between March and July in
most parts of the country. Mushrooms
therefore can be best grown during these
months.
Mushroom picked from the forest are not
easy to identify if they are poisonous or
not. Go to the forest and identify edible
and uneatable mushrooms.
Fig. 11.4 Button mushroom variety
Explaining the Importance of Mushroom Production

You have seen that people in your area eat mushrooms and that they are a
popular meal during the rainy season. In this section you should research
deeper the importance mushrooms.
Activity 3
Explaining the importance of mushroom production
Procedure
• Brainstorm the importance of mushrooms in your groups
• Present your findings to the rest of the class during plenary session
• Discuss your findings with your teacher
• Your teacher will consolidate the importance of mushrooms
Mushrooms are an important crop in several ways. Most important of all are
as follows:
1. They are a source of food, providing proteins, vitamins and minerals
which are vital for good health.
2. They are also a good source of income to growers.
3. They are a source of foreign exchange.
4. Mushroom production can assist in diversification and provides a better
way of utilising crop, forestry and animal wastes. Mushrooms do not
require a large piece of land for cultivation. Production can be done at a
time when most agricultural activities have ended. Mushrooms can be
grown throughout the year in cool areas but during cool months in warm
areas.
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Listing the Husbandry Practices for Mushroom
Production
From what you have learnt so far about mushroom production, you are
slowly becoming mushroom experts. I now want you to list the husbandry
practices for mushroom production.
Activity 4
Listing husbandry practices for mushroom production
Procedure
• Using the chalk board one member of each group should in turn go to
the board and list one husbandry practice for mushroom production.
• Make sure that no group repeats what the other group has already
listed.
• Discuss the husbandry practices with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the husbandry practices for mushroom
production.
Congratulations for your effort. The husbandry practices for mushroom

production are listed below.
1. Selection of species.
2. Site selection.
3. Construction of incubation and production shade.
4. Substrate preparation.
5. Spawn source – it can be bought or prepared at the farm.
6. Substrate treatment.
7. Mushroom seeding.
8. Mushroom fruiting management.
9. Harvesting.
Describing a Suitable Site for Mushroom Production
You may recall in your Junior Certificate Agriculture that vegetable growing
needs a special site for successful production. Production site for mushrooms
has a direct impact on survival and productivity of mushrooms. As a result,
farmers need to think seriously about site selection to avoid losses.
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Activity 5
Describing a suitable site for mushroom production
Procedure
• Brainstorm the qualities of a suitable site for mushroom production.
• Visit a nearby site for mushroom production.
• Report your findings to the class during plenary session.
• Discuss the qualities of a suitable site for mushroom production with
your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the qualities of a suitable site for
mushroom production.
Cultivated mushrooms are grown in a house. The house provides conditions

favourable for the growth of mushrooms. The important conditions include
humidity, temperature, ventilation and moisture.
The house should be free from any obstruction and be oriented in such a way
that ventilators and doors face in the direction of the wind to allow free air
movement. The house should be constructed away from livestock kraals,
rubbish pits and latrines to avoid attraction of flies to the mushroom house.
Describing How to Construct Incubation and Production
Sheds for Mushroom Production
Cultivated mushrooms are grown in a house. The house provides conditions
favourable for the growth of mushrooms. The important conditions include
humidity, temperature, ventilation and moisture.
Activity 6
Describing how to construct incubation and production
sheds for mushroom production
Procedure
• Brainstorm suitable materials for constructing an incubation and
production sheds for mushroom production.
• List them down in your notebooks.
• Assemble the suitable materials.
• Your teacher will demonstrate how to construct the incubation and
production shed for mushroom production.
• Construct the mushroom incubation and production shed.
Materials used for constructing the mushroom incubation and

production shed:
a. Poles
b. Heavy (500 or 600) gauge plastic sheet
c. Grass
d. Bamboos
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e. timber
f. Nails
g. Wire or plastic gauze
Constructing the incubation and production shed

The house should satisfy the following conditions:
i. Sitting
The house should be free from any obstruction and be oriented in such a way
that ventilators and doors face in the direction of the wind to allow free air
movement. The house should be constructed away from livestock kraals,
rubbish pits and latrines to avoid attraction of flies to the mushroom house.
ii. Frame work

The mushroom house should have a wooden framework covered with a
heavy gauge plastic sheet for controlling humidity and outer grass thatch
for insulation. Requirements for construction of a mushroom house include
wooden poles, 500 or 600 gauge plastic sheets, bamboos, timber nails,
thatching grass and wire or plastic gauze.
iii. Dimensions
Suitable houses for growing mushrooms have dimensions of 5m x 3m x
2m for smaller houses, and 7m x 5m x 3m for larger ones. Mushrooms are
grown on shelves inside the house. These shelves can be as long as the house
itself or slightly less. The width of the shelves range from 0.5 m to 1.0 m,
depending on the sizes of fruiting bags.
Explaining Substrate for Mushroom Production

Mushroom grows in very special medium. This is prepared in advance before
seedling.
Activity 7
Explaining substrate for mushroom production
Procedure
• Brainstorm the meaning of the term substrate in mushroom
production.
• Identify materials suitable for substrate preparation
• Collect materials for substrate preparation
• Your teacher will demonstrate how to prepare the substrate
• Prepare the substrate for mushroom production
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A substrate is a special material which is organic in nature prepared for the
purpose of planting mushroom. It is prepared from maize stover or rice straw.
Other ingredients include molasses, fertilizers (sulphate of ammonia, single
superphosphate) lime, chicken manure, soya and bean powder.
Procedure
Substrate preparation involves two phases of composting. This is a process
whereby organic materials are connected into a satisfactory and stable medium
for the growth of mushrooms. The recommended quantities of ingredients
based on one tone (1,000kg) of well dried cut maize stover or rice straw are as
follows:
• 20kg Sulphate of Ammonia.
Table 20: Procedure for phase 1 composting

• 20 kg Soya bean powder or cotton seed cake.
• 20kg whitewash lime.
• 20kg molasses.
• 30kg of single superphosphate.
• 30kg of rice bran.
• 150 kg of chicken manure.
• 10kg of calcitic lime.
There are 2 composting phases; the first phase is out door while the second
is indoor.
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Table 21
Preparation of different materials as substrates for oyster

mushroom
Can you guess what happens outdoor and indoor? Brainstorm with your
friend.
i) Phase1
This is also known as outdoor composting because the activity is done
outside the house under shed. This phase involves wetting and mixing of the
compost ingredients. The first step is to cut the straw or stover into pieces of
3 to 4 cm in length. Thirty kilogrammes of dry cut stover or straw is enough
to fill one square metre of bed. The outside composting takes about 16 days.
A summary of activities on a daily basis is presented in Table 20
ii) Phase 2
This composting takes place inside the mushroom house. The main objective
is to pateurise and condition the compost. Pasteurisation is accomplished by
introducing live steam generated from a broiler outside the house through
metal pipes into the mushroom house. This phase lasts 12 to 14 days and is
a continuation of phase 1, as seen in Table 21 Below
The higher the nutrient content the substrate has, the higher the yield but
also less selective it is. This also influences the handling of the substrate at
pasteurisation and spawning stages.
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i. Maize stalks or rice
straw and banana
leaves
Pre-wet the chopped maize
stalks or rice/wheat straw or
banana leaves and incubate
them on a cemented platform
or on a plastic sheet overnight.
Optionally, after soaking
overnight and draining, they
can be supplemented with
Figure 11.5: Growing oyster mushrooms in
rice/wheat, water hyacinth and
plastic bags inside a mushroom growing house in
calcite lime. Supplementation Zimbabwe. Photo Credit: Practical Action
significantly improves the yield. / Warwick Franklin.
ii. Cotton wastes

The cotton waste is soaked or wetted for a few hours in water to which detergent
has been added as a softener and disinfectant. The water is squeezed out
and the cotton waste loosened. It can either be pasteurised or unpasteurised.
Supplementation with lime (CaC03 ) and other materials can be done to
improve pH and aeration.
iii. Saw dust from hardwood

Saw dust for the production of oyster mushroom should be that from
hardwood or broadleaved trees. This is wetted and incubated overnight with
supplements added and then pasteurised. Sometimes it can be allowed to
ferment for a few days before pasteurisation.
iv. Corncobs
Corncobs should be shredded into 1-2 cm pieces. The cobs can be moisturised
and incubated for 1-2 days and then pasteurised. Supplements including
calcite lime are normally added before pasteurisation. Sometimes the
immersion-in-hot-water method is employed with use of corncobs. This is
done to leach the readily available nutrients in order to reduce the risks of
contamination.
v. Maize stalks, maize stalks + maize husks (makoko) and

cotton waste.
The maize stalks and husks should be shredded and these are suitable
substrate for oyster mushroom cultivation. These are cheaper means of
producing planting spawn as well as improving yields for oyster mushroom.
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Treating Substrate for Mushroom Production
The substrate must first of all be sterilised before seeding. This ensures
successful establishment of the mushroom. In this section, you will learn
different ways of treating the substrate used for mushroom production.
Activity 8
Treating the substrate
Procedure
• Visit a nearby mushroom farm.
• Research the different ways that are used for treating the substrate.
• Report your findings to the class.
• Discuss the ways with your teacher.
• The teacher will summarise the ways of treating the substrate.
• Your teacher will demonstrate how to treat the substrate.
• Treat the substrate.
(a) After the substrate preparatory stage for the different substrates, the
substrates are packed into a home-made sterilizer which can be made
from an open drum with a platform with holes. After loading, it is tightly
covered with a plastic sheet or sealable cover with an opening. This is a
semi-bulk pasteurisation but where auto-clavable bags are used, pack
them into the wire mesh
basket and then put the basket
into the sterilisation unit.
(b) Pasteurise for 1 hour and
then empty the pasteurised
substrate onto a plastic sheet
for it to cool down to about 400C.
In cases where the hot water
immersion is used, immerse the
substrate for 30 – 40 minutes.
Fig.11.6. Spraying the

mushrooms to keep them wet.
Photo credit: Practical
Action Southern Africa
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Explaining How to Seed the Substrate for mushroom
production
After the substrate has been sterilised, it is now ready for seeding. Have you
ever observed how the process is done? Let us do this activity.
Activity 9
Seeding the substrate for mushroom production
Procedure
• Visit the nearby mushroom production farm
• Find out from the farmer all the details about seeding the substrate
• Record in your note books what you learn from the farmer
• Report your findings to the class
• Your teacher summarises the procedures involved in seeding the
substrate
• Your teacher will demonstrate how to seed the substrate
• It is now your turn to seed the substrate
The procedure for seeding the substrate is explained below:

i. Pack the substrate into bags while adding planting spawn and then tie
the mouth of the bags. This should be done in an enclosed place or where
there is no air current.
ii. Incubate the spawned bags in the dark or alternatively cover with a
plastic sheet until the bags are fully colonised. It normally takes about 14
- 40 days at 240`C for full colonisation to take place. This period depends
on the size of the bags and spawning rate.
iii. When the bags are fully colonised transfer them into the fruiting house.
The fruiting house should provide enough light for the mushroom to start
forming. Light, which would enable one to read a new paper when inside the
mushroom house, is just enough. The bags should be opened after exposure
to light for one day. If tray fruiting is used, open one end facing the passage.
For the hanging method, tie them onto the racks and make a few long slits
on the bags using a clean sharp knife or clean razor blade.
iv. Maintain the temperature at about 180oC - 250oC and the relative
humidity at 80% - 90%. The air freshness in the mushroom house also needs
to be maintained at this stage. Relative humidity is maintained by applying
water several times a day on the floors and walls and the air freshness by
routine opening of the vents. Insufficient fresh air (too much carbon dioxide)
leads to failure to fruiting and or development of deformed fruits.
The planting of mushroom seeds is called spawning. It should be done when

the moisture content of the compost is about 70%. This is when a handful of
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compost is squeezed in the hands 4 to 6 drops of water should come out. Ensure
that there is no ammonia odour in the house and the compost temperature
is about 250oC. The recommended spawning rate is 400 ml per square metre.
The actual spawning is done by broadcasting three quarters of the required

spawn quantity onto the compost and mixing it thoroughly with the compost
right down to the bottom.The remaining one quarter is broadcast on top
and incorporated into the remaining very top layer of the compost (about 1
cm deep). Doors and ventilators should be closed from spawning day to 3
days after spawning. From day 4 introduce ventilation once in the morning
and evening for 30 minutes at each time. Colonisation of the compost by the
mushroom fungus takes 12 to 14 days after spawning.
Casing
Casing is the addition of moist pasteurised soil onto the compost. Casing soil
must be clay loam sub soil, low in organic matter content and must have a pH
of 7.0 to 7.5. Normally casing soil is obtained after removal of 10 to 13 cm of
the top soil layer. Casing soil is pasteurised by steaming at 70 to 800`C for 15
minutes.
Casing is done at end of about 14 days when the compost is completely colonised
by white mycelia. Casing soil stimulates and promotes the formation of fruiting
bodies and retains needed moisture for mushroom growth. The casing soil is
put on top of the compost to a thickness of 3 to 4 cm. About 30 liters of soil will
be required per square metre. From casing to formation of fruiting bodies, the
casing should be moist at all times and the temperatures should be between
16 and 220C. Mushroom pinheads start forming from day 16 after casing.
Describing Management of Mushroom Fruiting
It is very important to monitor the mushrooms very closely when fruiting
starts so that any unusual occurrence happens, the farmer can take remedial
steps. Let us carryout an activity on management of mushroom fruiting.
Activity 10
Describing management of mushroom fruiting
Procedure
• Visit a nearby mushroom garden
• Research on the management practices of mushroom fruiting
• Record in your notebooks whatever you learn from the your visit
• A selected number of you should present to the whole class about your
findings
• Discuss the management principles with your teacher
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• The teacher will demonstrate the management principles of mushroom
fruiting
• You will thereafter take part in the management of the mushroom
fruiting
In management of mushroom fruiting, farmers must look into the following

areas:
i. Spawn running
ii. Colour change
iii. Hanging in production sheds
iv. Watering
If the substrate in the plastic bags is green or pink in any part and only partly
showing signs of white mycelium growth then the ambient temperature may
be too high. This may result in competitor moulds growing in place of the
desired mushroom crop. If the mycelium has not grown to any extent but
there are no signs of growth by other moulds then the temperature may be
too low.
If the mycelium has not grown in the bottom of the bag then this indicates
that the substrate is too wet. This can happen if the bag has not been drained
properly after the fermentation stage so that water remains trapped at the
bottom.
If the mushrooms are wrinkled and brown at the edges then it has been too
dry during growing and more moisture should have been provided during
the growing stage. They need to be sprayed with water on a regular basis.
Disease and Pest Control

•Mushrooms are fungi; do you think they are attacked by pests or diseases?
Talk to your partner about this.
You were right if your answer was affirmative. Among the pests and
diseases that attack mushrooms are discussed below.
Diseases
Cladobobotryum spp (Cobweb moulds)
This is usually due to too little air movement, high relative humidity and
relatively high temperatures in the mushroom house. This fungus parasitises
the mushroom mycelium and has a tendency of spreading very fast. In the
mushroom house you observe cobweb-like structures growing rapidly from
dead stumps or dead primodium, forming a veil which spreads rapidly. Spread
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is through aerial hyphae, pickers and insects. The fungus colour, with time
changes to yellowish-pink. Control is by removal of stumps and dead mushroom
regularly from the beds or bags at the end of picking. One can also spray a 0.55
formaldehyde-solution on the spots where the cobweb occurs or use of fungicides
like Benomyl, Carbendazim or Thiofanatemethyl in severe cases between flushes.
Penicillium spp
Few penicillium species cause trouble in mushroom growing. If they occur, it
is usually a sign of improper substrate pasteurisation or unsterile conditions
during spawning of sterilised substrate. This fungus typically produces a large
number of spores, which look like smoke when contaminated compost is touched.
The mycelium is white at first, and later it turns brown, infections can reduce
yields by up to 80%. Effective control is achieved through observation of hygienic
conditions during spawning and the immediate removal of infected substrate.
Trichoderma spp (Green moulds)

This comprises a group of very common green moulds that is often encountered
in mushroom cultivation. The spores are sticky and can easily be carried by
flies, mites and picker’s hands to uninfected areas. Trichoderma spp can be
found as spots on dead mushrooms, stumps and both pasteurised and sterilised
substrate, as well as in freshly cut wood logs. They can bring havoc on the
whole farm. The main problems arise when the substrate is infected within
a week of spawning. Reinfection may occur if contaminated substrate is left
near the farm. Once the substrate is severely infected, it cannot be saved.
Remove contaminated substrate as quickly as possible from the farm and
dispose it at considerable distance. Spawning should occur in a disinfected
room. If heavy infections occur, use Deosan super or Adecol for disinfection.
Pests
Snail
These appear in different forms and normally eat the mushroom during the
night. In the early days when the populations are low, they can be controlled
by hand picking, use of baits and traps.
Phorid and Scarid flies

The larvae of these flies feed on the mushrooms mycelia and eventually tunnel
into the mushroom fruiting body. They also act as transport agent of mites
and other fungal contaminants. They are less of a problem during spawn run
in sterilised mushroom bag production system since the bags are sealed.
Beetles
These actually chew the mushroom from the inside (gill side) and tend to
tunnel holes and hide in there when disturbed. They have a red or orange
head and dark wings.
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Mites
These are very tiny spiders, which feed on mycelium or on the mushrooms
themselves. Mites are also carriers of unwanted fungal spores into the
substrate. They can be effectively controlled by use of Malathion or by
sprinkling with quick lime.
1. Disease control
Diseases can be controlled in several ways.
i. Dry bubble (Verticillium fungicola)
Dry bubble is most severe in summer months especially when fly populations
are high It is characterised by pale brown spots on the cap. Practicing farm
hygiene to reduce fly population can reduce the disease. In addition, reduction
in air temperature and humidity helps control the problem.
ii. Olive green mould (Chaetomium spp)

The mould appears on compost surfaces soon after pasteurisation and can
also lead to complete failure of mushroom growth. It is characterised by
green grit-like projections on the compost.
Control is achieved by proper pasteurisation of compost. Avoid over wetness,
compaction and over pasteurisation of compost.
iii. Mat (Chrysosporium spp)

This disease is characterised by a creamy to yellow mycelia fungal growth on
both the compost and casing soil, coating it completely. The mat impedes air
and water penetration. Prevent the disease by ensuring that casing is not
shallow. Farm hygiene is important in reducing this disease.
Pest control
Pests can be controlled in a number of ways
i. Mushroom flies (Megaselia agarici)
Mushroom flies feed on the mushroom fruiting body and mycelia. They also
cause indirect damage since they carry mites, eelworms and spores of the
other moulds. Control is by sanitation on and around the farm, removal of
leftover compost and burying of stems and pieces of mushroom.
ii. Mites
Mites are a problem because they feed on mushroom mycelia and on the
developed mushroom causing surface discoloration. Control is kept by keeping
the mushroom house and surrounding clean.
iii. Rodent
Rodent (Rattus spp) feed on the mushroom fruiting body and mycelia.
They are very destructive as they make unwanted holes in the casing and
compost. Rodents can be controlled by physically killing them or using traps.
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iv. Mollusc control
Snails and slugs feed directly on the mushroom. Control is by hand picking.
Harvesting Mushrooms
Time has now come when the mushroom we grew can be harvested. Do you
know the factors that should be considered when harvesting mushrooms?
Let us go back to our nearby mushroom farm to find out what they consider
Activity 11
Describing mushroom harvesting
Procedure
• Visit the nearby mushroom farm
• Research on the factors the farmer considers when harvesting
mushrooms
• Record your findings
• When you go back to school, a selected number of students should
present the findings to the whole class
• Discuss these factors with your teacher
• Your teacher will consolidate the factors
• Your teacher should demonstrate how to harvest mushrooms
• Harvest the mushrooms
Factors to consider when harvesting mushroom
1. Maturity of the mushrooms
i. Mushrooms are ready for harvest once buttons appear. Buttons are
the round-topped mushrooms that are still closed. These can be
harvested once they start appearing and should be done quickly
enough so that they do not start to open. Buttons fetch a lot more
demand on the market than when harvesting is delayed.
ii. However, harvesting can be delayed so that caps should appear. Caps
are when the mushroom veils have opened or are likely to open. The
caps are still round topped.
iii. Farmers can harvest the mushrooms when flats appear. At this time,
veils open up and the caps are flat with gills fully exposed.
2. Market requirement
As stated above, mushrooms can be harvested at different stages of
maturity. This is because of differences in consumers tastes. Most
consumers prefer buttons to the rest. This is why they fetch a lot of money
on the market. Flats have the least demand on the market and therefore
fetch very low income
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3.Plucking
Pluck when fully grown. It takes about 5-9 days for the flush to come out
after opening the bag. Mushrooms are ready for harvesting 14 to 20 days
after casing and they come in weekly flushes. To harvest, hold the cap, twist
the mushroom and pull it together with the roots. Cut off the roots and
dispose of them by burying. The holes left behind by harvested mushrooms
should be filled with fresh casing soil. Watering of beds should be done
soon after harvest and all vents opened for 1 to 2 hours to dry the surface.
4. Yield
Depending on the variety, compost type and management, yield of mushrooms
range from 5 to 10 kg per square metre under smallholder farming. A cropping
period of 8 to 12 weeks is normal. After the cropping period, the soil and
compost should be removed in preparation for a new season. It is possible to
grow 2 crops in a year.
5. Marketing
.The size and degree of maturity determines when to harvest. Mushrooms
ready for the market are divided into various grades depending on size and
degree of maturity. The right stage for harvesting, however, depends on one’s
own market. Mushrooms may be divided into 3 grades:
i. Buttons - These are closed mushroom, they could be small or big. They
fetch the highest price on the market.
ii. Caps – These are mushrooms whose veils have opened or are likely
to open. They still have a rounded cap. They normally have a medium
value.
iii. Flats - The veils have opened and the caps are flat and gills exposed
fully. They normally fetch low prices.
Unit Summary
Mushrooms are an important source of proteins, Vitamins and minerals

which are vital for good health. Mushroom production can be done at a time
when most agricultural activities have ended. Mushrooms can be grown
throughout the year in cool areas but during cool months in warm areas.
Mushroom production can assist in diversification and provides a better way
of utilising crop, forestry and animal waste.
Wrong identification of mushrooms has resulted in poisoning hence the need
to have the cultivated strains that are known and are safe for consumption.
National aims are to satisfy domestic demand whilst broadening the source
of protein, vitamin and minerals and increasing the smallholder farmers’
income.
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Farmers wishing to grow mushrooms should contact Bvumbwe, Chitedze,
Lunyangwa Agricultural Research Stations and Bunda College of
Agriculture.
Review questions
1. What are the membranes of a mushroom cap which produce spores are
called?
2. A mycelium is made up of branching structures. Name these structures.
3. What is a fruiting body?
4. Certain kinds of mushrooms grow only at the base of a particular species
of tree. Explain why this happens.
5. Give two importance of mushroom.
6. What is the National aim in mushroom production?
7. Why has forest mushroom harvesting become a threat to people in
Malawi.
Glossary
Mushroom: A tightly interwoven mass of hyphae
Spawning: The planting of mushroom seeds
Plucking: Harvesting of mushroom
Casing: The addition of moist pasteurised soil onto the compost
Composting: This is a process whereby organic materials are connected
into a satisfactory and stable medium for the growth of mushrooms
Reference
1. www.practicalaction.org (02/10/2014)
2. http://practicalaction.org/media/view/10556 (01/10/2014)
3. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. (2012): Guide to Agricultural
Production in Malawi. Revision, Lilongwe Malawi
4. Heath. Biology. Teacher’s Edition, Introduction – Videodisc Edition
5. Keeton William T. Biological Science, Cornell University, New York
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136
Unit Livestock Feeds
And Feeding
12
Classes of Livestock Feeds
Farmers keep different types of animals on their farms.
These animals have different feed requirements due to
In Form 1 you the differences in their digestive systems. It is against
learnt about four this background that animal feeds are grouped into
main livestock
different classes of feeds.
management
activities which are: Activity 1
housing, feeding,
breeding and Distinguishing classes of feeds
controlling parasites
and diseases.
Procedure
You learnt what • Observe different samples of feeds which your
these activities teacher has provided you with
are, what each • Discuss these feeds within yourselves
activity involves, • Classify the feeds into two major categories
how each is done, • What name is given to the two categories of feeds
and how each stated above?
affects livestock • Discuss your observations with your teacher
production. On • Your teacher will consolidate the classes of feeds
livestock feeding
you learnt that all
animals need feed
and that different
kinds of feeds have Various sources of feed-stuffs are grouped into:
different kinds of 1. Roughage
nutrients. Each 2. Concentrates
kind of nutrient has - Energy concentrates
its own use. In this - Protein concentrates.
unit, you will learn
more about different Animal feed are termed as feeds. A feed is a mixture
feeds given to farm
of several feedstuffs that will supply the required
animals. You will
nutrients to animals. Feedstuff is food material
also learn how to
formulate rations containing one or more nutrients.
as well as factors
to consider when
feeding animals
for proper body
functioning.
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1. Roughages
These are feeds basically from plant matter. They have high crude fiber
content. They contain over 20% crude fiber in their dry matter. They are low
in digestibility because of their fibre content. They therefore form the bulk of
the ruminant diet.
Roughages can either be:

• Succulent or green roughages or
• Dry roughages
Succulent roughages:
These are bulky, with a high mass matter per unit. Usually they have high
moisture content (20 – 50%) with low dry matter content. They are rich in
carbohydrates and low in proteins. Often times they have high crude fiber
content. They contain carotene, which is rich in vitamin A. The forage type
and stage of maturity determines their nutritional value.
Examples of succulent roughages are:
1. Fresh young grass such as star grass, kikuyu grass, elephant grass,
giant star grass, silage, banana stems.
2. Legumes pastures which are rich in proteins, for example: Lucerne,
Leucaena, Desmodium spp, Glycine spp and the like.
3. Browsing trees and shrubs which are mainly found in semi-arid areas
e.g. Acacia.
4. Vegetables such as cabbages and kale.
5. Sweet potato vines and turnips.
Dry roughages:
They are also known as coarse roughages. They contain very little moisture
(less than 20%) and are high in crude fiber. However they have the advantage
of being bulky. Examples of dry roughages include hay, straws and maize
stovers, groundnut haulms. They are prepared from grasses, legumes and
other crop residues as hay.
Dry roughages are very fibrous, have low energy value and are used to provide
bulk feeding in animals.
2. Concentrates
Concentrates are high in protein and carbohydrates in their dry matter; they
are low in crude fiber usually less than 20%. They supplement grazing in
ruminants. While the feeding value of roughages is quite variable, that of
concentrates remains fairly constant. In practical feeding, they are divided
into two types:
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• Energy (carbohydrates) concentrates
• Protein concentrates
The diet of non-ruminants is usually made from concentrate feed because

these animals cannot handle high amounts of crude fiber.
Energy concentrates are the chief source of energy in the diet and include grains
and their milling by-products e.g. maize, madeya, wheat meal, sorghum and
millet. Grain legumes and their by-products include groundnuts, groundnut
cake, soya meal, beans, bean meal.
Protein concentrates include meat, bone meal, and fish meal. Oil cake
from cotton seed, groundnut, soya bean and sunflower are also protein
concentrates.
Molasses from the sugar industry is also a source of energy for animals.
Animals are also given additives such as mineral and vitamin supplements.
List Nutrients in Livestock Feeds
You have now known that feeds fall into major classes. In this section you
will be expected to list the types of nutrients these feeds provide.
Activity 2
Listing nutrients in livestock feeds
Procedure
• In your groups, brainstorming nutrients in livestock feeds.
• Record the names of the nutrients in your notebooks.
• Choose one member from your group to present your findings to the
whole class during plenary session.
• Your teacher will consolidate the nutrients in livestock.
Nutrients in livestock feeds are:

1. Water
2. Carbohydrates
3. Fats and oils
4. Proteins
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals
Explain Functions of Nutrients in Livestock Feeds
You may recall that there are six groups of food in humans. The six groups
are the ones that we have listed above. You may also recall that humans are
encouraged to take all the six food groups in order to live a healthy life. The
same thing applies to animals.
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Activity 3
Explaining functions of nutrients in livestock
Procedure
• Form groups of five members
• Use your school library or the Internet to carry out research on the
functions of different nutrients in the life of an animal
• Make sure you record your findings
• When you finish your research come back to class
• Choose one member from your group to present your findings
• Discuss your findings with your teacher
• Your teacher will summrise functions of nutrients in livestock
Water
Water is essential for body fluids. The largest proportion of the animal’s body
is made up of water. Water maintains body shape. This is because it is the
essential component of all body cells and activities. Thus all animals should
have ready access to water at all times. Death from water shortage ensutes
within a few days or weeks, while death from food shortage occurs after a long
period of time. Water is the most limiting factor for grazing animals in many
farms.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of starches and simple sugars.
Functions of carbohydrates:
•They provide energy to the body for daily requirements.
•Any excess carbohydrates are stored in form of fats and stored as energy
reserves within the body.
Fats and Oils

Fats are a dietary source of energy for the animal. They provide a basis from
which other compounds such as amino acids can be made.
Functions of fats:
• They are essential constituents of body cells.
• They serve as condensed energy reserves. Fats provide twice as much
energy as the carbohydrates.
• Excess fat stored in the body act as insulating layer in animal’s body and
prevent loss of heat.
• They are carriers of fat soluble vitamins A, D, and K.
Proteins
Proteins are made up of amino acids. There are two types of amino acids:
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Essential amino acids and Non-essential amino acids. There are about 20
amino acids found in proteins.
Essential amino acids are those required by the animals but cannot be
synthesised by their bodies, while non-essential amino acids are those that
can be synthesised in the body and so need not be supplied in the diet.
A protein is said to be of high quality if it can supply all the essential amino
acids as needed by a particular animal.
Functions of Proteins are:

•Essential for building of animal body tissues.
•Repair and replacement of worn out body tissues.
•Essential component of enzymes, hormones and antibodies.
•Excess proteins are metabolised into energy.
•Making of protein molecules (antibodies) involved in protecting the
animal from diseases.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances that are required in small amounts for the
well being of the animal. They are grouped into two; Fat soluble vitamins
(vitamin A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B and C). The major functions of
vitamins include:
• Growth promotion.
• Act as organic catalysts in various metabolic and physiological
reactions
• Blood clotting
• Bone formation
• Muscular activity
Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin A
Functions:
•needed for good eyesight and growth
•essential for prevention of diseases
Vitamin D
Functions:
•essential for bone formation
•prevents rickets in animals
Vitamin E
Function:
•essential for the proper functioning of the reproductive system
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•prevents sterility in animals
Vitamin K
Functions:
•essential for blood clotting – so prevents bleeding
•helps transport nutrients
Water soluble vitamins

Vitamin B
Functions:
•Helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Vitamin C
Functions:
•Important for disease resistance
Minerals
Minerals are important but are required in small amounts in the nutrition of
farm animals. There are about 15 essential minerals categorised into:
a. Macro-nutrients These are required in large quantities. They include

calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur and magnesium.
b. Micro–nutrients These are required in relatively small amounts.
They are also known as trace elements. They include: iron, zinc, copper,
manganese, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium.
Livestock need mineral supplements in their diets to meet their bodily mineral
requirement. The mineral requirements for livestock vary with age and
level of production. For example, young animals require more calcium and
phosphorus for bone formation. Milking cows require calcium and phosphorus
for milk formation. Layers need more calcium for egg shell formation.
Excess or deficiency of minerals can be detrimental, so they need to be

supplied in correct amounts.
The major functions of minerals are:

• Constituents of bones
• Constituents of blood
• Maintenance of acid-base balance and correct osmotic pressure within the
body fluids
• Act as catalysts in body reactions, particularly the enzyme systems
• Act as component of animal products such as milk, eggs, meat and wool.
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Calcium and phosphorus
Functions:
•Bone formation
•Essential for milk production
•Calcium for egg shells
Magnesium
Functions:
•For healthy bones and teeth
•Helps to metabolise carbohydrates
Iron
Functions:
•Part of haemoglobin
•Prevents anaemia
Iodine
Functions:
•Essential for the growth of the thyroid gland, which produces thyroxin
•Prevents goiter
Copper and cobalt

Functions:
•Form part of haemoglobin
• And enzymes (cobalt is part of vitaminB12)
•Improve appetite in ruminants
•Prevent anaemia
•Maintain blood pressure
•Essential for bile formation
Sodium
Functions:
•Maintains blood pressure
•Essential for bile formation
Manganese
Functions:
•Helps in bone formation and enzymatic reactions
•Essential for metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates
Chlorine
Functions:
•Part of gastric juice
•Aids digestion
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Potassium
Function:
•Helps in the functioning of the muscles and the heart
•Activates enzymes
Zinc
Function:
•Helps in enzymatic reactions
Identify Sources of Nutrients in Livestock Feeds

You have seen that there are so many nutrients that animals need for their
daily lives. Animals have to eat a wide variety of feedstuffs in to obtain all these
nutrients. Let us now find out the sources of feed nutrients for the animals.
Activity 4
Identify Sources of Nutrients in Livestock Feeds
Procedure
• Form six groups.
• Each group should research on the feedstuffs which supply the given
nutrient.
• List the feedstuffs on a chart paper.
• Choose one member from your group to present your findings to the
class.
• Your teacher will summarise the sources of nutrients in livestock feeds.
I am very encouraged by the answers you raised. Consolidate your answers

with those listed in the table 22 below.
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Table 22: Minerals and their sources
Feed rations
No one feed has all the necessary nutrients to keep animals healthy. Feed
tables provide information of nutritional composition. Choice of feedstuffs to
use depends on:
• Its availability
• The cost of the feedstuff
• Its nutritional composition
• The physical or processing nature of the feedstuff such as colour, smell,
particle size
Commercial livestock feeds are expensive. However they contain additives,

are well balanced and are close to the theoretical amounts necessary for
maintenance and production.
Over the years poultry farmers in Malawi have found difficulties to rear
chickens because commercial feeds are expensive. Home-made feeds prepared
by the farmers themselves are cheaper but have the following disadvantages.
- Mixing of the various feedstuffs may not be thorough
- Seasonality of the grains. They may not be available at the time they
are required
- Farmers may lack technical know-how on feed value formulation
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Methods of Ration formulation
Pearson’s square
Pearson’s square can only be used for two feed stuffs. However, either or both of
these can be mixtures of two or more feeds together into a mixture containing
a certain definitive percentage of some major nutrient required in the prepared
ration. The percentage of the nutrient to be obtained from the feed must be
specified. Also the values of the nutrient contained in the two feedstuffs must be
known. Those values are obtained from feed tables.
Where there are sufficient grains, rations can be made on the farm. Homemade
rations are cheaper by10 – 15% and a farmer can vary the energy or protein
content of the ration according to the needs of animals. As you learnt in Form
1 that a balanced ration is an amount of feed that contains all the nutrients
discussed in Table 12.1 and in the right proportions.
Example.
Formulate a pig ration containing 20% protein using maize meal containing 7%
protein and fish meal (cereal balancer) containing 62% protein. Calculate the
amount, in kilograms, of each feedstuff required to prepare 100 kg of the feed.
Procedure
1. Draw a square.
2. Place the desired protein percentage in the ration in the middle of the square.
3. Draw diagonals of the square.
4. Place the percentage of each feedstuff to be mixed at the left corners of the
square.
5. Subtract the figures diagonally across the square. Remember to subtract the
small number from the large one.
6. Disregard the negative signs.
7. Place the numbers obtained on the right corners, giving the required parts of
each feedstuff to be used in the mixture as shown in Figure 2 below. Add up
the parts to obtain at the base what will be used to calculate the amount of
each feedstuff to be used in feed preparation.
Maize meal 7% 42 parts Maize meal
20%
55
Fish meal 62% 13 parts Fish meal
Figure 12.1 Pearson’s square
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Thus to obtain 100kg of a feed ration with 20% protein, then
Maize meal parts: 42 x 100 =76.4 kgs

55
Fish meal part:13 x 100 =23.6 kgs
55
From the calculation above,when 42 parts maize meal are mixed with 13 parts
Fish meal, the result will be a 20% protein ration.
Explaining the Importance of Feeding Livestock

How would you feel if you went without food for a day? Would it be possible for
you to come to school? Animals also need to eat. As students of agriculture you
must have empathy towards the animals our parents and guardians rear.
Activity 5
Explaining the importance of feeding livestock
Procedure
• In your groups, use your school library to research on the importance
of feeding livestock.
• Present your findings to the class.
• Discuss the importance of feeding livestock with your teacher.
• Your teacher will consolidate the importance of feeding livestock.
For an animal to produce or grow well, it must be fed on a balanced diet or

on the correct amount of ration. A balanced ration is a ration that supplies
nutrients needed for maintenance and production in the correct amount and
proportion. Feeding livestock is important because livestock need nutrients
for different functions of the body.
There are two main rations:
• Maintenance rations
• Production rations
A maintenance ration is an amount of feed that the animal needs per day to
maintain its bodily processes without gaining or losing weight. The ration is
particularly important for young growing animals or animals in gestation.
A production ration is an amount of feed that contains all essential nutrients
and in the right proportions given to animals over and above maintenance
ration. This ration is essential for animals to produce e.g. for beef cattle and
broilers to produce meat and layers to produce eggs.
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Explain Factors to Consider When Feeding Livestock
You may recall that there are differences in the types and quantities of feed
which animals are provided with. Have you ever thought about why this is
like that? You have the opportunity today learn about this fact.
Activity 6
Explaining factors to consider when feeding livestock
Procedure
• Brainstorm factors to consider when feeding livestock.
• Listing factors to consider when feeding livestock.
• Discuss factors to consider when feeding livestock with your
teacher.
• Your teacher will consolidate the factors worth considering when
feeding livestock.
The amount of feed given to the animal depends on the following factors:
1. The type of animal Ruminant animals can digest roughage while
most non-ruminant animals cannot. Exotic breeds require good
quality feeds to produce high quality products.
2. The age and body size of the animal Young animals require less
feed than larger animals and some young animals will initially only
depend on milk until they are introduced to solid feed.
3. Physiological condition of the animal This is an important
characteristic. The health status of the animal. Animals should not
be allowed to starve since this reduces yield. Pregnant and healthy
animals can eat large amounts of feed. Sick animals consume less
feed. However, feed should not be wasted as it is expensive.
4. The purpose for which the animals are kept or level of
production Highly productive animals consume correspondingly
large amounts of feed. If animals are kept for draught purposes, they
will require high-energy feed. Animals which produce milk, meat and
eggs need concentrates.
5. The quality of the feed. The feed should be easy to ingest and
digest.
6. Palatability Some feed may be more acceptable to the animal than
others. This is due to taste and smell. Animals like appetising feed.
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7. Digestibility The degree to which the animal is able to digest the feed.
This will depend on the type of animal.
8. The amount of the feed and its texture The amount of feed to be
given to animals will depend on its quality and type. The coarseness or
fineness is an important aspect especially in chickens.
9. Cost of the feed: Feed should be given to animals which are in
production. Although it is advisable that animals should be fed
adlibitum (when and as much as they like) the farmer should bear
in mind the economic importance of for instance giving layers mash
when they are not laying. The cost of the feed will determine the
number of animals or birds the farmer is able to keep.
Unit Summary
The purposes for which animals are reared are fulfilled through proper feeding.
Livestock must be provided with all the six types of nutrients on daily basis
for its normal growth and production and these are carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, minerals, water and fats.
Farmers must carefully look into factors to consider when feeding livestock.
The body mass of the animal, for example, determines the quantity of feed it
should receive. The age differentiates the type of feed suitable for an animal.
The type of the animal in question determines the type of feed suitable for
different classes of animals. This explains why ruminants can survive on
vegetative feeds only. It is important to feed the livestock properly in order to
maximise returns.
Review Exercise
1. List the nutrients that are found in livestock feeds

2. Explain the functions of nutrients in the life of an animal
3. Using the Pearson square method calculate the proportions of maize
meal and bean meal feed ingredients required to formulate a feed ration
containing 25% of crude protein from maize which contains 10% crude
protein and bean meal which contains 35% crude protein.
4. Explain why dry roughages are less digestible than succulent roughages
5. You are provided with molasses, fresh elephant grass, milk, maize flour,
dry groundnuts plants, growers marsh and madeya. Classify these feeds
into roughages and concentrates.
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Glossary
o Dry matter: This is part of a feed with less water which is subject to
digestion. It includes even that portion which is voided as feaces
o Ruminant: It is an animal which chews a cud (a cud is a feed which was
ingested but is regurgitated for further digestion)
o Succulent: An animal feed of plant origin containing high water content
Reference
1. Anthony M. Ngomwa, P. Sigel and D. Cheruiyot D. (2012): Senior

Secondary Agriculture Form 3.
2. B.M. Kanjala and N.T. Kaperemera. (2002): Strides Agriculture Book 3,
3. Chard P.G.D. (1991): Focus on “O” Level Agriculture Book 4, Pupils’ Text
Book. London: College press
4. Ngugi D.N., Karau P.K. AND Nguyo W (1990): East African Agriculture,
Third Edition. By. MacMillan.
150
Unit Sheep and Goat
Production
The sheep population is, however, low because sheep
13
production is constrained by lack of improved breeding
stock, poor husbandry practices, parasites and diseases.
Sheep require more careful management. This has again
to be complemented with a programme of crossing the local
Sheep and goats
with exotic breeds or well selected rams to produce more
collectively are lamb meat and mutton for both urban and rural markets.
termed ‘small
ruminants’. National aims are to increase the numbers of sheep
Sheep and goats and improve the productivity of indigenous sheep by
play a minor practicing improved standards of management such as
role in Malawi the use of improved breeds, housing, feeding and parasite
agriculture, and and disease control.
at present the
local production is Goats (Capris hicus) are a source of protein and income
less than half the to the rural population. They also supply manure which
may be used in crop production. Local goats in Malawi
demand for sheep
are hardy as far as feeding is concerned. They are prolific
and goat meat. but do suffer from diseases just like other species of
There are neither livestock. They are small to medium sized and have slow
exports nor to medium growth rates. This calls for improvement. The
imports of sheep aim is therefore to improve the productivity and off take.
and goat meat. If
properly managed,
Listing Breeds of Sheep and Goats
sheep and goats Like most domesticated animals, sheep and goats also
can be a profitable exist in several breeds.
farm enterprise Activity 1
in Malawi, and Listing breeds of sheep and goats
demand for sheep Procedure
and goat meat • Break into groups of five.
is greater than • Go to the library and research from books the various
the supply. In breeds of sheep and goats that exist in the world.
this unit you will
learn more about • Classify the breeds according to their use.
sheep and goats
production.
Sheep (Ovis aries) • Present your findings to the class.
are mainly raised
for meat and a • Discuss your findings with your teacher.
source of income. • Your teacher will summarise the breeds of sheep and
goats.
151
Selecting Appropriate Breed of Sheep and Goat for their
Area
Some of you rear sheep or goats or both at your homes. Have you ever thought
of the breed the goats or sheep belong to? This is your opportunity to learn the
breed of sheep and goats that exist in your area.
Activity 2
Selecting appropriate breeds of sheep and goats for your area
Procedure
• Visit a nearby village where you will find sheep and goats.
• Observe the characteristics of the different breeds of sheep and
goats you will find.
• Identify the breeds of sheep and goats.
• Record all your findings.
• Report the findings to the class.
• Discuss the breeds of sheep and goats in the area.
• Choose the appropriate breeds of sheep and goats based on their
use.
Basically, farmers in Malawi keep local breeds of sheep and goats.
1. Criteria are used to select a breed of sheep

i. Climate: The indigenous sheep are suited to the hot, dry conditions of the
country.
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• The sheep are hardy and adaptable to conditions of low input. The local breed
can be improved through cross-breeding and improved management.
• The karakul is adapted to desert conditions, the merino thrives in dry
conditions and the black Persian is hardy
• The Hampshire has been used for cross-breeding in Malawi, it can surviv
on poor pasture, it is a heavy breed and good for wool production
• The indigenous sheep breeds have more resistance to parasites than the
exotic sheep, but drenching is a very important part of sheep management.
• Availability of feed. Sheep are managed best when they are kept in well
fenced paddocks
ii. Use:
• Select a breed that will give you the highest production of mutton, wool or
skin. The local Malawian sheep produces reasonable amounts of mutton,
weighing up to 30kg. The Black Persian is good for mutton, can weigh
up to 50kg. Unfortunately, the fat distribution on its body is uneven, but
cross-breeding with breeds like Dorset Ram improves this breed.
• Merino sheep are famous for wool production, while Karakul sheep are good
for skin or pelt production. The local Malawian sheep can be improved by
crossing with exotic breeds to improve mutton, wool and skin production.
Mutton sheep have the following characteristics:
iii. Good mothering ability of ewes
i. Should be fast growing and mature
ii. Size: The exotic sheep are bigger than the local breeds. The Mutton Merino
ram weighs between 90 – 130 kg and ewes weigh between 60 – 75kg. The
Dorper rams weigh between 80 – 90 kg and ewes weigh between 50 – 65kg.
The Corriedale Ram weighs between 84 – 114kg and ewes weigh between
57 – 84kg. The Romney Marsh ram weighs between 100 - 114kg and the
ewes weigh between 84 – 100kg. The Hampshire ram weighs between 100
– 136 kg and the ewes weigh between 81 – 102kg, The Romney marsh ram
weighs between 100 – 136kg and the ewe weighs between 81 – 102kg. Exotic
breeds have high weights but require that management is good. Dosing to
kill worms is a very important part of sheep management and availability
of feeds when put in paddocks or pens and fattened for slaughter.
vi. Quality of mutton produced
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2. Selecting appropriate breeds of goat
Despite some popular prejudice, goats can be a profitable form of livestock
under a wide range of conditions in Southern Africa. They are best classified
according to the end product for which they are kept, that is meat, milk or
mohair.
Many Africans prefer goat meat to mutton, and, of course it is one of the main
sources of domestic meat in many rural areas. Goats have a place as source of
milk on plots and holdings which are too small to carry dairy cattle.
a. The qualities when selecting a breed of sheep apply to goats. Goats kept
for meat production should
- Grow fast and mature early
- Be from nannies with good mothering abilities
- Have a good body shape
- Milk goats should have large well- developed udders.
b. Suitable to local environment and economic environment
- Suited to the climatic and local conditions of the area
- The Malawi goat is hardy and disease resistant
- It is a good scavenger; however, its genetic potential is limited. There
will,Therefore, be a need to cross-breed with exotic breeds to improve
its meat and milk production. The improved breed will need improved
management.
c. Personal preference
Most Malawians consider the local goat meat to be tender and tasty.
The milk from the local goat is also easy to digest. However, there is no
evidence to suggest that meat from the local Malawian local breed is
better than that from the exotic breeds.
The Age at Puberty for Sheep and Goats
Farmers raising goats and sheep would be very interested to gain returns from
the animals as early as possible. This is a function of puberty. Puberty is a stage
in the life of an animal when it is sexually mature to start reproducing. For
females, this is the stage they are able to produce mature graafian follicles that
release ova necessary for fertilization after mating. In males, they are ready to
release sperms which can fertilize an ovum. The earlier they reach this stage the
earlier they are able to raise a new generation and increase in their population.
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Activity 3
Stating the age at puberty for sheep and goats
Procedure
• In your groups, carryout a book research on the age at puberty for
sheep and goats.
• Report your finding to the whole class.
• Your teacher will summarise the age at puberty for sheep and goats.
Table24: Age at puberty for sheep and goats
Age (Months)
Sheep 15-18
Goats 18
Terms used with Sheep and goats

Ewe : A mature female sheep which has had more than one lamb
Ram or Tup : A mature male sheep
Wether ; A castrated male sheep
Hoggett : A young female sheep
Lamb : These are very young sheep divided into ram lamb and ewe
lambs. Ram lambs which have been castrated and weaned are
called wether. Ewe lambs which have been weaned are called
hogget.
Billy/bucks : A mature male goat
Nanny/doe : A mature female goat which has had more than one kid
Kid : A young goat
Breeding sheep should be properly timed so that lambing takes place
when there is plenty of green grass. In Malawi, the best time is the month
of November, so that lambing is in April or early May. In order to plan the
best time to mate the animals, farmers should follow the oestrus cycle.
Oestrus cycle refers to the recurring period of sexual receptivity in female
mammals.
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It is also called heat. The onset of oestrus is a sign of maturity and the
ability to reproduce. It may first occur when the female sheep (ewe) are
about six to ten months old. The oestrus cycle in sheep is between fifteen
and nineteen days. It lasts for 18-24 hours. Two weeks before the ewes
are mated, they should be given some concentrates to improve their
health and fertility, and it is called flushing. When the ewe has been
fertilized, she will not come on heat again until after she has lambed.
In goats, the oestrus cycle is 18 to 21 days and oestrus lasts for one to two
days. It is important to ensure that the doe or nanny is served during this
period. Once the signs are observed the nanny should be mated. The best time
to mate the animals is five months before the rains start, so that the animals
will bear a kid when there is plenty of grass.
How do headers know that the doe or nanny is on heat? Discuss with your
friend on signs of heat in the doe.
Breeding sheep should be properly timed so that lambing takes place when
there is plenty of green grass. In Malawi, the best time is the month of
November, so that lambing is in April or early May. In order to plan the best
time to mate the animals, farmers should follow the estrus cycle.
Oestrus cycle refers to the recurring period of sexual receptivity in female
mammals. It is also called heat. The onset of oestrus is a sign of maturity and
the ability to reproduce. It may first occur when the female sheep (ewe) are
about six to ten months old. The oestrus cycle in sheep is between fifteen and
nineteen days. It lasts for 18-24 hours. Two weeks before the ewes are mated,
they should be given some concentrates to improve their health and fertility,
and it is called flushing. When the ewe has been fertilized, she will not come
on heat again until after she has lambed.
In goats, the oestrus cycle is 18 to 21 days and oestrus lasts for one to two
days. It is important to ensure that the doe or nanny is served during this
period. Once the signs are observed the nanny should be mated. The best time
to mate the animals is five months before the rains start, so that the animals
will kid when there is plenty of grass.
The following are some of the signs
1. the nanny frequently wags or twitches her tail.
2. she shows signs of excitement.
3. she sometimes mounts other nannies.
4. the vulva becomes red and thick.
5. mucus is discharged from the vulva.
156
Gestation period for ewe and nanny
Procedure
• In your groups carry out research on the gestation period for ewe and
nanny.
• Visit a nearby farm to find out the gestation period for ewe and nanny
• Report the findings.
• Record the gestation period for the ewe and nanny.
Table 25 showing gestation period for ewe and nanny.
Table25
Gestation period is the period between the fertilization of the ewe or nanny
and the birth of her lamb. It is 5 months or 150 days. Although young ewes
will come to heat for the first time at 5 months old, they are put to the ram at
about 1 year old and weighing 30 kg.
During this stage the ewes should be properly looked after to ensure that they
are in good health and for the successful lambing. They should be regularly
dosed or drenched against internal parasites.They should be regularly
vaccinated against diseases. With regard to feeding, they need to be given
quality pasture, silage or hay. They should also be given some concentrates
one to two months before lambing, this is called steaming up.
Identifying suitable sheep and goat house
You may recall from your previous lesson on livestock management that farm
animals should be provided with a suitable house. Sheep and goats need
suitable accommodation too. What type of a house for goats and sheep
have you seen?
157
Activity 5
Identifying suitable house for goats and sheep
Procedure
• Brainstorm the characteristics of a good house for goats and sheep.
• Discuss these characteristics with your teacher.
• Visit a nearby village to observe houses for sheep and goats.
• Report the findings to your class members.
• Choose an appropriate house for sheep and goats.
Goats must be reared under a comfortable place. This can be achieved through
a careful consideration of certain characteristics which the house should be
accorded with. The characteristics of a good sheep and goat house are:
• spacious.
• strongly built because sheep are prone to predators.
• well ventilated and well lit.
• dry and warm.
• easy to clean.
• easy and cheap to construct.
The type of house provided for goats will depend on the system of management
being used, that is extensive, semi-intensive and intensive.
Goats are housed to protect them from adverse conditions of rain, drought,
heat and predators like hyenas and jackals. A good goat house should have
the following characteristics:
• it is sited on high ground.
• it is cheap to construct.
• it is strongly built.
• it is roomy – with a floor space of about 1.0m2
• it is well lit.
• it is well ventilated, drought-free and dry.
• it has a hard floor made of concrete or hardened/rammed earth or clay
158
• it has a well thatched roof.
• it is well drained and easy to clean.
Kids and nannies are usually housed in separate pens. It is normal practice
that the nannies are housed together with one or two billies.
Constructing an appropriate house for sheep and goats
Some of you might have participated in constructing a house for sheep or

goats; but some of you have not. This will be your opportunity to have a hands
on experience in constructing the house.
Activity 6
Constructing an appropriate house for sheep and goats
Procedure
• Brainstorm materials required for constructing sheep and goat houses.
• Collect appropriate materials for construction of a sheep and goat house.
• Discuss with your teacher the procedure for constructing a house for
sheep and goats.
• Invite a farmer who rears sheep or goats to demonstrate how to
construct the house for sheep and goats.
• Construct the house for sheep and goats.
The following are materials needed for constructing a local sheep and goat
house;
• Poles and twigs for rafters.
• Ropes.
• Sisal, linya and strings.
• Pangas and axes.
• Nails.
• Bamboos.
• Thatch grass.
• Bricks and stones.
Fig.13.1.
159
1. Assemble the materials required.
2. Lay out the site using tape measure,
mallet, pegs and strings.
3. Clear the area of any bush or plants
and dig the foundation.
4. Use poles to stake out the corners
of the house.
5. Lay stones in foundation until
ground level.
6. Built up the wall up to about 60 cm
then use bamboo to raise the rest of
the wall up to the rafters.
7. Use poles and bamboo to construct
the rafters on the roof. Fig.13.2
8. Cover the roof with grass thatch and use sisal or linya to tie the grass to
the roof poles.
The feeding behavior of sheep and goats

Sheep and goats are ruminants. Do you remember from your Junior Course
what ruminant animals are?
Activity 7
Describing feeding behavior of sheep and goats
Procedure
• Brainstorm the feeding behavior of sheep and goats.
• Observe goats browsing.
• Report your findings to the class during plenary session.
• Discuss with your teacher the differences between browsing and
grazing.
• Your teacher will summaise the differences between browsing and
grazing.
Sheep and goats are ruminant animals that depend mostly on pasture or grass.
They are browsers. They browse on leaves, bark and green stems from plants
while grazers feed on vegetation at or near ground level. Sheep are excellent
grazers. On the other hand goats are both grazers and browsers.
There are differences between grazing and browsing.
160
In browsing, the animal eats any part of the plant. Goats therefore will eat
plant leaves, stems and even roots. They eat the bark of a stem. Goats can end
up destroying trees to point of death causing deforestation. This is why goats
are called browsers.
On the other hand in grazing, an animal will eat grass and or herbs. Where
possible, grazing animals can eat selectively, eating only the most palatable plant
species. In grazing correct stocking rate prevents pasture destruction. Browsers
can destroy trees even when grass and edible herbs are readily available.
Identifying suitable feeds for sheep and goats
You have seen that goats are browsers and grazers while sheep are entirely
grazers. However, you need to know the suitable feeds for these two types of
livestock.
Activity 8
Identifying suitable feeds for sheep and goats
Procedure
• Brainstorm suitable feeds for sheep and goats.
• Discuss with your teacher the suitable feeds for sheep and goats.
• List the suitable feeds for sheep and goats.
Feeds for sheep and goats can be classified as follows:
• Forage plants. • Roughage.
• Roots. • Concentrates.
Table 26: Showing suitable feeds for sheep and goats
Table25
161
Forage plants
Selection of appropriate feeds for sheep and goats is important in order to
realise maximum production. Table 17 shows examples of suitable feeds for
sheep and goats. Grasses form the largest part of the group. Legumes have
higher crude protein and mineral contents. The leaves of bushes and trees are
rich sources of nutrients.
Examples of forage plants that are suitable for grazing sheep are: guinea grass,
giant star, Rhodes grass, kikuyu grass, cow peas, Lucerne or alfalfa, salt bush,
pigeon peas, acacia.Goats browse on a variety of grasses and shrubs.
Roots
Roots are composed entirely of nutrients, water and energy. With most roots,
the leafy part is also good quality forage. Sweet potato vines are a particularly
good example. Succulents conserved as silage have similar feeding volumes to
the parent crop.
Roughages
The main characteristic of roughages is their crude fibre content which limits
the digestibility. Their sources are almost entirely from mature plants which
means that the proportion of crude protein is low and they are also a poor
source of energy. As from the table, two main sources are known; mature
pastures and residues from crops from which grain has been harvested.
Dry forages from mature pastures vary considerably in quality, e.g. conserved
hay, its nutrient content is dependent on the composition of the plant at the
time of conservation and the efficiency of conservation.
Straws and helms are the residues from crops after harvesting cereal or
legume grains. Derived from fully matured plants, their nutrients value is
often low particularly if the parent crop was a cereal.
Concentrates
They have a large proportion of energy or protein. They are derived from plants
at the same time a number of animal by-products are protein concentrates.
Energy concentrates are basically from cereal grain crops like rice, maize,
sorghum,millet and wheat.The by-products from the processing of these
cereals are often a good source of energy and should be utilised for stock feed.
The protein content varies from medium levels in wheat and sorghum to low
levels in rice.
Table 4 above indicates the protein concentrates of plant origin.These are used
for stock feed most commonly are the by-products from the manufacture of
vegetable oils. The oil seeds whose by-products are most frequently available
are available in the table.
162
Protein concentrates of animal origin are by-products from the processing of
carcasses, fish or milk. They are a rich source of high quality protein, and
minerals and may contain important amounts of vitamins. If available for
stock feeding they are usually fed to poultry and pigs rather than sheep.
For an animal to produce or grow well, it must be fed on a balanced diet or
on the correct amount of ration. A balanced ration is the daily feed allowance
per animal in the correct amount and having all the nutrients in the right
proportion. Such rations contain carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins,
fats and water in their right proportions. For an animal to grow and reproduce
well, it should be given both maintenance and production ration.
Sheep and goat feed are selected for the following reasons:
• They provide a balanced ration.
• They are locally available since they are made from local crop residues.
• Some can be bought cheaply.
• Some can be grown on the farm.
• They are free from toxic substances.
• They can be dried and stored for use during the dry season.
• They contain a lot of nutrients.
Diseases of Sheep and Goats
Did you know that sheep and goats just like any other animal suffer from
diseases? You might have seen a goat or sheep looking dull and differently from
normal. This could be a sign that the animal is not in good health condition.
Activity 9
Identifying diseases of sheep and goats
Procedure
• Research on diseases of sheep and goats in the library.
• List the diseases of sheep and goats.
• Describe the signs and symptoms of diseases of sheep and goats.
• Role-play the signs and symptoms of diseases of sheep and goats.
• Record the signs and symptoms of diseases of sheep and goats.
Do you remember the definition of the word ‘disease’? Discuss with a partner
about this.
163
A disease is a physiological or anatomical disorder or abnormality in an
animal which can be identified through characteristic symptoms on the
animal. Most diseases have specific symptoms; though certain diseases have
common symptoms. The period of time between infection and appearance of
disease symptoms is called the incubation period. Diseases reduce an animal’s
economic value. Some of the diseases of sheep and goats are:
1. Nasal worm.
2. Foot and mouth.
3. Mastitis.
4. Brucellosis.
5. Pneumonia.
6. Sheep pox.
Activity 10
Explaining how to control diseases of sheep and goats
Procedure
• Brainstorm control measures of diseases of sheep and goats.
• Discuss the control measures with your teacher.
• Observe a resource person controlling diseases of sheep and goats.
• Your teacher will summarise the disease control measures.
Table 27: Showing common sheep and goat diseases and their control.
164
Sheep and goats diseases are categorised into:
1. Protozoan diseases e.g. Anaplasmosis, Coccidiosis, Trypanosomiasis.
2. Bacterial diseases e.g. Brucellosis, Mastitis, Pneumonia.
3. Viral diseases e.g. Rinderpest, Foot and mouth disease.
4. Nutritional diseases e.g. Milk fever, Bloat.
Parasites of sheep and goats

Parasites are organisms which derive part or all their nourishment from
other organisms, referred to as, the host. The host-parasite relationship is
greatly beneficial to the parasite but harmful to the host. Sheep and goats
suffer adversely as hosts to a variety of parasites.
165
Activity 11
Identifying parasites of sheep and goats
Procedure
• In pairs, research on the parasites of sheep and goats. List the
parasites and report to the class.
• Visit a nearby farm to observe how to control parasites in sheep and goats
• Discuss the control measures with your teacher
• Your teacher will summarise the control of parasites in sheep and goats
List of parasites of sheep and goats:

1. External parasites
(i) Lice (ii) Ticks (iii) Mites (iv) Tsetse flies
2. Internal parasites
(i) flat worms (ii) roundworms
Table 28: Showing the signs of external parasites attack in sheep and goats
166
Ticks Insert a
Ticks are common external parasites of sheep and diagram of a
goats responsible for the transmission of a number tick
of serious livestock diseases. They cause anemia and
damage the skin as a result of their bites.
There are two types of ticks

- Soft ticks have a tough leathery outer coating
- Hard ticks have a hard, shield-like covering on Fig.13. 3.A diagram of a
Insert the upper surface in tick
pictures of males. The females
have a small area
dipping,
behind the head.
spraying and
hand- Hard ticks are more harmful to their hosts
dressing of than soft ticks. Soft ticks undergo several
ticks in nymphal stages in their life cycle, whereas
hard ticks go through only one nymphal
stage.
Ticks are controlled by chemicals called
acaricides applied once or twice a week
depending on the severity of the tick
infestation.Follow dilution instructions
Fig.13. 4. and apply to all body parts for effective
tick control. Three main methods of tick
control are used as seen from the table namely dipping, spraying and hand-
dressing.
Activity 12
Explaining how to control parasites of sheep and goats
Procedure
• Brainstorm control measures of parasites in sheep and goats.
• Discuss the control measures of parasites in sheep and goats with
your teacher.
• Visit a nearby farm to observe how parasites in sheep and goats are
controlled.
• Discuss the findings from the visit with your teacher.
• Your teacher will summarise the control measures in sheep and
goats.
167
Other tick control measures include;
- Fencing.
- Rotational grazing.
- Burning of infected pasture.
- Ploughing the land.
1. Fencing
Fencing a farm can effectively control ticks. Animal movement is restricted
thus minimising the spread of ticks. If coupled with zero grazing units,
effective tick control is assured.
2. Rotational grazing
Rotational grazing where practiced, reduces the buildup of ticks in pastures.
3. Burning of infested pasture.

Adult ticks, their eggs and molting larva and the nymphs, can be destroyed
by burning infested pasture. This method is mostly used in range lands.
4. Ploughing the land

Ploughing buries ticks deeply in the ground thus killing them.
Mites
Mites are eight legged, round –bodied and crawling arachnids. They are
white in colour and have dark legs. They burrow into the skin of the animal
causing great irritation. They attack sheep and goats.
Spraying and dipping effectively controls the mites.
In sheep, sheep scab is caused by a mite. The mite lives in the skin of sheep.
They pierce the skin and feed on the fluid which oozes from the wound.
Clean the sheep with soap and water to remove dirt, skin debris and grease
then dip the sheep in acaricide solutions.
Lice
Lice are wingless insects with a diamond shaped body which attack sheep.
Lice are usually host-specific therefore; the ones that affect sheep are sheep
lice
Sheep lice feed on the head and hairy part of the lower body. The foot louse
168
attaches itself on the foot and lower leg of sheep. The brown body louse
sticks on the upper sides of the body.
Lice are a source of irritation to livestock causing restlessness, constant
scratching and rubbing of the animal against surfaces. This interrupts
feeding and animals lose vitality, lose weight and may have retarded
growth.
A single dipping ensures effective control of lice. All sheep must be treated
in the same dipping operation as one un-treated animal can re-infect the
entire flock.
Tsetse flies
These are blood-sucking insects which
attack sheep and goats. They mainly
inhabit humid, bushy areas and can
be found under certain shade trees.
Tsetse flies become active during the
day and attack by inflicting painful
bites causing the animal to jump or run
around in pain. Tsetse flies transmit
trypanosomiasis (nagana) in livestock.
Control measures of Tsetse flies are
listed in the Table 150. The government
must create buffer zones near game
reserves thereby preventing the
transmission of infection from wild
animals to livestock.
Fig.13.5 Diagram of a Tsetse fly
Internal Parasites
Internal parasites are also known as endoparasites.
Endoparasitic worms (helminthes) can be divided into:
• Flatworms (platy helminthes) e.g. flukes
• Roundworms (nemathelminthes)
1. Flatworms
Flatworms can be grouped into:
• Trematodes: These are flatworms with flattened dorso-ventral bodies
that is, the back and belly are close together. Trematodes are mostly
hermaphrodite, that is, they possess both male and female reproductive
organs.
• Cestodes: This group of flatworms has body sections with complete
169
reproductive organs, with one nervous and excretory system continuous
running through the body. The head part attaches the worm to the host
of the body by hooks or suckers. The separate sections bud off one by
one, making a long chain. Those sections farthest from the head are the
oldest buds for example, tapeworms.
2. Liver fluke
Liver fluke attack sheep and goats inhabit bile duct
of the animal host and cause damage to the liver.
Animals have digestive upsets due to blocking of bile
duct, swollen abdomen, d emaciation, anemia due to
destruction of liver tissues, edema in the jaws and death
due to severe emaciation.
Control measures include;
• Routine drenching using anthelminthic drugs.
• Destroy water snails by treating swampy water
with copper sulphate.
• Fence off heavily infested swampy areas to
prevent farm animals from grazing in such
infested areas.
• Drain swampy areas within the farm.
Fig.13.6 Liver fluke
3. Tapeworms
Tape worms are host-specific. The two most common tapeworms that affect
livestock are Taenia saginata and Taenia solium.
Tapeworm attacks make rough coat on
animals, make digestive disturbances
like diarrhoea and occasional
constipation, animals develop a pot belly,
anemia, edema and presence of egg
segments or proglottides in the feaces.
To control Tapeworms
- Routinely de-worm animals using
appropriate drugs.
- Plough the pasture land to kill the
cysts.
Fig.13.6 Tapeworm
170
- Proper disposal of human waste e.g. use of latrines.
- Proper cooking of meat.
- Rotational grazing.
- Proper meat inspection.
4. Roundworms
Roundworms are usually cylindrical in shape and pink white in color. They
exist separately as male and female. They inhibit the alimentary canal of
sheep and goats.
What effect do you think roundworms have on sheep and goats they attack?
Talk to your partner about this.
Sheep and goats show;
• retarded growth.
• scours.
• anemia.
• stiff dry coat.
• diarrhoea.
• constipation.
• pot belly.
To control roundworms the following has to be done;
- avoid grazing animals on muddy grounds.
- avoid grazing animals on wet grass early in the morning when larvae
are active.
- de-worm animals using appropriate drugs.
General Control of Diseases and Parasites in Sheep and

Goats
1. Vaccination: Vaccinate the sheep and goats as per recommendations
of the veterinary staff against any disease.
2. Control of mastitis: Goats with mastitis should be milked last to

prevent the spread of infection to other goats as mastitis can cause a
reduction in yields of at least 10%
171
3. Foot trimming: Overgrown hooves predispose foot rot infection. They
also cause lameness in sheep and goats and make them unable to walk
properly. Routine hoof trimming should be done.
4. Dosing and drenching: Goats should be drenched on a routine

basis once or twice a year, normally at the beginning of the rains. Internal
parasites can be controlled through giving drugs especially just before and
after kidding. Kids should be dosed 2-3 weeks after birth and then once a
month thereafter. However, parasitic infestation can be reduced through
the following management practices;
• Clean housing where no dung or dirt, wet bedding is allowed to
accumulate.
• Clean water supply which has not been fouled by goats
• The grazing area should be changed every 4-5 days and not be grazed
again for about six weeks.
• Avoid grazing early in the morning while the grass is still wet, there
is more danger of taking up parasites than in the afternoon
5. Dipping or spraying: Dip or spray the goats against ticks regularly.

Use a sheep and goats plunge dip. In intensive system, rotational grazing
can control ticks.
Sheep ticks may conveniently be placed in three classes;
i. One-host ticks: The entire parasitic life-cycle is spent on one host.
ii. Two-host ticks: The larvae and nymphae infest one host and the
nymphal moult occurs on the ground. The adult
seeks a second host on which to feed.
iii. Three-host ticks: All three stages parasites separate hosts and each
moult takes place on the ground.
Ticks adversely affect sheep production through direct injury and blood loss,
by the introduction of toxins and by the transmission of disease organisms.
Toxins introduced by the female tick as she feeds may cause paralysis and
death. A wide variety of bacterial, protozoan, viral and rickettsial diseases are
transmitted by ticks to sheep.
Nutritional diseases
These are diseases that occur due to nutritional deficiencies and metabolic
disorders.
1. Bloat
Is a condition in sheep and goats in which gases accumulate in the rumen due
172
to rapid fermentation of the feed eaten by the animal. The rumen enlarges
that it compresses the lungs and other internal organs. This may result in
death of the animal.
Causes of bloat are;
- Blockage of oesophagus by large food particles.
- Abrupt change in feeds given to animals for example, from very dry feeds
to very fresh and succulent feeds. The rumen fails to adjust to the new
feed so indigestion occurs.
- Feeding animals with large amounts of legume and lush grass e.g.
cabbage leaves and lush grass. This causes rapid fermentation producing
a lot of gas in the stomach faster than the gas can escape through the
esophagus.
- Injury to the nerve supply of the rumen causing paralysis of the rumen.
Symptoms
- Difficulty in breathing.
- Animal lies down and is unable to rise up.
- Grunting and kicking at the belly.
- Salivation.
- Distension of the left side of the abdomen due to gas accumulation, it can
be felt by pressing with hand.
Prevention;
- Feed animals on grasses and legumes that have wilted.
- Provide dry roughage just before feeding the animal on grass and
succulent or wet pastures.
Treatment;
- Exercise the animal by walking it around. This mixes up the rumen
contents and help in the escape of gases.
- Use medicinal oils like liquid paraffin or turpentine mixed with vegetable
oil to remove froth in the rumen.
- Empty stomach using Epsom salts as it acts as a laxative.
- A stomach pump can be used to remove the gas in the rumen. The pump
is inserted into the rumen through the esophagus.
- Inject Methyl silicone directly into the rumen to prevent frothing.
173
- In extreme cases, trocar and canula or sharp sterilised knife is used to
pierce through the skin of the rumen. After piercing, the gases escape and
the animal is relieved.
2. Milk fever
The disease is also known as parturient paresis. It affects dairy sheep and
goats.
Milk fever is caused by low calcium level in the blood, a condition known as
hypocalcaemia.
Susceptibility
The disease is more common in heavy milking dairy goats. Goats that are
extensively fed on feeds rich in protein but low in calcium. Hence there is
no adequate replacement in the body compared to its removal through milk
secretion. The condition is also likely to occur between the 3rd and 4th lactation
when milk production is at its highest either a few days to parturition or a few
days after lactation.
Symptoms
Symptoms are observable within 12-72 hours before or after calving.
• Staggering as the animal moves.
• Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble.
• Extremely cold to touch.
• Excitement then falling to the ground.
• Inability to stand, the animal lies down on its side most of the time.
• Dull and staring with dilated eyes.
• Animal lies on the sternum with neck twisted on one side. This is called
sterna recumbency.
• Breathing becomes slow and weak.
• Body temperature falls to 350C.
• Rumen stops moving.
• Saliva oozes from mouth.
• May be in coma.
• General paralysis. The animal’s body functions such as urination,
defecation and milk secretion stop.
174
• Death follows.
General control measures
• Feed animals on a diet rich in calcium especially during pregnancy and
early lactation periods.
• Give intramuscular injection of calcium 2-3 days before calving
• Dairy goats with past record of milk fever should be partially milked for
the first ten days that is, partial milking every two hours for the first
few days. Then increase the milking level gradually until after 10 days.
Thereafter carry out normal milking.
• Cull susceptible animals.
Treatment;
• Pump air into the udder to limit milk synthesis.
• High calcium content feeds.
• Injection of calcium borogluconate solution intravenously, calfoject or
calcijet intramuscularly. Small doses to prevent heart failure.
Unit Summary
Sheep and goats are small ruminants that if well managed can increase meat
and milk production. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding
of sheep and goats production. Sheep are distributed all over the country.
Description of the indigenous sheep is based on colour, presence or absence of
horns and the tail characteristics.
National aims in sheep husbandry are to increase the numbers of sheep and
improve the productivity of indigenous sheep by practicing improved standards
of management such as the use of improved breeds, housing and feeding.
Goats play an important role in the economy of the drier areas. Traditional
husbandry practice emphasises survival rather than productivity of goats i.e.
the larger the size of the flock, the greater the chance of survival. Improved
management should concentrate less on maintaining large flocks and more
on increasing output of meat, mutton and milk through better feeding and
disease control.
Local goats in Malawi are hardy as far as feeding is concerned. They are
prolific but do suffer from diseases just like other species of livestock. They are
small to medium sized and have slow to medium growth rates. This calls for
improvement. The aim is therefore to improve the productivity and off take.
175
Glossary
• Lush grass: young shooting green grass.
• Froth: foam coming from the mouth.
Review Exercise
1. Explain the importance of sheep and goats in Malawi.
2. State the factors which influence sheep and goat productivity.
3. What is a disease?
4. Differentiate between browsers and grazers in sheep and goat
management.
5. What is known as incubation period of a disease?
6. State any four predisposing factors for each of the following diseases;
i. Mastitis.
ii. Pneumonia.
iii. Foot rot.
7. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow;
i. Identify the parasite.
Fig.13.7
ii. How is the parasite passed from livestock to human beings?

iii. State two methods by which this parasite can be controlled.
8. Name two diseases in sheep and goats that occur due to nutritional
deficiencies.
176
References
1. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (2012): Guide to Agricultural

Production and Natural Resources Management in Malawi.
2. Anthony M. Ngomwa, Peter Sigel and Daniel Cheruiyot (2012): Senior
Secondary Agriculture Form 3.
3. B.M. Kanjala and N.T. Kaperemera. (2002): Strides Agriculture Book 3,
Longman Malawi (Pty) Ltd.
4. Chard P.G.D. (1991): Focus on “O” Level Agriculture Book 4, Pupils’ Text
Book.
5. Ngugi D.N., Karau P.K. AND Nguyo W (1990): East African Agriculture,
Third Edition. By. MacMillan.
177

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Listing Physical Properties of Soil

Clay ………………………...below 0.002 mm in diameter

Soil Texture Triangle

Fig. 1.1 soil texture tringle

Effects of Physical Properties of Soil on Crop Production

Parent material: This is generally the physical property of the rock

•Climate: Of all, the most important is rainfall. Whenever it rains soluble

• Organic matter: Soils containing large quantities of organic matter are

Effects of soil temperature on crop growth

•Water evaporation: The soil loses water through evaporation depending

•Microbial activities: Some micro-organisms in the soil decompose organic

•Parent material: Parent materials which are resistant to weathering take

Determining texture of soil using sieve method

Effect of soil colour on crop production

Determining soil consistency

Effects of soil consistency on crop production

Determining soil consistency

ii. Soil Porosity

% porosity = (bulk density/particle density) x 100

Effect of porosity on crop production

(iii) Soil Temperature

The effects of soil temperature on crop production are many. Effects of

Types of Soil Structure

a. Platy Structure: This

Fig. 1.3. Blocky structure

Fig. 1.5. Columnar structure

h. Single grain structure

Your research should have come up with the following:

2. Use of heavy machinery: The soil particles are compacted together by

Soil structure can be maintained and improved by the following operations:

1. Planting vegetation on bear land. Vegetation protects the soil from

2. Correct crop population. This is achieved by correct spacing of rows,

3. Use of organic fertilizer (manure). Manure helps to aggregate the soil

4. Crop rotation which is dovetailed with a fallow. Leaving the land

Methods of Maintaining and Improving Soil Structure

5. Proper use of heavy agricultural machinery. This can be done by

Effect of Physical Properties of Soil on Crop Production

How soil texture affects crop growth

Effect of soil colour on crop growth

• Water infiltration and percolation. Large pore spaces increase water

A list of the chemical properties of soil

Soil pH is determined by using a universal indicator. When the soil is acidic,

Diagram showingthe pH Scale

ii) Use of pH meter (leave it as it is)

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 pH meter with two elec

The pH meter measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution

1. Use of acid-forming fertilizers: for example, when an ammonium containing

Step 1: (NH4)2SO4 (NH4)2+ + SO4-

As seen from the equation, the reaction increases concentration of hydrogen

4. Acid rains: this occurs in industrialized countries where a lot of carbon